英语语言学概论Saussure and Chomsky2
新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1-u6期末笔记整理
●语言学家：1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言（what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole）2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s强调研究语言能力（competence）和索绪尔的相似点●Saussure和chomsky不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度（sociological view）他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴（social conventions）；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度（Psychological view），认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征（property of mind of each individual）3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的（descriptive），传统语法是规定性的（prescriptive）4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要（synchronic）Phonetics(语音学) Phonology（音位学）●发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础）●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学（历史最悠久）(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学●主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrowtranscription）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health {p} pit，spit （送气，不送气）p h来表送气●语音的分类：元音（voiced sound）和辅音●voiceless●元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高，分为front、central、back（2）嘴巴的张合度，分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+{a：} ）和圆唇的（rounded）后元音●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音；后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注{l} 的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注{l}分布模式，即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前，发模糊舌边音feel、quilt{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意：Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素，音位，音位变体●音素：phone（1）在单词feel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:].（2）英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个，辅音28个。
英语语言学概论精选试题学生版
《英语语言学概论》精选试题11. Which of the following statements about language is NOT trueA. Language is a systemB. Language is symbolicC. Animals also have languageD. Language is arbitrary2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of languageA. SymbolicB. DualityC. ProductiveD. Arbitrary3. What is the most important function of languageA. InterpersonalB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Metalingual4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and ParoleA. SaussureB. ChomskyC. HallidayD. Anonymous5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his languageA. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langue6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is .A. informativeB. phaticC. directiveD. performative7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies .A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB. the perception of soundsC. the combination of soundsD. the production of sounds8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in .A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of airstreamC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcriptionA. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain languageA. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics11. Minimal pairs are used to .A. find the distinctive features of a languageB.find the phonemes of a languageC. compare two wordsD. find the allophones of language12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch.A. phonemeB. speech soundsC. syllablesD. stress13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllableA. CodaB. OnsetC. StemD. Peak三、判断analyst collects samples of the language as it is used, not according to some views of how it should be used. This is called the prescriptive approach. Ftranscription is normally used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. F台州学院考试题1.Articulatory Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.2.English is a typical intonation language.3.Phones in complementary distribution should be assigned to the same phoneme.4.Linguistic c__________ is a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge of his language.1.The relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is a________.2.P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.3.Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.1. Which of the following branch of linguistics takes the inner structure of word as its main object of studyA. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. Morphology.D. Sociolinguistics.3. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stopA.[w].B. [m].C. [b].D. [p].6. What phonetic feature distinguishes the [p] in please and the [p] in speakB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality11. Conventionally a ________ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme13. Language is tool of communication. The symbol “highway closed” serves___.A. an expressive functionB. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function14. Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pairA. but/pubB. wet/whichC. cool/curlD. fail/find16. What are the dual structures of languageA. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and meaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.19. Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguisticsA. Phonology.B. Psycho-linguistics.C. Sociolinguistics.D. Anthropology.IV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)A. From English to ChineseB. From Chinese to English1. acoustic phonetics6. 應用語言學2. closed class words4. distinctive featuresVI. Answer the following questions briefly. (20 points)1. Define phoneme. (4 points)2. Explain complementary distribution with an example.(5 points)3. What are the four criteria for classifying English vowels. (4 points)问答答案1. A contrastive phonological segment whose phonetic realizations are predictable byrules. (4 points)(or: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.)2. The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment.（4 points）. [p] and [p h] never occur in the same position. （1 point）3. the position of the tongue in the mouth(1 point), the openness of the mouth(1 point), the shape of the lips(1 point), and the length of the vowels. (1 point)Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. Community2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitraryA. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. Bang3. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. Performative4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it performA. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situationA. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language—A nice day, isn’t it— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. Duality9. __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language. F13. Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages. F15. We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted. F16. Only human beings are able to communicate. F17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist. F18. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic历时 study of language. F19. Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human20. All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms. FIII. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __verbal________ communication.22. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed ___creativity_______.23. Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the ___yo-he-ho_______ theory.25. Linguistics is the __systematic________ study of language.26. Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Design feature32. Displacement33. Competence34. Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature （南开大学，2004）35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, . words, which are distinct in meaning.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech soundsA. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulationA. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowelsA. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibratingA. VoicelessB. VoicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%) 11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are producedby moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. 28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence.The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V. 35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.。
英语语言学概论Ferdinand de Saussure
Contents
1
November 26, 1857: Ferdinand de Saussure was born into Scientific
Ferdinand de Saussure
翁京京 20120304001 马密密 20120304003 唐晓雯 20120304005 王雅莛 20120304006 唐苑 20120304221
Modern linguistics began from the
Swiss linguist Ferdinand de
• Saussure’s ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology, and psychology.
• 1.In linguistics, he was greatly influenced by the American linguist W.D. Whitney (1827—94), who was working within essentially the Neo-grammarian tradition but raised the question of the sign.
2 1907-1911: Saissure lectured on general linguistics in the University of Geneva.
1916: the publication of Course in
《英语语言学概论》题与答案(2)
ExercisesI.Multiple Choice1. __________ studies language change over time in contrast to looking at language as it is used at a given moment.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics2. Of all the speech organs, the ______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords3. In terms of place of articulation, the following sounds [p], [b], [m] and [w]share the feature of ______.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental4. A(n) ______ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme5. Which of the following sound description is for [d]A. voiced labiodental fricativeB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless labiodental fricativeD. voiceless alveolar stop6. What is the phonetic feature of the sound [u]A. close back shortB. semi-close front shortC. semi-open central shortD. open front short7. Which of the following sentences contain a derivational affixA. The cows escaped.B. It was raining.C. Those socks are inexpensive.D. She closed the book.8. The morpheme “ed” in the word “worked” is known as a(n) ______.A. derivational morphemeB. lexical morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. functional morpheme9. “en-” in “enlarge” is a(n) ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root10. ______ is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme11. Which of the following forms is possible word of EnglishA. sprokeB. bsarnC. mboodD. coofp12. Which pair of words below shows the relation of antonymy. ______A. flourish—thriveB. intelligent—stupidC. casual—informalD. flog—whip13. We call the relation between “furniture” and “wardrobe” as ______.A. hyponymyB. meronymyC. homophonyD. homonymy14. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to ______.A. breakdown of conversationB. confusion of one’s intentionC. hostility between speakers and the listenersD. conversational implicatures15. In t he phrase structure rule “S——>NP VP”, the arrow can be read as______.A.is equal toB.consists ofC.hasD.generates16. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______.A. lexicalB. morphemeC. grammaticalD. semantic17. The pair of words “hot” and “cold” are ______.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. co-hyponyms18. Which pair of the following are complementary antonymsA. alive / deadB. above / belowC. poor / richD. doctor / patient19. What is the relation between the pair of sentences:He likes seafood.He likes crabsA. synonymyB. inconsistencyC. entailmentD. presupposition20. Which pair of the following are homographsA. piece n. / peace n.B. tear v. / tear n.C. fast adj. / fast v.D. flower n. / rose n.21. Which pair of the following are dialectal synonymsA. lorry, truckB. kid, childC. collaborator, accompliceD. amaze, astound22. “Lift” and “elevator” form a pair of ______ synonyms.A. stylisticB. dialecticalC. collocationalD. connotative15. All syllables must have a ______.A. onsetB. codaC. nucleusD. consonant23. ______ studies language and speech as they are used at a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics24. ______ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics25. Of the following sound combination, only ______ is permissible in English.A. iblkB. ilbkC. ilkbD. blik26. Which pair of words below shows the relation of synonymy. ______A. drunk—soberB. uncle—auntC. young—oldD. casual—informal27. The sense relationship between “He has been to France” and “He has been to Europe” is ______.A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. presuppositionD. entailment28. In the phrase structure rule “NP—>(Det) N (PP)…”, the arrowcan be read as______.A. is equal toB. branches intoC. transformsD. generates29. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][r][s][l][z][n] share the feature of ______.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental30. Y’s utterance in the following conversation violates themaxim of ______.X: When is Susan’s f arewell partyY: Sometime next month.A.qualityB.quantityC.relationD.manner31. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the ______because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.A. locutionary actB. constative actC. perlocutionary actD. illocutionary act32. We call the relation between “vehicle” and “car” as ______.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy33. Which of the following pairs differs from the others in thesense relation ______A. good, badB. long, shortC. big, smallD. innocent, guilty34. As far as manners of articulation are concerned, which of the followingdiffers from the others ______A.[p]B. [b]C. [t]D. [f]35. Which pair of the following belong to meronymyA. animal, tigerB. hand, fingerC. livestock, dogD. furniture, dresser36. “-En” in “blacken” is a(n) ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root37. Transformational rules do not change the basic ______ ofsentences.A. formB. structureC. meaningD. sound pattern38. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called____.missivesB. directivesB.expressivesD. declaratives39. The illocutionary point of the____ is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.A. declarationsB. expressivesmissivesD. directives40. Y’s utterance in the following conversation exchange viola tes the maxim of ______.X: Who was that you were with last night？Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks？A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. mannerII. Blank filling1.Productivityor___ refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.2.Some antonyms are g radable_ because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.3.Duality is the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.4.According to its position in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes.5.Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds ina particular language are called sequential rules.6.Root_ constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.7. A suffix is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may change its part of speech.8.In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.9.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words, . –s, -er, -ed and –ing, which are called bound______ morphemes.10.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known asintonation.nuguge _is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.12.Saussure put forward two important concepts. Langue_ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.13.Broad transcription is normally used in dictionary and teachingtextbooks for general purposes.14.The root _ constitutes the core of the word and carries the majorcomponent of its meaning.15.Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change thepart of speech of the original word.16. Displacement is a design feature of human language that enables speakersto talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separationin time and space.17. An independent unit of meaning that can be used freely by itself is calleda free _ morpheme.18.Clear [l] and dark [l] are allophones of the same one phoneme /l/. They nevertake the same position in sound combinations; thus they are said to be incomplementary distribution.19.Stem is the base to which one or more affixes are attached tocreate amore complex form that may be another stem or a word.20.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.two sounds [p] and [p h] are in complementary distribution, and they are known as allophones of the phoneme /p/.22. _Syntax_______ is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.23. Cooperative Principle (CP) is proposed by Paul Grice .24. “Words are names or labels for things.” This view is called naming theory in semantic studies.25. The sentence “My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor” is a contradition.III. True or false questions.( T ) 1. “Where did he buy the beer” presupposes “He bought the beer”.( F) 2. Sense and reference are the same aspects of meaning.( F ) 3. A word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.( T ) 4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.(T ) 5. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is grammatical.( T ) 6. “The student’’ in the sentence ‘The student liked the linguistic lecture” and “The linguistic lecture”in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student”belong to the same syntactic category.( F ) 7. Compounds with a preposition are in the categoryof the prepositional part of the compound.(T ) 8. Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP category as its complement.( T ) 9. Linguistic context is concerned with the probability of words or expressions co-occurring orcollocating with each other.( T ) 10. When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category.( F ) 11. Linguistics is the course of language.( F ) the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.( T ) 13. Articulatory phonetics is concerned about how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.( F ) 14. Language system is genetically transmitted.( T) 15. Phonology is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution,and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.(T) 16. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules thatarrange linguistic elements in a particular order.( T) 17. Stress has two main semantic functions: distinguish between two words and emphasize the syllable or word.( T) 18. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are closed class words.( T) 19. Linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.(T) 20. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.( T ) 21. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the Abstract meaning of a sentence in a realsituation of communication or simply in context.( F ) , suggesting, warning, ordering are instances of commissives.( T ) 23. When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true.(T) 24. Coordination refers top the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.(T ) 25. Traditionally,sentence is the minimum part of language that express meaning.。
英语语言学导论《简明英语语言学概论》
Chapter 2 Phonology
Phonology vs. phonetics Both are related to the study of speech sounds Phonetics: of general nature, and interested in
all the speech sounds used in all human languages Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication
(two ways of how phonetically similar sounds are related) ◆minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal set.
