答案二语习得
《第二语言习得研究》期末问答梳理
《第⼆语⾔习得研究》期末问答梳理第⼆语⾔习得研究问答梳理1．如何区分“母语”与“第⼀语⾔”、“第⼆语⾔”与“第⼆语⾔习得环境”？答：母语指学习者所属种族、社团使⽤的语⾔，第⼀语⾔指⼉童幼年最先接触和习得的语⾔。
母语通常就是第⼀语⾔，但也有例外的情况。
⽐如在美国出⽣的汉族⼉童，他最先接触和习得的是英语，英语就是他的第⼀语⾔，⽽他的母语仍然是汉语。
第⼆语⾔指学习者在习得第⼀语⾔之后习得的语⾔，第⼆语⾔习得环境指学习者所学的语⾔在语⾔习得发⽣的环境中作为交际语⾔。
第⼆语⾔是相对于第⼀语⾔就语⾔习得的时间顺序⽽⾔的。
第⼆语⾔习得环境跟时序⽆关，着眼于在哪⼉学。
2．如何区分“⾃然的第⼆语⾔习得”与“有指导的第⼆语⾔习得”？答：从习得⽅式和环境两⽅⾯区分。
⾃然的第⼆语⾔习得（naturalistic SLA）以交际的⽅式，在⾃然的社会环境下发⽣的；有指导的第⼆语⾔习得（instructed SLA）以教学指导的⽅式，在课堂教学环境中发⽣。
3．什么是语⾔能⼒？什么是语⾔表达？答：语⾔能⼒（competence）是⼀种反应交际双⽅语⾔知识的⼼理语法，语⾔表达（performance）是交际双⽅在语⾔的理解与⽣成过程中对其内在语法的运⽤。
语⾔能⼒是关于语⾔的知识，语⾔表达是关于语⾔运⽤的知识。
4．第⼆语⾔习得研究与语⾔学研究的对象、⽬的和⽅法有何不同？5．如何看待第⼆语⾔习得研究与⼼理学和⼼理语⾔学的关系？答：（1）第⼆语⾔习得研究与⼼理学的关系：（2）第⼆语⾔习得研究与⼼理语⾔学的关系：有⼈把第⼆语⾔习得研究看做⼼理语⾔学的分⽀，其实他们有诸多不同：6．第⼆语⾔习得研究的学科性质和学科特点是什么？答：跨学科。
7．为什么第⼆语⾔习得研究领域的学者把Corder和Selinker发表的⽂章作为第⼆语⾔习得研究的起点？（the significance of learners’答：因为Corder 1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》errors）和Selinker 1972年发表的《中介语》（Interlanguage）先后明确了第⼆语⾔习得研究的研究对象，创建了相似的理论假说，指明了第⼆语⾔习得研究的⽅向，为后来的第⼆语⾔习得研究奠定了坚实的理论基础。
《第二语言习得研究》问答梳理
第二语言习得研究问答梳理1．如何区分“母语”与“第一语言”、“第二语言”与“第二语言习得环境”？答：母语指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，第一语言指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
母语通常就是第一语言，但也有例外的情况。
比如在美国出生的汉族儿童，他最先接触和习得的是英语，英语就是他的第一语言，而他的母语仍然是汉语。
第二语言指学习者在习得第一语言之后习得的语言，第二语言习得环境指学习者所学的语言在语言习得发生的环境中作为交际语言。
第二语言是相对于第一语言就语言习得的时间顺序而言的。
第二语言习得环境跟时序无关，着眼于在哪儿学。
2．如何区分“自然的第二语言习得”与“有指导的第二语言习得”？答：从习得方式和环境两方面区分。
自然的第二语言习得（naturalistic SLA）以交际的方式，在自然的社会环境下发生的；有指导的第二语言习得（instructed SLA）以教学指导的方式，在课堂教学环境中发生。
3．什么是语言能力？什么是语言表达？答：语言能力（competence）是一种反应交际双方语言知识的心理语法，语言表达（performance）是交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。
语言能力是关于语言的知识，语言表达是关于语言运用的知识。
4．第二语言习得研究与语言学研究的对象、目的和方法有何不同？5．如何看待第二语言习得研究与心理学和心理语言学的关系？答：（1）第二语言习得研究与心理学的关系：（2）第二语言习得研究与心理语言学的关系：有人把第二语言习得研究看做心理语言学的分支，其实他们有诸多不同：6．第二语言习得研究的学科性质和学科特点是什么？答：跨学科。
7．为什么第二语言习得研究领域的学者把Corder和Selinker发表的文章作为第二语言习得研究的起点？答：因为Corder 1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》（the significance of learners’ errors）和Selinker 1972年发表的《中介语》（Interlanguage）先后明确了第二语言习得研究的研究对象，创建了相似的理论假说，指明了第二语言习得研究的方向，为后来的第二语言习得研究奠定了坚实的理论基础。
英语二语习得66题问答+答案
Discussion Questions of SLAChapter 1: Learning a first language1. Think of three or four ‘telegraphic’sentences that a young child might produce. These may be in English or another language you know well. How are these ‘little sentences’ similar to those in the adult language? How are they different?Both of sentences contain the necessary key words, especially nouns, verbs and adjectives. But, telegraphic sentences are shorter, and lack function words, in which grammatical elements are often omitted or inserted incorrectly, and single-clause.2. Researchers have used both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to investigate the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by young children. Describe these approaches in your own words. What are the challenges and the potential benefits of each?Cross-sectional approach studies subjects at different ages and stages of development. Longitudinal approach study the same learner’s over a period of time.Longitudinal study approach takes a lot of time and are very expensive and inconvenient. Meanwhile longitudinal studies track the same people, avoid differences of cultural differences across generations, and make observing changes more accurate.When it comes to cross-sectional approach, routine data not designed to answer the specific question, and other variables will affect the relationship between the cause and effect. The use of routinely collected data allows large cross-sectional studies in large scale, and cost less to the researcher.3. What is the ‘wug test’? What do the findings from the wug test tell us about Children’s developing language? What advantages does the wug test have over studies that observe children’s language in natural settings? Can you think of some disadvantages?“Wug test” is designed as showing students make-up words, and blank filling exercise, to explore children’s knowledge of language.By age four, children have mastered the basic structure of the language.It can be demonstrated that children not only know a list of memorized word pairs, but can apply these rules to words which they have ever heard before.The acquisition of the more complex grammatical structures of the language requires a different sort of explanation.4. What is metalinguistic awareness? Why is it a prerequisite for being able to understand most jokes and riddles? Think of a joke or riddle you know. How is metalinguistic awareness related to your understanding of what makes this joke funny?The ability to treat language as a object, separate from the meaning it conveys.Metalingusitc awareness also includes the discovery of such things as ambiguity---words and sentences that have multiple meaning.A joke always relates to funny pun, which is closely related to metalinguistic awareness.5. What have researchers observed about the frequency with which young children engage in imitation and repetitive practice? In what way are young children’s linguistic imitation and practice patterns