(Chomsky) From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements
Spoken language precedes the written language everywhere in the world and most writing systems are derived from the vocal sounds.
英语语言学概论-简答题
英语语言学概论-简答题1.Synchronic vs diachronicLanguage exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.2. Langue and paroleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, and parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, It does not change frequently, while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.3. Competence and performanceChomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.4. ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, language is arbitrary. This means thatthere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language.On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, cackle, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. For example, while photo and copy are both arbitrary, the compound word photocopy is not entirely arbitrary. But non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. The arbitrary nature of language is a sigh of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.5. ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear are saying or hearing for the first time.6. DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system.7. Displacement Language can be used to refer to thingswhich are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement”means. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stop.8. Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, i.e. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.9. Broad transcription and narrow transcription:Broad transcription is the transcription withletter-symbols only, this is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics, this is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. Withthe help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.10. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.11. ContextIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various components of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s inter pretation of what is said to him.1. Prescriptive and descriptivePrescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standards” behavior in usinglanguage. i.e. to tell people what they should say and whatthey should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from earlier studies of language normally known as “grammar”in that the latter is based on “high”(religious, literary) written language. It aims to set models for language user to follow. On the other hand, modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it correct or not. Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language use should be described and analyzed in their investigations.2. Competence and PerformanceChomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue, and unnecessary puses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment. Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules.While Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view oflanguage and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.3. Assimilation RuleThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This "sloppy" tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e. it does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it.Componential analysis—a way to analyse lexical meaning 4. Componential analysis—a way to analyze lexical meaning Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components calleddistinctive features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capital letters. For example, the word man is analyzed as comprising the features of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantics features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. For example, the two word man and woman share the features of +HUMAN, +ANIMATE, and +ANIMATE, but differ in the feature of MALE. And the words man and boy share the features of +HUMAN, +ANIMATE, and +MALE, but differ in the feature of ADULT.Componential analysis provides insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.1.The scope of linguistics:phonetics(语音学)phonology(音系学)morphology(形态学)syntax(句法学)pragmatics(语用学)2.Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study: Sociolinguistics: the studies of all there social aspects of language and its relation with society Psycholinguistics: it relates the study of language to psychology.Applied linguistics3.Distinctions in linguistics:Prescriptive VS Descriptive Synchronic VS diachronic Speech VS writing Langue VS parole(瑞，saussure)Competence VS performance Traditional grammar VS linguistics4.Functions of language:descriptive,expressive,social,performative,persuasive,informative./doc/dc15480450.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication.6.Design features(Charleshock美1960)arbitrarinessproductivity duality displacement culturaltransmission7.Phonetics, the study of the phonic medium of language.branches: articulatory~, auditory~, acoustic~.8.Articulatory apparatus: Pharyngeal/oral/nasal cavity,9.音素phone,音位-phoneme,音位变体-allophone.10.Rules in phonology: sequential/assimilation/deletionrules,11.Suprasegmental features(超音段音位)：stress, tone,intonation12.Morpheme词素:free and bound morphemesMorph 语素:distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morphemeAllomorph 同位语素：express indefiniteness in english 13.Derivational morphemes-派生词素 inflectionalmorphemes-屈折词素(tense,number,degree,case)/doc/dc15480450.html,pounds:1)when the two words are in the samegrammatical category.the compound will be in thiscategory2)in many cases, the two words fall into different categories, The class of the second or final word will bethe grammatical category of the compound(not with a preposition).3)it is often the case that compounded wordsequence. 4)the meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meaning of its parts. Some words in the basic wrd stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.WelcomeTo Download !!!欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！。
《英语语言学概论》精选试题学生版
《英语语言学概论》精选试题11.Which of the following statements about language is NOT true?nguage is a systemnguage is symbolicC.Animals also have l anguagenguage is arbitrary2.Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language?A. SymbolicB. DualityC. ProductiveD. Arbitrary3.What is the most important function of language?A. InterpersonalB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Metalingual4.Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole?A. SaussureB. C homskyC. HallidayD. Anonymous5.According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language?A. competenceB. paroleC. performanceD. langue6.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it?" is .A. informativeB. phaticC. directiveD. performative7.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies .A.the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB.the perception of soundsC.the combination of soundsD.the production of sounds8.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in .A.the place of articulationB.the obstruction of airstreamC.the position of the tongueD.the shape of the lips9.Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription?A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics10.Which studies the sound systems in a certain language?A. PhoneticsB. PhonologyC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics11.Minimal pairs are used to .A.find the distinctive features of a languageB.find the phonemes of a languagepare two wordsD.find the allophones of languageually, suprasegmental features include ,length and pitch.A. phonemeB. speech soundsC. syllablesD. stress13.Which is an indispensable part of a syllable?A. CodaB. OnsetC. StemD. Peak三、判断1.The analyst collects samples of the language as it is used, not according to some views of how it should be used. This is called the prescriptive approach. F2.B road transcription is normally used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. F台州学院考试题1.Articulatory Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.2.English is a typical intonation language.3.Phones in complementary distribution should be assigned to the same phoneme.4.Linguistic c is a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge of his language.1.The relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is a .2.P refers to the realization of langue in actual u se.3.Linguistics is generally defined as t he s study of language.1.Which of the following branch of linguistics takes the inner structure of word as its main object of study?A. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. M orphology.D. Sociolinguistics.3. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [w].B. [m].C. [b].D. [p].6. What phonetic feature distinguishes the [p] in please and the [p] in speak?A.VoicingB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality11.Conventionally a is put in slashes.A. a llophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morphemenguage is tool of communication. The symbol “highway closed ”serves .A. an expressive functionB. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function14.Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pair?A. but/pubB. wet/whichC. cool/curlD. fail/find16.What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and m eaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.19.Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguistics?A.Phonology.B.Psycho-linguistics.C.Sociolinguistics.D.Anthropology.IV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)A. From English to ChineseB. From Chinese to English1.acoustic phonetics6. 應用語言學2. closed class words4. distinctive featuresVI.Answer the following questions briefly. (20 points)1.Define phoneme. (4 points)2.Explain complementary distribution with an example.(5 points)3.What are the four criteria for classifying English vowels. (4 points)问答答案1. A contrastive phonological segment whose phonetic realizations are predictable by rules. (4 points)(or: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.)2.The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment.（4 points）e.g. [p] and [p h] never occur in the same position. （1 point）3.the position of the tongue in the mouth(1 point), the openness of the mouth(1 point), the shape of the lips(1 point), and the length of the vowels. (1 point)Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI.Choose the best answer. (20%)nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humanA. contactB. communicationC. relationD. Community2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. Bang3.The function of the sentence ―Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.‖ is.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. Performative4.In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say―碎碎（岁岁）平安‖as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feelmight affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place , due to this feature of language, speakers of a language arefree to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6.Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—Anice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7.________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8.When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone thatexists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicat design feature of .A.cultural transmissionB.productivityC.displacementD. Duality9.answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A.PsycholinguisticsB.A nthropological linguisticsC.SociolinguisticsD.Applied linguistics10.deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A.Linguistic theoryB.Practical linguisticsC.Applied linguisticsparative linguisticsII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language. F13.Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.nguage is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages. F15.We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details language system can be genetically transmitted. F16.Only human beings are able to communicate. F17. F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist. F18. A study of the features of the English used in Shake e s a p re’s time is an example of the diachronic 历时study of language. F19.Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.F20. III.All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.Fill in the blanks. (10%)Fnguage, broadly speaking, is a means of verbal_ communication.22.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed creativity_ .nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This funct is .24.Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavywork has been c alled the yo-he-ho ________ theory.25.Linguistics is the systematic study of language.26.Modern linguistics is __ ________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27.One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of over writing.28.The description of a language as it changes through time is a study.29.Saussure put forward two important concepts. refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30.Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s.I V.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Design feature32.Displacementpetence34.Synchronic linguisticsV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language?Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature? （南开大学，2004 ）35.Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out o a small number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combineto form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational systemwhich will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI.Choose the best answer. (20%)1.Pitch variation is k nown as when its patterns are imposed on s entences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2.Conventionally a is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3.An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4.The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as .A. g lottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula6.A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called .A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7.Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A.Acoustic phoneticsB.Articulatory phoneticsC.Auditory phoneticsD.None of the above8.Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9.Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10.What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. G lottal s topD. ConsonantII.Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11.Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger thanthe segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12.The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire thequality of a speech sound.14.[p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15.Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16.All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17.W hen pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18.According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into vs. lax or long vs. short.III.Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be e ither ______ __ or _______ _, while all vowel sounds are .23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the and the lips.25.Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without .26.In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating .27.In English there are a number of _________ , which are produced by moving f rom one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28.refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29.is the smallest linguistic unit.IV.Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31.Sound assimilation32.Suprasegmental featureplementary distribution34.Distinctive featuresV.Answer the following questions. (20%)35.What is a coustic phonetics? （中国人民大学，2003 ）36.What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation? （南开大学，2004 ）VI.Analyze the f ollowing situation. (20%)37.Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999 ）(1)voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2)low front vowel(3)lateral liquid(4)velar nasal(5)voiced interdental fricative32.Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.plementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34.Distinctive featureIst: refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a d istinctive feature.V. 35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speechsound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are usedto measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds pr in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.11。
英语语言学概论整理(1-7)
Chapter 1 Language语言1.★What is language?(ok)linguisticsymbol and what the symbol stands for. Itbecause words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but2.★What are the design features of language? (ok)Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication(Charles Hockett). They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.3.What are the design features of language? （具体）I.Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehendingindefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language，including sentencesthey never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one hasever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an Africangibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understa nd it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language,thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).II.arbitrariness (任意性) （核心）Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. By “arbitrariness”, wemean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog mightbe a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language istherefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be somesound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, whichare motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to beone word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivatedwords, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the wordsthat make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.III.（symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.）IV.discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.V.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, aseasily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things,things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be somethingthat had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When adog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone thatexists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a boneto be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is anunspeakable tiny share.VI.duality of structure (结构二重性) Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At thefirst, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units(such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence ofsegments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units ofmeaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets ofstructures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings oflanguage. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can bearranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we havedictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for aperson to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication systemenjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.VII.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather thanby inheritance. This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generationto generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by eachspeaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it“language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language aperso n learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barkingsystem. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The WolfChild reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” whenhe was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain humanlanguage.VIII.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. (1) Interchangeability means that anyhuman being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and onother occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to makeme happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differe ntiationin the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yetin principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a womancannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the otherperson is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker andthe first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possibleand acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), andcertain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboringdogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” andwhich listening.4.Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.5.What functions does language have?6.★(Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions ofchildren’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s langua●Instrumental function(工具功能)refers to the fact that language allows speakers to getthings done. It allows them to control things in the environment .people can cause thingsto be done and happen through the use of words alone.●Regulatory function(调节功能)refers to language used in an attempt to control eventsonce they happen. Those events may involve the self as well as others . People do try tocontrol themselves through language.●Representational function(表现功能)refers to the use of language to communicateknowledge about the world ,to report events ,to make statements ,to give accounts , toexplain relationships, to relay messages and so on. This function of language isrepresented by all kinds of record-keeping .●Interactional function(互动功能)refers to language used to ensure social maintenance.Phatic communication is a part of it .●Personal function(自指性功能)refers to language used to express the individual’sfeelings ,emotions and personality. A person’s individuality is usually characterized byhis or her use of personal of communication.●Heuristic function(启发功能) [osbQtq`kf`h] refers to language used in order toacquire knowledge and understanding of the world .language may be used for learning.Questions can lead to answers , argumentation to conclusion and hypothesis-testing tonew discoveries. It provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the differentdisciplines .Language allows people to ask questions about the nature of the world theylived in and to construct possible answers.●Imaginative function(想象功能)refers to language used to create imaginary system,whether these are literary works ,philosophical systems or utopian visions one the onehand ,or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand .II.Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇◆phatic function（寒暄功能）: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for settingup a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanginginformation or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?”“Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.◆directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get thehearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform th is function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direct ion too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”◆informative function(信息功能): Language serves an “informational function” when used totell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.◆interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an“interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well,e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note thatrhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.◆expressive function: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal somethingabout the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.◆evocative function(感情功能): The “evocative function” is the use of language to createcertain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.◆performative function（表达功能）: This means people speak to “do things” or performactions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are pe r formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1.What is linguistics?1）“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It may be a study of language ,the history of history of language ,the function of language ,etc. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)./2）Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language.It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human languages, guided by three canons of science:(i) exhaustiveness: it strives for thorough-goingness in the examination of relevant materials;(ii)consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement;(iii)economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is to be preferred to one that is longer or more complex.The subject matter of linguistics is all natural languages, living or dead. It studies the origin, growth, organization, nature and development of language and discovers the general rules and principles governing language.It has two main purposes. One is that it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language, and describes languages in the light of the theory established. The other is that it examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life.2.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?✧general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学) The formerdeals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.✧synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachroniclinguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.✧theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The formercopes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.✧microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)at its narrowest. theformer studies only the structure of language system. at its broadest , the latter deals with everything that is related in any way at all to languages and language .3.Linguistics :the scienceThe scientific method of linguistic study involves the following steps(Wen Qiufang):1)Gather data concerning languages ;2)Construct a tentative rule based on the data obtained;3)Examine the tentative rule against the further data and make necessary changes;4)Finalize the rule which must be able to account for all the relevant data.Mei Deming gives a similar summarization of the process of linguistic study:1)Linguistic facts observed ;2)Generalizations made about the linguistic facts;3)Hypotheses formulated to explain the linguistic facts;4)The hypotheses tested and examined by more and further observations;5) A certain linguistic theory of language constructed.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of thetheory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significantgeneralizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.4.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages. ///// It is the scientific study of speech sounds, including the articulation, transmission and reception of specch sounds, the description and classification of speech sounds.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.//// it is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized, the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and shape of syllables. It can be considered the functional pnonetics of a particular languange.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed./// It is concerned with the internal organization, the formation of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processes.Syntax: it is the grammar of sentence construction, dealing with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not. ///5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences./// It is concerned with the study of meaning in all its aspects, examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.6) Pragmatics. 语用学/// it is the study of meaning in context, in use. It deals with particularutterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.5.some distinction in linguisticslangue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstrac t linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rulesof his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Inother words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similarto, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.synchronic and diachronic(共时与历时) The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope. (1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language newscope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the lastcentury and theretofore.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.6.Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsWhat are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.2.Phonetics sub-branchess◆articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds iscalled articulatory phonetics.◆acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission ofspeech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.◆auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.3.How are the vocal organs formed?(p29-30)The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.4.the definition of consonant and vowelconsonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.5.The place of articulation:（辅音分类）◆bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped orrestricted by the two lips.◆Labiodentals: consonant brought about by bringing the bottom lip to the upper teeth.◆Dentals/interdentals: consonant for which the flow of air is restricted by catching the tonguebetween the teeth .◆Alveolars: consonant produced by bringing the tip of the tongue into contact with the upperteeth-ridge to create the obstruction.◆Post-alveolars: consonant produced by bringing the tip of the tongue to the rear part of thealveolar ridge.◆Alveo-palatals: consonants formed by putting the tongue at the very front part of the hardpalate,near the alveolar ridge. Palatals: consonants made by bringing the back of the tongue to the hard palate.◆Velars: consonants made by bringing the back of the tongue to the soft palate.◆Glottals: sounds produced by bringing the vocal cords momentarily together to create theobstruction.6.classifications of English consonants7.★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.8.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?。