different from those of some foreign language classes?From less than 10 percent to 40 percent.Young children choose what they will imitate and practice, and the choice is based on something they have already begun to understand, which is different from foreign language classes.6. Give examples of both grammatical and lexical overgeneralization errors found in early child language. What is the general learning principle that underlies such errors?Randall(2,9): Are dogs wiggle their tails?Randall(3,0) asks: Why? So he can doc my little bump?Children appear to pick out patterns and then generalize them to new contexts.7. How do the stories of Victor and Genie (pages 19–21) support the critical period hypothesis? Do you find this evidence convincing? Why do most researchers consider that the evidence from users of American Sign Language that was collected by Newport and her colleagues (page 21) is stronger support for the CPH?Victor and Genie who have been deprived of contact with language in their early years, CANNOT learn language like normal people, reason of which may be that their language acquisition device was stimulated too late.No, because the sample is too unusual and other factors are not excluded.Because the children are usual learners and the circumstances of their early lives are known to the researchers.8. How are Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views of first language acquisition similar? How do they differ?Both of them stand in the interactionist position, believe that children are active learners and development declines with age.Piaget believes that children's cognitive development would partly determine how they use language; while Vygotsky believes that Language develops entirely from social interaction.9. What was unusual about Jim’s exposure to language? How does this case support an interactionist perspective on language acquisition?Jim had little contract with hearing/speaking adults up to the age of 3,9, only contract with oral language was through TV. His parents did not use sign language with Jim.It was Jim’s conversations with sessions with an adult improve his language development, which is highlighted in interactionist perspective.Chapter 2: Theoretical approaches to explaining second language learningThe behaviourist perspective10. State the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) and explain why it is often linked to the behaviourist theory. What are its limitations?①The CAH predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.②Because the CAH is based on behavi orists’ explanation on the learning of L1, that language development is the formation of habits; it is assumed that a person learning a second language starts off with the habits formed in the first language and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.③limitations: a) The theory itself has its imperfections: the differences of the first and second languages do not necessarily lead to difficulties; students’ difficulties in using second language does not lead to errors. b) According to empirical evidences: only a few errors made during the second language learning attributes to the interferences of the mother tongue; not all errors predicted by the CAH are actually made; many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.11. What contribution has behaviourism made to our understanding of how languages are learned? What is the theory not able to explain?①Behaviorism accounts for the learning of L1 in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation, and helps to explain that the process of L2 learning would be interfered by L1.②Behaviorism fails to explain children’s acquisition of the m ore complex grammatical structures of the language in L1 learning.The innatist perspective12. Sum up, in your own words, the main points surrounding the debate about the nature and availability of UG in SLA. Where do you stand?①Main points: a) the nature and availability of UG in L2 acquisition is no different from that which is hypothesized to guide L1 learners. b) UG operates in L2 acquisition, but via the L1. c) UG is not available to L2 learners.②I agree on that UG operates in L2 acquisition the same as L1, because UG is considered to consist of a set of principles which are common to all languages and it has explained L2 acquisition to some extent, for example, error correction.13. Name the five hypotheses that make up Krashen’s Monitor Model. According to this model, what conditions must be present for ‘acquisition’ to take place? What are the conditions for language ‘learning’?①The acquisition-learning hypothesis; The monitor hypothesis; The natural order hypothesis; The input hypothesis; The affective filter hypothesis.②Meaningful interaction in the target language; exposure to adequate and comprehensible input:" i+1".14. W hat are the limitations of Krashen’s theory? Why do you think that Krashen’s ideas have been so influential in second- and foreign-language education?①The main limitations are: a) there are difficulties to define; b) it is mostly based on observation, but lacks empirical researches.