英语语言学概论试卷第3套
ThreeⅠMark the choice that best completes the statement.1.Today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is basically __________.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. both A and BD. neither of the two2. The clear /l/ and the dark /f/ are __________.A. in complementary distributionB. in free variationC. both A and BD. neither of the two3. –ed in the word played is __________.A. a free morphemeB. a rootC. a derivational affixD. an inflectional morpheme4. The __________ function of language is primarily to change the social of persons.A. interpersonalB. informativeC. textualD. performative5. Whorf believes that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the worlddifferently and that is the notion of __________.A. linguistic determinismB. language determinismC. social relativismD. linguistic relativism6. What essentially distinguishes semantics from pragmatics is __________.A. whether in the study of meaning the context of use is consideredB. whether it studies the meaning or notC. whether is studies how the speakers use language to effect communicationD. whether it is a branch of linguistics7. Of all the following examples, __________ is NOT an example of the affix addition.A. the addition of –able to a verb, such as in readableB. the addition of –ment to a verb, such as in accomplishmentC. the attachment of –ize to a noun or adjective, such as in stabilizeD. the addition of a or an before a noun, such as in an apple8. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems9. That the use of language involves a network of systems of choices is the opinion of__________.A. HallidayB. SaussureC. ChomskyD. Firth10. Of the following __________ does NOT belong to the three sub-types of antonymy.A. gradable antonymyB. converse antonymyC. complementary antonymyD. complete antonymy11. __________ is NOT included in Firth’s famous Context of Situation theory.A. The non-verbal action of the participantsB. The properties of the phonematic unitsC. The relevant objectsD. The effects of the verbal action12. The phrase backwash effect is often used in __________.A. systemic functional grammarB. error analysisC. testingD. sociolinguistics13. We can often find the phrase immediate constituents in __________.A. transformational generative grammarB. systemic functional grammarC. traditional grammarD. structural grammar14. The following ideas about language are wrong EXCEPT __________.A. Language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contextB. Language has a form-sound correspondenceC. Language is a means of communicationD. Language is not related to any of the individuals who use it15. Because __________ can distinguish one phoneme from another, it is a distinctive feature for English obstruents.A. voicingB. nasalizationC. placeD. aspirationII. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given.1. The ultimate objective of language is not just to create grammatically well-formed sentences, but to convey m .2. V ibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “v“.3. Those morphemes that can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words are called b morphemes.4. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an e clause.5. The study of sounds is called p , and the study of sound patterns is called p .6. Context is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the s and the hearer.7. The most widely spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of a .8. A refers to a way of pronunciation which tells the listener something about the speaker’s regional or social background.9. Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as n , p , and f .10. One-word utterances sometimes show an overextension or under extension of r .11. In Katz and Postal’s proposal stated in “An Integrated Theory of Linguistic Description”,the p provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words.12. Nasalization rule read, a non-nasalized sound is transformed into a n sound when it appears before a nasalized sound.13. The process of insertion of a nasal sound to the article “a” when it appears before a wo rd “orange” is known as c.14. The p relation, Saussure originally called Associative, is a relation holding betweenelements replaceable with each other at a particular place in s structure, or between one element present and the others absent.15. In Chomsky’s linguistic model, the m component is responsible for the correct spelling and pronunciation of the words in the surface structure.Ⅲ. Mark the following statements with “T”if they are true or “F”if they are false. Provide explanations for false statements.nguage is not an isolated phenomenon; it is a social activity carried out in a certain socialenvironment by human being.2.Speech is made up of continuous bursts of sounds.3.Acoustic phonetic is the study of the production of speech sound.4.The primary function of the vocal organs is to fulfill the biological needs of breathing andeating.5.The lungs are involved in the production of speech.6.Even if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itis still a sentence.7.Many words that were popular among Middle English speakers have lost their Modern users.For example, Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet contain such words as beseem, wot and gyve.8.A lingua franca has to be a native language currently spoken by a particular people.9.To tell whether a sound is a consonant or not, we should judge is its manners of articulation.10.Semi-vowel and semi-consonant actually refer to the same kind sound.11.Two words, or two expressions, which have the same semantic components, will besynonymous to each other.12.Meaning is extracted from text or speech by relating hat is presented to information stored inshort-term memory.13.In English some books is a case of number concord.14.Synchronic linguistics refers to the approach which studies language over various periods oftime and at various historical stages.15.A single phoneme always represents a single morpheme.Ⅳ. Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.Ⅴ. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Prescriptive ad descriptive2.Diacritics3.Bound root4.Grammatical relations5.Selectional restrictions6.Speech act theory7.Gradable antonymy8.Standard language9.Esperanto10.EquivalenceⅥ. Fill in each of the following blanks with the original forms of abbreviation itemsin linguistics, and then put in the corresponding square brackets thespecific linguistic field in which the abbreviation forms are used.1.IC __________________________________ ( )2.IPA_________________________________ ( )3.CD _________________________________ ( )4.RP __________________________________ ( )5.UG _________________________________ ( )Ⅶ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible, giving examples if necessary.1. Describe the major ways of word formation with some example.2. What do you know about the minimum free form?3. What does syntax study? Give a brief account of the major approaches in the development of syntax.4. Why do we say that the analysis of a sentence in terms of them and rheme is functional?5. It has been observed that women tend to approximate more closely to the standard language than man do. Why do you think this is so?6. Briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind of relationships hold between the two.。
Saussure and Chomsky 区别
Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinctionbetween the abstract language system and the actual useof language. their purpose is to single out the languagesystem for serious study. Two linguists idea differ in thatSaussure took a sociological view of language, Chomskylooks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguist shouldstudy is the ideal speaker’s competence, and the task oflinguists is to discover and specify the rules of language.We can see that Saussure's distinction between "langue" and "parole" is similar to Chomsky's distinctionbetween COMPETENCE and PERFORMANCE.Saussure to mean the system of a language, that is the arrangement of sounds and words which speakers of alanguage have a shared knowledge of or, as Saussure said,"agree to use". Langue is the "ideal" form of a language.Saussure called the actual use of language by people inspeech or writing "parole". He looks at language more froma sociological point of view.Chomsky thinks that he object of investingation inlinguistics is the ideal speaker’s competence, not hisperformance; that is, we must discover what an ideal sheaker knows of his native language. Chamsky also believes that one’s linguistic competence must be a set of rules which can be applied over and over again to generate large number of sentences, including sentences he has never heard before. He looks at language more from a psychological point of view.These are the distinctions between Chomsky and Saussure.教育一班0962010707杨佩玲。
英语语言学期末考试试卷及答案
英语语言学期末考试试卷及答案英语语言学期末考试试卷第一部分选择题I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%X10=20%)1. Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, but theydiffer in that ____________.A. Saussure took a sociological view of language while Chomskytook a psychological point of viewB. Saussure took a psychological view of language whileChomsky took a sociological point of viewC. Saussure took a pragmatic view of language while Chomskytook a semantic point of viewD. Saussure took a structural view of language while Chomskytook a pragmatic point of view2. Language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication.A. unnaturalB. artificialC. superficialD. arbitrary3. We are born with the ability to acquire language, _______________.A. and the details of any language system are genetically transmittedB. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tongueC. but the details of language have to be learnt.D. and the details are acquired by instinct4. A(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is acollection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. allophoneC. phonemeD. sound5. The morpheme –ed in the word “worked”is a(n) __________ morpheme.A. derivationalB. inflectionalC. freeD. word-forming6. WH-movement is __________ in English which changes asentence from affirmative to interrogative.A. obligatoryB. optionalC. selectionalD. arbitrary7. Naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by _________.A. GriceB. PlatoC. SaussureD. Ogden andRichards8. “John married a blond heiress.”__________ “John marrieda blond.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes9. In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called_______, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A. utteranceB. referenceC. predicationD. morpheme10. In Austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act ofexpressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.A. a perlocutionary actB. a locutionary actC. a constative actD. an illocutionary act第二部分非选择题II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%×10=10%) 11. P___________ relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when people use language.12. A d_________ study of language is a historical study; itstudies the historical development of language over a period of time.13. Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, ortwo levels. At the lower level, there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number of meaningful units at the higher level. This design feature is called d___________.14. The articulatory apparatus of a human being is contained in threeimportant areas: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_________ cavity and the nasal cavity.15. The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in aparticular hemisphere of the brain is called l_____________. 16. S_____________ features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretation of meaning.17. Phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number ofsentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their r_________ properties.18. H__________ refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.19. Some important missions of historical linguists are to identifyand classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the p____________, the original form of alanguage family that has ceased to exist.20. In Sociolinguistics, speakers are treated as members ofsocialgroups. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c___________.III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%×10=20%)( ) 21. Linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.( ) 22. Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actuallyrefer to.( ) 23. The conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.( ) 24. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is atypical tone language.( ) 25. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native。
语言学概论总试卷
一、单项选择题（每小题1分，共20分）在下列每小题的四个备选答案中选出一个正确的答1. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?__________A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang2. ________ made the distinction between competence and performance.A. SaussureB. ChomskyC. BloomfieldD. Sapir3. Conventionally a ______ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme4. The word “hospitalize” is an example of __________.A. compoundB. derivationC. inflectionD. blending5. Constituent sentences is the term used in ___________.A. structural linguisticsB. functional analysisC. TG GrammarD. traditional grammar6. Cold and hot is a pair of ___________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converse7. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some futurecourse of action are called________.A. commissivesB. directivesC. expressiveD. declaratives8. Speech variety may be used instead of _______.A. vernacular language, dialect, pidgin, creoleB. standard languageC. both A and BD. none of the above9.______ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology10. Discovering procedures are practiced by ________.A. descriptive grammarB. TC GrammarC. traditional grammarD. functional grammar11. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade” is _________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative12. _________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing13. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred as _________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula14. ________ refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Phonology15. “When did you stop taking this medicine?” is an example of _________in sense relationships.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. assumptionD. implicature16. Idioms are ________.A. sentencesB. naming unitsC. phrasesD. communication units17. An illocutionary act is identical with________.A. sentence meaningB. the speaker’s intentionC. language understandingD. the speaker's competence18. In sociolinguistics, ______ refers to a group of institutionalized social situations typically constrainedby a common set of behavioral rules.A. domainB. situationC. societyD. community19. ______ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using itnaturally communicative situations.A. LearningB. CompetenceC. PerformanceD. Acquisition20. In which of the following stage did Chomsky add the semantic component to his TG Grammar forthe first time? __________A. The Classic TheoryB. The Standard TheoryC. The Extended Standard TheoryD. The Minimalist Program1. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present arelikely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy)as a means of controlling theforces which the belivers feel might affect their lives. Which function does it perform?__________A. interrogativeB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational2. Which of the following properties of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? ___________A. InterchangeableB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness.3. Which of the following is not the major branch of linguistics? ___________A. PhonologyB. PragmaticsC. SyntaxD. Speech4._______ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics5. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called_________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones6. Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation? _________A. [z]B. [w]C. [h]D. [v]7.________ doesn’t belong to the most productive means of word-formation.A. AffixationB. CompoundingC. ConversionD. Blending8. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words9. ________ refers to the relations holding between elements replaceable with each other at particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.A. Syntagmatic relationB. Paradigmatic relationC. Co-occurrence relationD. Hierarchical relation10. According to Standard Theory of Chomsky, ________ contain all the informationnecessary for the semantic interpretation of sentences.A. deep structureB. surface structuresC. transformational rulesD. PS-rules11. ________describes whether a proposition is true or false.A. TruthB. Truth valueC. Truth conditionD. Falsehood12. “John hit Peter” and “Peter was hit by John” are the same ________.A. propositionB. sentenceC. utteranceD. truth13. ________ is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. Semantics14. ________is the study of how speaker of a language use sentences to affect successfulcommunication.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics15.______is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified byshared linguistic system.A. A speech community A. A raceC. A societyD. A country16.______variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal17. In first language acquisition children usually _________ grammatical rules from thelinguistic information they hear.A. useB. acceptC. generalizeD. reconstruct18. By the time children are going beyond the ______ stage, they begin to incorporate someof the inflectional morphemes.A. telegraphicB. multiwordC. two-wordD. one-word19. According to Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ________.A. ideational, interpersonal and textualB. ideational, informative and textualC. metalinguistic, interpersonal and textualD. ideational, interpersonal and referential20. The person who is often described as “'father of modern linguistics” is _______.A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky1. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? ___________- A nice day, isn’t it?- Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PeformativeD.Interpersonal2. Unlike animal communication systems, human language is __________.A. stimulus freeB. stimulus boundC. under immediate stimulus controlD. stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest3. Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences among language?___________A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics4. __________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons5. Which vowel is different from the others according to the tongue position of vowels?___________A. [i]B. [u]C. [e]D.[a]6. Liquids are classified in the light of __________.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above7. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called _____ morphemes.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational8. There are _______ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six9. In English, theme and rhyme are often expressed by ________ and ________.A. subject, objectB. subject, predicateC. predicate, objectD. object, predicate10. The semantic triangle holds that the meaning of a word ________.A. is interpreted through the mediation of conceptB. is related to the thing it refers toC. is the idea associated with that word in the minds of speakersD. is the image it is represented in the mind.11. “John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die” is a (n) ___________.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction12. ________ found that natural language had its own logic and concludes cooperativeprinciple.A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones13. _______ proposed that speech acts can fall into five general categories.A. AustinB. SearleC. SapirD. Chomsky14. ______ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany15. The most recognizable difference between American English and British English are in_____ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending16. ______ transfer is a process that is more commonly known as interference.A. AcquisitionB. PositiveC. NegativeD. Interrogative17. In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the _____ half of the child’s secondyear.A. earlyB. lateC. firstD. second18. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it seeslanguage in terms of ________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system19. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris20. At the _______ stage negation is simply expressed by single words with negativemeaning.A. prelinguisticsB. multiwordC. two-wordD. one-word1. Which of the following is the most important function of language? ___________A. Interpersonal functionB. Performative functionC. Informative functionD. Recreational function2. In different languages, different terms are used to express the animal "狗", this shows thenature of ______ of human language.A. arbitrarinessB. cultural transmissionC. displacementD. discreteness3. The study of language as a whole is often called ____________.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics4. The study of language meaning is called __________.A. syntaxB. semanticsC. morphology D pragmatics5. In English, there is one glottal fricative. It is _______.A. [I]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]6. The phonetic symbol for “voiced bilabial glide” is _________.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [w]7. In English -ise and -tion are called ________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes8. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and ______.A. affixationB. etymologyC. inflectionD. root9. The sense relationship between “John plays the violin”and “John plays a musicalinstrument” is ________.A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. entailmentD. presupposition10. Conceptual meaning is ________.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. associativeD. affective11. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the_______.A. declarationsB. directivesC. sociolinguisticsD. Chomsky12. The violation of one or more of the conversational _______ (of the CP) can, when thelistener fully understands the speaker, create conversational implicatures, and humor sometimes.A. standardsB. principlesC. levelsD. maxim13. _______variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where aspeaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Register variety14. In a speech community people have something in common ______ -a language or aparticular variety of language and rules for using it.A. sociallyB. linguisticallyC. culturallyD. pragmatically15. The optimum age for SLA is _______.A. childhoodB. early teensC. teensD. adulthood16. In general, ________ language acquisition refers to children's development of theirlanguage of the community in which a child has been brought up.A. firstB. secondC. thirdD. fourth17. Children follow a similar ________ schedule of predictable stages along the route oflanguage development across cultures.A. learningB. studyingC. acquisitionD. acquiring18. The theory of _______ considers that all sentences are generated from a semanticstructure.A. Case GrammarB. Stratificational GrammarC. Relational GrammarD. Generative Semantics19. _______ grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussingIndo-European language.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative20. Hjelmslev is a Danish linguist and the central figure of the ______.A. Prague SchoolB. Copenhagen SchoolC. London SchoolD. Generative Semantics21. The relation between form and means in human language is natural.22. Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.23. Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.24. Phonology is the study of speech sounds of all human languages.25. All consonants are produced with vocal-cord vibration.26. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.27. The structure of words is not governed by rules.28. If a word has sense, it must have reference.29. “He didn't stop smoking” presupposes that he had been smoking.30. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.31. A text is best regarded as a semantic unit, a unit not of form but of meaning.32. Although the age at which children will pass through a given stage can vary significantfrom child to child, the particular sequence of stages seems to be the same for all children acquiring a given language.33. It’s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an operating vocabulary of more2,000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.34. “Tom hit Mary and Mary hit Tom”is an exocentric construction while “men andwomen” is an endocentric construction.35. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued thatphonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.36. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and functional linguistics.37. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.38. Consonant sounds can be either voiced or voiceless, while all vowel sounds arevoiceless.39. The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.40. An illocutionary act is identical with the speaker’s intention.21. When language is used to get information from other, it serves an informative function.22. All the English words are not symbolic.23. All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistics symbols.24. There are 72 symbols for consonants and 25 for vowels in English.25. The sound [z] is an oral voiced post-alveolar fricative.26. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.27. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.28. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.29. There is only one argument in the sentence “Kids like apples”.30. While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not alwaysobserve these maxims strictly.31. Inviting, suggesting, warning, ordering are instance of commissives.32. Cohesion and coherence is identical with each other in essence.33. It has been recognized that in ideal acquisition situation, many adults can reachnative-like proficiency in all aspects of a second language.34. All roots are free morphemes while not all free morphemes are roots.35. In the Classical theory, Chomsky’s aim is to make linguistics a science. This theory ischaracterized by three features: emphasis on prescription of language, introduction of transformational rules, and grammatical description regardless of language formation. 36. Generative grammar is a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined wayassigns structural descriptions to sentences.37. All words may be said to contain a root morpheme.38. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand how words and phrases formsentences, and so on.39. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the psycholinguistics.40. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the theory behindhis Function Grammar is systemic.21. Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation.22. Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable.23. General linguistics deals with the whole human language.24. Auditory phonetics investigates how a sound is perceived by the listener.25. In English, there are two nasal consonants. There are [m] and [n].26. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.27. The meaning of the word we often used is the primary meaning.28. Meaning is central to the study of communication.29. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act becausethis kind of speech is identical with the speaker’s intention.30. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in acertain context, pragmatics can also be considered as a kind of meaning study.31. If a text has no cohesive words, we say the text is not coherent.32. The optimum age for SLA always accords with the maxim of “the younger the better”.33. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language,that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.34. The London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.35. Coarticulation refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence oftheir neighbors.36. Band morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.37. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also knownas the Bloomfieldian Age.38. Paul Grice found that artificial language had its own logic and conclude cooperativeprinciple.39. Cultural transmission refers to the fact that language is cultural transmitted. It is passedon from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.40. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s performance.21. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.22. Competence is more concrete than performance.23. Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accounts for the rules oflanguage in general.24. The space between the vocal cords is called glottis.25. Stops can be divided into two types: plosives and nasals.26. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.27. The sentence “Tom, smoke!” and“Tom smokes” have the same semantic predication.28. The sentence that contains the same words is the same in meaning.29. A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion.30. “John has been to Asia” entails “John has been to Japan”.31. Coherence is a logical, orderly and aesthetical relationship between parts, in speech,writing, or argument.32. Language acquisition is in accordance with language learning on the assumption thatthere are different processes.33. SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language afterthey acquired their first language.34. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play atsome point in a linguistic structure.35. American structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independentlyin the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.36. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and soundpatterns of his language.37. Phonetics has three sub-branches: acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics andarticulatory phonetics.38. The paradigmatical relation shows us the inner layering of sentences.39. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experiencedsome sort of social isolation, such as racial discrimination.40. Searle proposed that speech act can fall into six general categories.41. _______ is the actual realization of one's linguistic knowledge in utterances.42. Combining two parts of two already existing words is called ________ inword-formation.43. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with _______.44. A ________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of wordsto form a complete statement, question or command.45. _______ studies the sentence structure of language.46. In semantic analysis, ________ is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.47. A speech _______is a group of people who share the same language or a particularvariety of language.48. In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his L1 knowledge. Thisprocess is called language _______.49. The development of a first or native language is called first language________.50. ________ is a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use.41. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed _________ or creative.42. The description of a language as it changes through time is a ___________ study.43. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _________ and the lips.44. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without___________.45. ________________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process ofshortening.46. For ______________________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.47. A ___________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a nativelanguage in some speech community.48. A linguistic _____________ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the“polite” society from general use.49. For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously andrequires little conscious _____________ on the part of adults.50. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) _________________ oriented functionallinguistics approach.41. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _______ over writing.42. ___________ is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.43. A word formed by derivation is called a ____________, and a word formed bycompounding is called a ___________.44. ____________ is a science that is concerned with how words are combined to formphrases and how phrases are combined by rules to form sentences.45. The ________________ relation is a kind of relation between linguistic forms in asentence and linguistic forms outside the sentence.46. The various meanings of a _____________ word are related to some degree.47. The pre-school years are a ____________ period for first language acquisition.48. Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on ____________.49. _______________ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.50. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be definednot in terms of meaning but in terms of ________________.41. Language is a system of arbitrary _________ symbols used for human communication.42. Langue or competence is _________ and not directly observable, while parole orperformance is concrete and directly observable.43. The vocal tract can be divided into two parts: the oral cavity and the __________.44. The combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words incalled _____________.45. The words of English are classified into native words and __________ words.46. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the ______________ attitudeconnoted in the language that is sexist.47. _____________ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in thefirst language by using it naturally communicative situations.48. In first language acquisition children usually __________ grammatical rules from thelinguistic information they hear.49. The starting point of Chomsky's TG Grammar is his ___________ hypothesis.50. A ____________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speaker intends to dowith it.51. discreteness52. competence53. triphthongs54. bound morpheme55.syntax51. design features52. performance53. minimal pair54. morpheme55. polysemy51. arbitrarinessngue53.vowel54. affixs55. reference51. language52. phonemes, phones53. backformation54.lexical semantics55.speech community56. How does a linguist construct a rule?57. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?58. Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.59. List the differences between surface structure and deep structure of a sentence.60. How does competence differ from performance?56. Explain the differences between langue and parole.57. Use examples to illustrate the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional constituent.58. Define the two terms: phonemes and allophones.59. What are the three types of distribution?60. How many types of linguistic knowledge does a native speaker possess? What are they?56.What are the five sub-branches of linguistics?57. What are the suprasegmental features are?58. What is the difference between cohesion and coherence?59. What is ethnic dialect?60. What is learner language and target language?56. What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?57. What are the functions of language?58.Explain the relationship between speech and writing.59. Analyze the word “disestablishment” by IC analysis:60.What does morphology study?61. What are the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in terms of both function and position?61. List the differences between surface structure and deep structure of a sentence.61. Define the three types of distribution respectively.61. Describe with examples various types of morpheme used in English.。
英语语言学概论笔记
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲一、课程说明:《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。
《语言学概论》研究始于20世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。
现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。
语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。
对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。
本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第６学期和第７学期开设。
其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。
二、教学目的及要求:本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。
本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。
在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。
本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。
应鼓励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点:本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。
本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。
四、与其它课程的关系:本课程是一门主干性课程。
与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。
五、学时与学分:学时：７２学时学分：４学分六、教学内容：第一章绪论本章主要教学内容:1．语言学习的意义。
2．语言的定义。
3．语言的定义特征。
4．语言的起源。
5．语言的功能。
6．语言学的定义。
《英语语言学概论》题与答案
ExercisesI.Multiple Choice1. __________ studies language change over time in contrast to looking at language as it is used at a given moment.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics2. Of all the speech organs, the ______ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords3. In terms of place of articulation, the following sounds [p], [b], [m] and [w]share the feature of ______.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental4. A(n) ______ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme5. Which of the following sound description is for [d]?A. voiced labiodental fricativeB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless labiodental fricativeD. voiceless alveolar stop6. What is the phonetic feature of the sound [u]?A. close back shortB. semi-close front shortC. semi-open central shortD. open front short7. Which of the following sentences contain a derivational affix?A. The cows escaped.B. It was raining.C. Those socks are inexpensive.D. She closed the book.8. The morp heme “ed” in the word “worked” is known as a(n) ______.A. derivational morphemeB. lexical morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. functional morpheme9. “en-” in “enlarge” is a(n) ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root10. ______ is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme11. Which of the following forms is possible word of English?A. sprokeB. bsarnC. mboodD. coofp12. Which pair of words below shows the relation of antonymy. ______A. flourish—thriveB. intelligent—stupidC. casual—informalD. flog—whip13. We call the relation between “furniture” and “wardr obe” as ______.A. hyponymyB. meronymyC. homophonyD. homonymy14. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to ______.A. breakdown of conversationB. confusion of one’s intentionC. hostility between speakers and the listenersD. conversational implicatures15. In the phrase structure rule “S——>NP VP”, the arrow can be read as______.A.is equal toB.consists ofC.hasD.generates16. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ______.A. lexicalB. morphemeC. grammaticalD. semantic17. The pair of words “hot” and “cold” are ______.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. co-hyponyms18. Which pair of the following are complementary antonyms?A. alive / deadB. above / belowC. poor / richD. doctor / patient19. What is the relation between the pair of sentences:He likes seafood.He likes crabsA. synonymyB. inconsistencyC. entailmentD. presupposition20. Which pair of the following are homographs?A. piece n. / peace n.B. tear v. / tear n.C. fast adj. / fast v.D. flower n. / rose n.21. Which pair of the following are dialectal synonyms?A. lorry, truckB. kid, childC. collaborator, accompliceD. amaze, astound22. “Lift” and “elevator” form a pair of ______ synonyms.A. stylisticB. dialecticalC. collocationalD. connotative15. All syllables must have a ______.A. onsetB. codaC. nucleusD. consonant23. ______ studies language and speech as they are used at a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics24. ______ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics25. Of the following sound combination, only ______ is permissible in English.A. iblkB. ilbkC. ilkbD. blik26. Which pair of words below shows the relation of synonymy. ______A. drunk—soberB. uncle—auntC. young—oldD. casual—informal27. The sense relationship between “He has been to France” and “He h as been to Europe” is ______.A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. presuppositionD. entailment28. In the phrase structure rule “NP—>(Det) N (PP)…”, the arrow can be readas______.A. is equal toB. branches intoC. transformsD. generates29. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][r][s][l][z][n] share the feature of ______.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental30. Y’s utterance in the following conversa tion violates the maxim of ______.X: When is Su san’s farewell party?Y: Sometime next month.A.qualityB.quantityC.relationD.manner31. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the ______because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.A. locutionary actB. constative actC. perlocutionary actD. illocutionary act32. We call the relation between “vehicle” and “car” as ______.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy33. Which of the following pairs differs from the others in the sense relation? ______A. good, badB. long, shortC. big, smallD. innocent, guilty34. As far as manners of articulation are concerned, which of the followingdiffers from the others? ______A.[p]B. [b]C. [t]D. [f]35. Which pair of the following belong to meronymy?A. animal, tigerB. hand, fingerC. livestock, dogD. furniture, dresser36. “-En” in “blacken” is a(n) ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root37. Transformational rules do not change the basic ______ of sentences.A. formB. structureC. meaningD. sound pattern38. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called____.missivesB. directivesB.expressivesD. declaratives39. The illocutionary point of the____ is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.A. declarationsB. expressivesmissivesD. directives40. Y’s utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of______.X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. mannerII. Blank filling1.Productivityor___ refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produceand understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.2.Some antonyms are g radable_ because there are often intermediate forms betweenthe two members of a pair.3.Duality is the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds andletters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.4.According to its position in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds:prefixes and suffixes.5.Phonological rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular languageare called sequential rules.6.Root_ constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of itsmeaning.7.A suffix is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original wordand it may change its part of speech.8.In terms of morphemic analysis, derivation can be viewed as the addition ofaffixes to stems to form new words.9.