②It appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice; it appeals intuitively to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they felt stressed or uncomfortable.The cognitive perspective15. How does information-processing model explain SLA?From the view of information processing, SLA is the building up of knowledge systems that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding.Interactionist position16. In what way are proponents of the interactionist position in SLA in agreement with Krashen’s monitor model? In what way do they go beyond it?①Interactionists agree that comprehensible input is necessary for languageacquisition.②They are more concerned with the question of how input is madecomprehensible;③they assume that all cognitive development arises as a result of socialinteractions between individuals.17. What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers? What similarities and differences would you expect tofind between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed speech? Why?①Modified interaction involve linguistic simplification, elaboration, slower speech rate, gesture, or the provision of additional contextual cues.②similarities: they are both conversational interaction; they both involve a slow rate of delivery, repetition, some clues, etc.③differences: a) child-directed speech: children still learn language by their siblings even without such modification from parents; comprehensible input is the focus; b) these modification in interaction: how the input is made comprehensible is more important; it is not the simplification but an opportunity to interact with others.④Different objects—one is for the first language learning and one is for the second language learning; the difficulties—it’s harder to learn the second langu age.18. Several theories for L2 learning have been proposed in this chapter. Is one of them more consistent with your own understanding of how languages are learned? If so, how have your experiences as a learner brought you to this view?I agree on Krashen`s monitor model. He cites evidences of some fluent speakers without having learned rules, while others may 'know' rules but fail to apply them in real language use( like some incompetent 'high-score' learners). According to my experience, adequate practice can make learned knowledge habitual so that it is available for spontaneous use in real communication. In this case, the learned language becomes the acquired knowledge.Chapter 3: Factors affecting second language learning19. Why is it difficult to assess the influence that personal characteristics have on the development of L2 proficiency?①it is not possible to directly observe and measure qualities such as motivation and intelligence.②personal characteristics are not independent.③it is not widely acknowledged that how the language proficiency is defined and measured.Intelligence20. Lan guage learners’ performance on IQ tests is related to certain aspects of L2 ability but not to others. Give examples to explain this statement.In our experience, many students whose academic performance has been weak have experienced considerable success in second language learning.Aptitude21. What lessons can language teachers learn from the research on language aptitude and L2 instruction by Wesche (1981)?It is that a high level of student and teacher satisfaction when students were matched with compatible teaching environments.Learning styles22. Based on what you read in this chapter, do you think that there is an ideal way to teach/learn a language? For example, as a foreign language learner or teacher, what are your views about teaching grammar? Do you have any specific preferences for how it should be taught or when? Do you know what your students’ preferences might be for grammar teaching and do you think it would be useful to find out?①I don't think there is an ideal way to teach or learn a language.②Teaching grammar is of great importance. It is not only about what the rules are but also how to use the rules.③I have a preference for teaching grammar in context, and I think that it should be taught in early childhood.(Before age 15)④Funny and challenge activities might be students’preference for grammar teaching. It would be useful to find out students’preference for it.Personality23. What can we learn from research about the relationship between L2 learning and• extroversion• inhibition①It is often argued that an extroverted person is well suited to language learning. However, research does not always support this conclusion.②Inhibition is a negative for L2 learning as it discourages risk-taking. It may also has more influence in language performance than in language learning.Motivation and attitudes24. Define instrumental and integrative motivation in your own words and give an example to illustrate each. Comment on how these types of motivation might be manifested differently in different learning environments.