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts ofwords, e.g. –s, -er, -ed and –ing, which are called bound______ morphemes. 10.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.nuguge _is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.12.Saussure put forward two important concepts. Langue_ refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.13.Broad transcription is normally used in dictionary and teachingtextbooks for general purposes.14.The root _ constitutes the core of the word and carries the majorcomponent of its meaning.15.Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change thepart of speech of the original word.16. Displacement is a design feature of human language that enables speakersto talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and space.17. An independent unit of meaning that can be used freely by itself is calleda free _ morpheme.18.Clear [l] and dark [l] are allophones of the same one phoneme /l/. They nevertake the same position in sound combinations; thus they are said to be incomplementary distribution.19.Stem is the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create amore complex form that may be another stem or a word.20.Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.21.The two sounds [p] and [p h] are in complementary distribution, and they areknown as allophones of the phoneme /p/.22. _Syntax_______ is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combinedto form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.23. Cooperative Principle (CP) is proposed by Paul Grice .24. “Words are names or labels for things.” This view is called naming theory insemantic studies.25. The sentence “My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor” is a contradition.III. True or false questions.( T ) 1. “Where did he buy the beer” presupposes “He bought the beer”.( F) 2. Sense and reference are the same aspects of meaning.( F ) 3. A wor d’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.( T ) 4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.(T ) 5. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is grammatical.( T ) 6. “The student’’ in the sentence ‘The student liked the linguistic lecture” and “The linguistic lecture” in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked thestudent” belong to the same syntactic category.( F ) 7. Compounds with a preposition are in the category of the prepositional part of the compound.(T ) 8. Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP category as its complement.( T ) 9. Linguistic context is concerned with the probability of words or expressions co-occurring or collocating with each other.( T ) 10. When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category.( F ) 11. Linguistics is the course of language.( F ) 12.In the history of any language the writing system always came into beingbefore the spoken form.( T ) 13. Articulatory phonetics is concerned about how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.( F ) 14. Language system is genetically transmitted.( T) 15. Phonology is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.(T) 16. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but by following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in aparticular order.( T) 17. Stress has two main semantic functions: distinguish between two words and emphasize the syllable or word.( T) 18. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are closed class words.( T) 19. Linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense.(T) 20. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.( T ) 21. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the Abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply incontext.( F ) 22.Inviting, suggesting, warning, ordering are instances of commissives.( T ) 23. When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to betrue.(T) 24. Coordination refers top the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.(T ) 25. Traditionally,sentence is the minimum part of language that express meaning.。
【word】 索绪尔与乔姆斯基语言能力理论的比较研究
索绪尔与乔姆斯基语言能力理论的比较研究No.12.2011北京电力高等专科学校BeijingElectricPowerCollege教育改革与实践囤索绪尔与乔姆斯基语言能力理论的比较研究范洪涛(辽宁工程技术大学外语系,辽宁阜新123000)摘要:索绪尔与乔姆斯基是语言学界有深渊影响的两位语言学家,一个被称为语言学界的鼻祖;一个被称为语言学界划时代的使者,对两位语言学家的比较研究,可以帮助语言学习者更好的理解与掌握关于语言与言语,普遍语法等相关理论,为学术研究奠定扎实的理论基础.关键词:索绪尔;乔姆斯基;语言能力理论中图分类号:H3l文献标识码:A语言是文化的产物,是规约人类交流的有力工具,任何一种语言都具备使该言语社区得以顺利交流的特点.因此本文结合索绪尔与乔姆斯基的语言理论,比较两位语言学家相关理论的异同,并结合相关语言现象加以解析.一,索绪尔的相关语言学理论(一)索绪尔语言学理论产生的时代背景瑞士语言学家索绪尔被称为2世纪语言学的开山鼻祖.对于索绪尔而言,语言学家的主要任务就是分析语言系统现象,及语言各系统之间的关系及语言各成分之间组合的规则.索绪尔将语言看为是任意的符号系统,并且提出了语言与言语;共时与历时等相关概念;他关于描写语言学与历史语言学的划分为他赢得了结构主义语言学家的殊荣.在索绪尔时代,描写语言学得到了迅速发展,比较语言学和历史语言学在语言学领域的地位日渐削弱.众所周知,每一个伟大思想都是时代智慧的结晶,索绪尔也毫不例外.在索绪尔的研究时代新语法主义(neogrammarians)比较流行,例如索绪尔的老师Osthoff和Brugmann,他们都非常强调语音学和方言学,而这两个研究领域关于声音变化的规律原则对索绪尔产生了重要的影响.声音的绝对性质是语言符号任意性的结果.因为语言符号是任意的,所以绝对没有理由说明声音的一种变化不适用于该声音的所有情况.声音系统是我们发出我们所说语言的工具,如果声音系统中的某个元素被加以修饰,那一定会产生不同的发生结果.例如,英语中的塞擦音S与唇齿音0,如果发音的位置发生了改变,势必会导致发音的混淆.如果整个体系发生了改变,那么这个发音体系就会变得毫无意义.但是整个体系发生变化是几乎不可能的.因此从某种程度卜而言,索绪尔证明自己是一个新语法学家,他也F常钦佩新语法学派所取得的成就,例如该学派所提出的错误类~(falseanalogy)观点,尤其是其声音变化效果的监控对于语言学的进化而言作用很大.同时索绪尔还受到美国语言学家,耶鲁大学比较语言学家W.D.Whitney的深远影响,此时的索绪尔虽沿袭了新语法学派的传统,但却对语言符号系统提出了质疑.根据Whitney的观点,语言是建立在…定社会传统上的机构,语言中包含有很多在某一言语社区很普遍的用法,这些用法是词语与形式的宝藏,其中每一个用法都是任意的和受到一定规约性的符号.(二)索绪尔的语言学理论文章编号:1009—0118(2011).12.0149.02索绪尔的重要重要贡献主要取决于他的普通语言学理论.根据索绪尔的观点,语言学家从不会试图决定正在研究的目标的性质,没有最基础的时间研究,一门科学也不会产生其合理的理论.尽管《普通语占学课程》是索绪尔两名学生(查尔斯.巴利和阿尔帕特.薛施蔼)整理的的课堂笔记,但在其讲义中,索绪尔讨论了语言的特点;规定了语言学家的任务;并对共时与历时;语言与言语等相关概念做出了历史性的区分,并描述了语言学中的符号学系统. l,语言符号的任意性索绪尔的根本观点是:语言符号是任意的.他认为,语言是一个符号系统,符号是施指(声音行象)和受指(概念)的联合.施指与受指之间没有天然的联系.通过符号系统的任意性,索绪尔指出卢音与意义;能指和所指没有自然的或无法避免的联系.语言(或文字)从本质上而言是任意的,按照这种任意性的观点我们对周围任何事物的命名都是偶然任意的行为.例如:英语中用book表达一种事物,而汉语则用/Shu/都是偶然任意的,没有必然的联系.然而在语言学中存在两种影响语言的任意性的情况:首先为拟声词,例如英语中的bang,crash,汉语中的叮当,坪唠,其次为合成词,某些复合词的构成并不是完全任意的,在它们的声音与意义之间存在某种必然的联系.但是对于索绪尔而言,所有的语言首先都具备最基本的特性——任意性,然后经过不同的过程将这些符号融合在一个语言体系之中,无论是怎样变化的过程,语言的最基本特点以及语言最基本的构成要素是永远不会改变的.2,语言与言语在区分语言系统与语言的实际使用过程中,索绪尔提出了语言(1angue)与言语(parole)的关键区分.Langue是指语言系统,即语言的形式;parole是指真正使用的语言,通过语言系统使得言语行为得以进行.Langue是个体在习得语言过程中所掌握的一套形式,它是社会的产物,能够实现个体的语言体系.Parole是实际使用操作的语言,个体使用言语的过程既包括个体使用语码表达个人观点的过程,也包括个体创造性的使用语言的心理机制.索绪尔认为”区分语言与言语的过程,就是在区分群体形式和个体形式,基本形式和附加形式”.Lange与parole的区别是语言符号任意性的必然结果,是语言学研究的重要目标.3,共时与历时索绪尔的另外一个重要贡献是他区分了关于语言的共时研究作者简介:范洪涛(1978一),女,辽宁盘锦人,研究方向:语言学及外语教学.149No.12.201l北京电力高等专科学校BeijingElectricPowerCollege教育改革与实践囤与历时研究.语言存在于时间,并随着时间的推移而变化.共时语言学又被称为静态语言学,重要研究语言的状态而不考虑该语言状态是如何进化的.历时语言学又被称为进化语言学,研究在一定J力史时期内语言所经J力的变化.没有共时语言学就会有J力时语言学,共时语言学现象是语言使用者拥有的唯一现实,是语言学家能够处理的现实问题.对于共时语言学家而言,他们会从某一语言的使用者中搜集大量的数据,分析这些语言现象从而决定该语言的现实问题.但是如果我们说共时语言学要优先于历史语言学,这是因为一个语言学家必须首先描述该语言的状态,然后才能对该语言的进化过程加以比较.但这并不意味着在描述某一语言状态时,关于该语言前期状态的相关知识可以省略;只有了解了某一种语言的前期状态才能更深入的分析该语言的当前状态.(1)语言是一个不断发展变化的过程,在科技迅速发展的今天,许多新词层出不穷;(2)某一社区的语言形式也从来不是千篇一律的,不同的人会使用不同形式的语言,例如正式语言与非正式语言;标准语言与行话等;(3)某种语言的变化需要一个过程,并不意昧着某些特征突然被另外一些特征所取代.二,乔姆斯基的相关语言理论(一)乔姆斯基在语言学理论方面的贡献乔姆斯基被称为语言学界划时代的使者,也被称为一个多产的语言学家.他认为语言的普遍性可以从两个方面着手加以考察,一个是内容的普遍性:另一个是形式的普遍性.乔姆斯基认为普遍语法可以解释人类的一切语言,他将该语法称为转换牛成语法.转换生成语法使得乔姆斯基闻名于世:根据转换生成语法,每一个句子不但符合特定语言的语法规则而且也符合适用于所有语言的普遍语法的深层结构,符合人类的天生能力.深层结构与表层结构概念的提出对于很多学科,诸如心理学,文学,社会学,人类学都产生了深远的影响.依据乔姆斯基,小孩子获得语言知识是一种构造理论的行为,他绝不是单凭经验学会了语言.语言需要模仿,模仿是语言的基础,但是语言不仅仅是模仿,而且主要不是模仿,主要是创造新的言语,这就是语言的创造性.乔姆斯基认为,这种创造和生成新的语言的能力是人的天赋能力,是内在的机能.人都有一本天赋的词典,具有分辨语词变化的能力.说话人通过一系列结构规则可以生成这种语言的句子的深层结构,即在每个句子表达出来以前就在大脑中存在的概念结构.形成了这种句子的深层结构之后,他头脑中已经有了一个正确的句子.在乔姆斯基看来,人们在说话之前他的头脑中存在着一个深层的语言结构或是思维能力,而且会形成一个内在的正确的句子.乔姆斯基认为,深层结构通过”转换部分”可以转换成表层结构,这就是通过说话时的语音所表达出来的句子,表层结构是句子的形式,深层结构代表旬了的意义.例如:将”JohnsawMary?’’转换成另一个具有相同意义的不同的语法结构MarywasseenbyJohn?由此可见,乔姆斯基很注重两种语言结构的转换关系,但是在两种结构中他更加强调的是深层结构.转换语法学家在心理语言学领域产生深远影响,尤其是在儿童的语言习得方面产生深远影响.除了我们先前谈到的作品之外,他也提出了许多语言学领域的新理论,例如150语言的天赋论;普遍语法规则;特殊语法与转换语法.根据乔姆斯基的观点,人类先天的遗传基因是人类语言具有普遍语法的关键, 人类语言的普遍语法存在于人类大脑的某一个地方,因此儿童天生具备语言能力,这中存在主体身上且能解释语言的普遍性的东西叫做天赋的语言获得机制(Languageacquisitiondevice,或LAD).所谓”机制”是指儿童学习第一门语言时所用的一般概念和原则.因此,儿童一旦呱呱坠地,其遗传基因显然就已经先存着所有必须用于语言学习过程的全部语言信息,即普遍语法.该方法是一种反应对语言行为主义心理学和经验主义哲学,使成为心理学的一个语言学分支.乔姆斯基运用公式PG=a.UG代表特定语法和普遍语法之间的关系.这意味着,一个特定语法来自普遍语法经过一些特定语言的暴露.从参数a的变化看,可能会有各种具体的语言.例如,当a=中国,然后a.UG将会是汉语语法;而当a=英语,然后将a.UG将是英语语法.乔姆斯基同时也提出了语言能力和语言运用之间的区别,这类似于索绪尔的语言和言语. (二)乔姆斯基的语言能力和语言运用根据乔姆斯基,某一特定语法指语法规则由结果暴露的语言数据所内化.这种与语言运用相对的潜意识的语言知识,乔姆斯基用语言能力标签.一个人的语言能力是他在最理想的条件下的战术知识,同时也是一个人在适当条件下对语言的特殊使用的语言表现.他认为语言能力是说某种语言的人对这种语言的内在认识,而语言运用则是它具体使用语言的行动.在一般情况下,语言能力和语言运用并不是符合的,语言运用并非语言能力的直接反映.乔姆斯基的语言运用的概念类似索绪尔的言语概念,而他语言能力的使用或多或少不同于索绪尔的语言.索绪尔把语言作为一个社会的产物,而乔姆斯基认为语言能力是人类思想所特有的. 索绪尔的语言是～个静态的概念,乔姆斯基的语言能力是一个动态的,它是在语言产生过程中的一种潜在能力.然而,这两个语言学家都有一个共同点,就是持有语言学研究的任务是处理语言或语言能力而不是言语或者语言运用.乔姆斯基说,他的语言理论与索绪尔的语言理论有一定联系,索绪尔是区别语言与言语的关系,而他是区别语言能力与语言运用的关系.但是他认为必须否定索绪尔的下述观点:语言是意义和声音的网络.他认为语言能力是一种创造过程,他特别强调了语言的创造性.三,结论以索绪尔为代表的结构主义者认为语言存在着二元结构,即能指和所指的结构关系,在乔姆斯基那里是深层结构和表层结构的关系,认识语言就是要认识它的结构.结构主义语言学对于我们学习语言(特别是外语),学习各类语言(包括人机对话的语言)的转换技术,区分语言的能指和所指,理解语言的表层含义和深层含义,具有重要的启示作用.参考文献:【1]RobinsR.H.AShortHistoryofLinguistics.Beijing:BeijingForeign LanguageLearningandTeachingResearchPress,1997.【2]布龙菲尔德.语言论[M】.商务印书馆,1980.[3】刘润清.西方语言学流派[M],北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1993.。
英语语言学概论整理(1-7)
Chapter 1 Language语言1.★What is language?(ok)linguisticsymbol and what the symbol stands for. Itbecause words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but2.★What are the design features of language? (ok)Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication(Charles Hockett). They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability.3.What are the design features of language? （具体）I.Productivity (能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehendingindefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language，including sentencesthey never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one hasever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an Africangibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understa nd it in right register.Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language,thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).II.arbitrariness (任意性) （核心）Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and its meaning. By “arbitrariness”, wemean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog mightbe a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language istherefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be somesound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, whichare motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to beone word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivatedwords, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the wordsthat make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.III.（symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.）IV.discreteness(离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.V.displacement (不受时空限制的特性) “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, aseasily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things,things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be somethingthat had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When adog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone thatexists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a boneto be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is anunspeakable tiny share.VI.duality of structure (结构二重性) Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At thefirst, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units(such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence ofsegments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units ofmeaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets ofstructures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings oflanguage. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can bearranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we havedictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for aperson to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication systemenjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.VII.culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather thanby inheritance. This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generationto generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by eachspeaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it“language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language aperso n learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barkingsystem. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The WolfChild reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” whenhe was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain humanlanguage.VIII.interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. (1) Interchangeability means that anyhuman being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and onother occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to makeme happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differe ntiationin the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yetin principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a womancannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the otherperson is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker andthe first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possibleand acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), andcertain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboringdogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” andwhich listening.4.Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.5.What functions does language have?6.★(Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions ofchildren’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I.Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s langua●Instrumental function(工具功能)refers to the fact that language allows speakers to getthings done. It allows them to control things in the environment .people can cause thingsto be done and happen through the use of words alone.●Regulatory function(调节功能)refers to language used in an attempt to control eventsonce they happen. Those events may involve the self as well as others . People do try tocontrol themselves through language.●Representational function(表现功能)refers to the use of language to communicateknowledge about the world ,to report events ,to make statements ,to give accounts , toexplain relationships, to relay messages and so on. This function of language isrepresented by all kinds of record-keeping .●Interactional function(互动功能)refers to language used to ensure social maintenance.Phatic communication is a part of it .●Personal function(自指性功能)refers to language used to express the individual’sfeelings ,emotions and personality. A person’s individuality is usually characterized byhis or her use of personal of communication.