①Instrumental motivation refers to languange learning for immediate or practical goals. Example: Many college language learners have a clear instrumental motivation for language learning: They want to fulfill a college language requirement!Integrative motivation refers to language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment. Example: Someone becomes a resident in a new community that uses the target language in its social interactions.②In learning environment such as school, these types of motivation might bemanifest as integrative or instrumental. In learning environment such as society they might be manifest as mono-cultural or bicultural.Learner beliefs25. How did Carlos Yorio (1986) reveal that it is important for teachers to consider the beliefs their students hold about language instruction? How might this change their approach to teaching a particular group of students?①In a survey for international students learning ESL in a highly communicative program, students express their dissatisfaction and concern about the type of communicative instruction they received, which implied with their beliefs about language instruction.②Guide them to choose the suitable learning strategies or adjust his own teaching method.Age of acquisition26. Which language features were studied in Patkowski’s (1980) study to examine L2 development of immigrants? Does his study support the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)? How?①Accent, syntax, phonological development, Morphology.②He sets limits on the development of native-like mastery of a second language and that this limitation does not apply only to accent.27. Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle carried out a comprehensive study in which they assessed language development of L2 speakers on a variety of measures. Describe the development of the child, adolescent, and adult L2 learners in relation to each other. In your own words, explain why the results may not be relevant for assessing the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).①In the first period, the adolescents made the most progress. In the first period, the adults did better than the children and adolescents on pronunciation. By the end of the year, children were catching up and even surpassed the adults on several tests.②Some of the tasks were too difficult for young learners. For adults and adolescents, L2 may be similar to L1, they may learn faster. Young children eventually catch up if they have enough exposure to L2. Adults and adolescents can make rapid progress because they can make use of L2 in daily interaction. Chapter 4: Learner LanguageLearner Language28. A language learner begins making errors with a feature of the language that was previously used correctly. What does this suggest about the way in which thefeature was previously learned? Why might one be justified in concluding that the learner has actually made progress? Illustrate with examples.①It suggests that movement from one point in a sequence of development to another can actually lead from apparently correct performance(Sometimes based on rote learning or very limited knowledge.) to incorrect performance(Based on an emerging understanding of the underlying rules or grammatical relationships in the language being learned.).②I buyed a bus ticket.Second language learners usually learn the irregular past tense forms of certain verbs before they learn to apply the regular simple past -ed marker. It means that a learner who says 'I buyed a bus ticket' may know more about English grammar than one who says 'I bought a bus ticket.'29. What was an important difference between the error analysis approach to understanding L2 learner language and the contrastive analysis approach?The main difference between these two is that contrastive analysis was the basis for identifying differences between the first and second languages and for predicting areas of potential error, but error analysis tries to discover and describe differnt kinds of erros in an effort to understaning how learners process L2 data, and it focus on identifying the errors from L2 production.(Error analysis differed from contrastive analysis in that it did not set out to predict errors. Rather, it sought to discover and describe different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how learners process second language data. )30. What phenomenon did Larry Selinker describe when he coined the term interlanguage? What does it mean to say that interlanguages are both systematic and dynamic?Characteristics influenced by:①learner's previously learned language(s)②some characteristics of the second language③some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systemSystematic: Interlanguage is relatively independent of the language system, it has a unique set of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary rule system.Dynamic: Interlanguage is continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypothese about the second languge.31. There are various kinds of errors made by learners, such as developmental errors, overgeneralization, simplification, transfer (or interference errors), and avoidance. Give an example of each to explain.Developmental errors are errors which reflect learners’ understanding of the second language system itself rather than an attempt to transfer characteristics of their first language.