●Heuristic function(启发功能) [osbQtq`kf`h] refers to language used in order toacquire knowledge and understanding of the world .language may be used for learning.Questions can lead to answers , argumentation to conclusion and hypothesis-testing tonew discoveries. It provides a basis for the structure of knowledge in the differentdisciplines .Language allows people to ask questions about the nature of the world theylived in and to construct possible answers.●Imaginative function(想象功能)refers to language used to create imaginary system,whether these are literary works ,philosophical systems or utopian visions one the onehand ,or daydreams and idle musings on the other hand .II.Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇◆phatic function（寒暄功能）: The “phatic function” refers to language being used for settingup a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanginginformation or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?”“Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.◆directive function: The “directive function” means that language may be used to get thehearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform th is function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direct ion too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”◆informative function(信息功能): Language serves an “informational function” when used totell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.◆interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an“interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well,e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note thatrhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.◆expressive function: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal somethingabout the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.◆evocative function(感情功能): The “evocative function” is the use of language to createcertain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.◆performative function（表达功能）: This means people speak to “do things” or performactions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are pe r formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1.What is linguistics?1）“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It may be a study of language ,the history of history of language ,the function of language ,etc. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)./2）Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language.It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human languages, guided by three canons of science:(i) exhaustiveness: it strives for thorough-goingness in the examination of relevant materials;(ii)consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement;(iii)economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is to be preferred to one that is longer or more complex.The subject matter of linguistics is all natural languages, living or dead. It studies the origin, growth, organization, nature and development of language and discovers the general rules and principles governing language.It has two main purposes. One is that it studies the nature of language and tries to establish a theory of language, and describes languages in the light of the theory established. The other is that it examines all the forms of language in general and seeks a scientific understanding of the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the needs it serves and the functions it performs in human life.2.★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?✧general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学) The formerdeals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.✧synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachroniclinguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.✧theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The formercopes with languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.✧microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学)at its narrowest. theformer studies only the structure of language system. at its broadest , the latter deals with everything that is related in any way at all to languages and language .3.Linguistics :the scienceThe scientific method of linguistic study involves the following steps(Wen Qiufang):1)Gather data concerning languages ;2)Construct a tentative rule based on the data obtained;3)Examine the tentative rule against the further data and make necessary changes;4)Finalize the rule which must be able to account for all the relevant data.Mei Deming gives a similar summarization of the process of linguistic study:1)Linguistic facts observed ;2)Generalizations made about the linguistic facts;3)Hypotheses formulated to explain the linguistic facts;4)The hypotheses tested and examined by more and further observations;5) A certain linguistic theory of language constructed.Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of thetheory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significantgeneralizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.4.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages. ///// It is the scientific study of speech sounds, including the articulation, transmission and reception of specch sounds, the description and classification of speech sounds.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.//// it is the study of how speech sounds function in a language. It studies the ways speech sounds are organized, the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and shape of syllables. It can be considered the functional pnonetics of a particular languange.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed./// It is concerned with the internal organization, the formation of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processes.Syntax: it is the grammar of sentence construction, dealing with the combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not. ///5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences./// It is concerned with the study of meaning in all its aspects, examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.6) Pragmatics. 语用学/// it is the study of meaning in context, in use. It deals with particularutterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than with the way language is structured.5.some distinction in linguisticslangue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstrac t linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rulesof his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Inother words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similarto, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.synchronic and diachronic(共时与历时) The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope. (1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language newscope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the lastcentury and theretofore.linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.6.Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsWhat are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.2.Phonetics sub-branchess◆articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds iscalled articulatory phonetics.◆acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission ofspeech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.◆auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.3.How are the vocal organs formed?(p29-30)The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.4.the definition of consonant and vowelconsonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.5.The place of articulation:（辅音分类）◆bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped orrestricted by the two lips.◆Labiodentals: consonant brought about by bringing the bottom lip to the upper teeth.◆Dentals/interdentals: consonant for which the flow of air is restricted by catching the tonguebetween the teeth .◆Alveolars: consonant produced by bringing the tip of the tongue into contact with the upperteeth-ridge to create the obstruction.◆Post-alveolars: consonant produced by bringing the tip of the tongue to the rear part of thealveolar ridge.◆Alveo-palatals: consonants formed by putting the tongue at the very front part of the hardpalate,near the alveolar ridge. Palatals: consonants made by bringing the back of the tongue to the hard palate.◆Velars: consonants made by bringing the back of the tongue to the soft palate.◆Glottals: sounds produced by bringing the vocal cords momentarily together to create theobstruction.6.classifications of English consonants7.★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1)The position of the soft palate.2)The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3)The place of articulation.4)The manner of articulation.8.★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?。
英语语言学概论第六章笔记
英语(yīnɡ yǔ)语言学概论第六章笔记Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学1.What is pragmatics?什么(shén me)是语用学？Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.语用学研究(yánjiū)的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。
由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究(yánjiū)。
它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。
2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同(bù tónɡ)的。
《英语语言学概论》-课程教学大纲
《语言学概论（英）》课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息课程代码：16083302课程名称：语言学概论（英）英文名称：Introduction to Linguistics For Students of English课程类别：专业课学时：32学时学分：2学分适用对象: 英语专业考核方式：考查先修课程：专业技能课二、课程简介《语言学概论（英）》课程是英语专业必修课程，为英语语言文学各专业本科生提供语言学的基础理论知识。
本课程介绍现代语言学一个世纪以来语言研究各个领域所取得的重要成果，包括语言学的重要区分、语言的定义、特征和功能，重点介绍结构主义语言学、生成语法理论对语言的三个层面即音系、语法和语义的描述，即语言学的核心分支音系学、形态学、句法、语义学和语用学的基本概念和理论以及分析方法。
同时，会用马克思主义的语言观来评价语言学家的研究路径。
通过本课程的学习，学生应掌握语言学基本概念、理论知识和分析方法，并能运用所学理论和方法分析和解释语言现象。
Introduction to Linguistics for Students of English is a compulsory course, providing the students of English majors with some basic theories and specialized knowledge in linguistics. The course, starting from Saussure’s language views, introduces the important research achievements in the scope of linguistics, important distinctions in linguistics, definition of language, design features of language and functions of language. The important points of this course lie in the description of sound system, structure system and meaning system, namely, the core branches of linguistics: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics from perspectives of structuralism, generative grammar. Meanwhile, Marxist language view will be used to evaluate some linguistic theories and approaches. After the study of the course, the students will learn the basic concepts and theories in linguistics and methods for linguistic researches. They are expected to be able to apply the linguistic concepts and theories to analyze and explain language phenomena.三、课程性质与教学目的《语言学概论（英）》课程是为英语专业本科生开设的英语专业必修课之一。
英语语言学概论Saussure and Chomsky1
Saussure’s Linguistic Structuralism
• Langue and Parole 语言和言语
• Synchronic and Diachronic 共时和历时
• Sign, Signifier and Signified 符号，能指和所指
• Language and Mind(1968) 《语言和心灵》
• Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar(1972) 《生成语法的语义学研究》
• Reflections on Language（1975） 《语言论》
Chomsky’s Linguistic Theories
• It was posthumously published in 1916. • It is considered Saussure’s most influential work. • His ideas in this book leave a monumental impact.
"A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas."
Differences
• Chomsky‘s language competence is a psychological construct.
• Saussure’s langue is a set of social conventions.
THANK YOU
Similarties
• Represent a similar classification of knowledge and behavior and a similar dichotomy of the scope of linguistic inquiry。
英语语言学概论Saussure and Chomsky2
It was posthumously published in 1916. It is considered Saussure’s most influential work. His ideas in this book leave a monumental impact.
d) He returned to Leipzig and was awarded his doctorate in 1880.
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
e) Afterwards he relocated to Paris, where he would lecture on ancient and modern languages for eleven years.
Language and Mind(1968)《语言和心灵》
Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar (1972)《生成语法的语义学研究》
Reflections on Language（1975《语言论》
Avram Noam Chomsky
LAD—language acquisition devices
Avram Noam Chomsky
e)In 1988 the Massey Lectures at the University of Toronto, titled "Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies"; f)In 1997, The Davie Memorial Lecture on Academic Freedom in Cape Town, and many others.
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Avram Noam Chomsky
Syntactic Structures (1957) 《句法结构》
Current Issues in Linguistic Theory(1964) 《当前语言学中的争端》
Ferdinand de Saussure And Avram Noam Chomsky
蒯红月、张颖、卢露、辛前进、周 宇、裴英杰
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) was a Swiss linguist who occupies an important place in the history of linguistics.
Avram Noam Chomsky
e)In 1988 the Massey Lectures at the University of Toronto, titled "Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies"; f)In 1997, The Davie Memorial Lecture on Academic Freedom in Cape Town, and many others.
"A linguistic system is a series of differences
of sound combined with a series of differences
of ideas."
-Ferdinand de Saussure
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
He was the pivotal figure in the transition from the 19th to 20th century, and
is generally considered the founder of modern linguistics.
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
f) In 1891. living in Geneva, teaching Sanskrit and historical linguistics, he married there and had two sons.
f) It was not until 1906 that Saussure began teaching Course in General Linguistics that would consume the greater part of his
Avram Noam Chomsky
a)In early 1969, he delivered the John Locke Lectures at Oxford University; b)In January 1970, the Bertrand Russell Memorial Lecture at University of Cambridge; c)In 1972, the Nehru Memorial Lecture in New Delhi; d)In 1977, the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden;
Course in General Linguistics 《普通语言学教程》
It was posthumously published in 1916. It is considered Saussure’s most influential work. His ideas in this book leave a monumental impssure (1857-1913)
attention until his death in 1913. Saussure’s answers to these questions
serve to direct our attention to essentials of Language and make clear the object of study for linguistics as a science. In short, all linguistic studies after him are Saussurean linguistics.
d) He returned to Leipzig and was awarded his doctorate in 1880.
Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
e) Afterwards he relocated to Paris, where he would lecture on ancient and modern languages for eleven years.
Avram Noam Chomsky
Chomsky(born December 7, 1928) has been described as the "father of modern linguistics" and a major figure of analytic philosophy.His work has influenced fields such as computer science, mathematics, and psychology.
a) He was born in Geneva, in 1857, Switzerland.
b) By age 15, he had learned Greek, French, German,English, and Latin.
c) At the age of 21, Saussure studied for a year in Berlin, where he wrote his only fulllength work.