(eg. a cowboy go, they plays )Overgeneralization: errors caused by trying to use a rule in a context where it does not belong.(eg. I play the game. We play the game. She play the game.He play the game.)Simplification: errors where some elements of a sentence are left out or where all verbs have the same form regardless of person, number, or tense.(eg. I play games today. I play games yesterday. / I play games today. He play games, too.)Transfer (interference errors) are errors which caused by the habits formed in the first language interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.(eg. In French, direct objects which are nouns follow the verb, but pronoun direct objects precede the verb, so a French learner of English may say ‘The dog it eats’.)Avoidance: Learners sometimes avoid using certain features of language which they perceive to be difficult for them.(eg. “A+倍数+the size/height/length/width+of+B”This street is four times the length of that one./This street is four times as long as that one.)Developmental Sequences32. An L2 learner, in speaking about his brother, tells you ‘he don’t eat meat’. What stage of negation would he be at: Stage 2 or Stage 3? What evidence would you need to have confidence in your assessment?don’t →negation →The speaker is in stage 2.(or stage 3?)Stage 1：The negative element (no/not) is typically placed before the verb or the element being negated.（E.g. I not like it.）Stage 2：‘no’and ‘not’may alternate with ‘don’t’. However, ‘don’t’is not marked for person, number, or tense and it may even be used before models.(E.g. He don’t like it. /I don’t can sing.)Stage 3: Learners begin to place the negative element after auxiliary verbs like ‘are’ ‘is’ and ‘can’. But at this stage the ‘don’t’ form is still not fully analyzed.(E.g. You can not go. /He was not happy./She don’t like rice.)Stage 4: ‘do’ is marked for some tense, person, and number.(E.g. He doesn’t like it. We didn’t see it.)For some time, however, learners may continue to mark tense, person, and number on both the auxiliary and t he verb.(E.g. I didn’t went there. )33. The description of developmental stages suggests that a learner’s L1 interacts with developmental sequences in the L2 acquisition of negation, questions, relative clauses, and past tense. Give an example of each, using either the information in the text or from your knowledge of how learners from other L1 backgrounds developthese language features.Second language learners from different first language backgrounds behave somewhat differently with the stage of using negation.(eg. 4 stages)Second language learners learn to form questions in a sequence of development which is similar in most respects to first language question development. (eg. ‘Können sie tanzen?', 'Can they dance?' German learners of English wil l pass through a pharse of asking quesitons without inversion, However, once they reach stage4 and ask English questions with subject-auxiliary inversion, they may assume that suject-verb inversion is also possible. They may form questions such as ' Play you baseball?')Second language learners first acquire relative clauses which refer to nouns in the subject and direct object positions, and only later(and in some cases, never) learn to use them to modify nouns in other sentence roles(for example, indirect object and object of preposition) (eg. In Chinese, we don't have sentence structure like this. We usually use many adjs to modify a noun instead of using subordinate clauses.) Reference to psat is one example of developmental sequence which reflects learners’ changing ability to express the same meaning. (eg. In Chinese, we don't have the grammatical morpheme -ed being attach to the verb when we talk about something happen in the past. We may notice that by the influence of our mother tounge many students forget to add -ed especial in spoken English.)34. The car that mine is similar to is over there. According to the accessibility hierarchy for relative clauses in English, which clause type is this? If we find evidence that an L2 learner is capable of producing this sentence, what other relative clause types can this learner probably also produce?This is a object clause in which the object is introduced by the preposition “to”. This learner can also produce subject clause, direct object clause, indirect object clause. Languages which included the structures at the bottom of list would also have those at the top. Research on this aspect of second language development: A learner can use one of the structures at the bottom of the list, he/she can use any the precede it.35. Which of the following verbs would beginner level learners most likely mark with past tense? Which would they be least likely to use past with? Explain your response by discussing how the verbs are different from each other.need a haircutmake lasagnawin a prizelike action moviesfeel nervousbreak a glassmost likely to marked past tense: break a glass/make lasagna/win a prizeleast likely to marked past tense: need a haircut/like action movies/feel nervousIn the beginning, learners with very limited language may simply refer to events in the order which they occurred or mention a time or place to show that the event occurred in the ter, learners start to attach a grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is marked for the past.Even after they begin marking past tense on verbs, however, learners may still make errors such as the overgeneralization of the regular -ed ending.Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig and her collegues found that learners are more likely to mark past tense on some verbs(completed events) than on others(states and activities which may last for extended periods without a clear end-point).First language influence36. In addition to influencing how learners pass through developmental sequences, what other ways has a learner’s knowledge of L1 been observed to influence L2 acquisition? You should be able to identify at least four ways.①AvoidanceIf a feature in the target language is so distant and different from their firstlanguage, they prefer not to try it (Schachter 1974).②Learner’s sensitivity to degrees of distance or difference between L1 and L2Swedish and English belong to the same language family, while Finnish belongsto a different one. Because Swedish and English are closely related languages,bilinguals(who can speak Swedish and Finnish) tend to avoid using Finnish as asource of possible transfer, whether their own first language is Swedish orFinnish (Hakan Ringbom 1985).③Similar but not identical language patternsSometimes, L1 makes it difficult for learners to notice that something they aresaying is absent from the target language, as the learner’s interlanguage form doesnot cause any difficulty in conveying meanings (Lydia White 1989).④Interaction when learners encounter in the inputThe interaction during the input sessions includes L1, some universal knowledgeor processes, and the samples of the target language. We may see how instructionand metalinguistic information contribute to this interaction in Chapter 6.Chapter 5: Observing second language teaching37. Make use of the table on P93 and try to explain the characteristics of natural acquisition, traditional instruction and communicative instruction.①In natural acquisition settings, learners’ errors are rarely corrected. Learners will be exposed to a wide variety of vocabulary and structures, is surrounded by the language for many hours each day, usually encounters a great number of proficient or native speakers of the target language, observe or participate in many different types of language events, have less pressure to speak. Modified input is available in many one-to-one conversations.②In traditional instruction settings,learners’ errors are freq uently corrected. Linguistic items are presented and practiced one at a time. Learning is often limited to only a few hours a week. The teacher is often the only proficient speaker the students interact with. Learners experience a limited range of language discourse types and often feel great pressure to speak or write the second language. Modified input is given only when they use the target language, ensuring comprehension and compliance.③In communicative instruction settings, error correction is limited. Input is simplified and made comprehensible by the use of contextual cues, props, and gestures, rather than through structural grading. Learners usually have only limited time for learning, limited contact with proficient or native speakers of the language, have access to a variety of discourse types, have little pressure to perform at high levels of accuracy. Modified input is a defining feature of it.38. When conducting classroom-based SLA studies, what might be some advantages of using observation schemes such as the COLT? What disadvantages might there be?Advantages: ①Observation schemes,like COLT and others can be used to examine relationships between differences in teaching practices and differences in second language learning.②It can also be used in the training of new teachers and in the professional development of experienced ones.③It can lead to a greater understanding of the complexities of the teaching process as well as to more critical reflection on our pedagogical practices.Disadvantages:①Sometimes observation schemes are perceived as judgemental rather than developmental.②Some observation schemes need people spend a long period to observe before making a conclusion.③Observation schemes usually cost money and some forms of them are expensive.。
二语习得——精选推荐
⼆语习得1、A、第⼆语⾔:是按时间先后区别于第⼀语⾔的语⾔，是按习得顺序划分出来的结果。
B、外语:是以国家民族为标准划分出来的结果，与母语相对。
2、教学理念:是关于语⾔学习和语⾔教学的基本认识及观念，是从⼀个⼈所受的全部语⾔教育中，从这个⼈和语⾔学习有关的全部经历当中感悟出来的。
（名词解释）3、⽔平、能⼒、表现的关系（简答）①、能⼒是抽象的知识或知识的状态；⽔平是运⽤知识的本领；表现是⽔平付诸实施的结果。
②、能⼒和⽔平在某种意义上都与表现相对，在很多时候，他们被看成是同义词。
③、能⼒决定表现，表现反映能⼒。
④、能⼒和⽔平都⽐较抽象，不能直接观察和测量。
在语⾔教学中，通常是根据学⽣的表现（特别是测试中的表现）来推测他的⽔平和能⼒；在语⾔研究中，通常采⽤反思、直觉判断等⽅法来推测语⾔能⼒。
4、卡纳尔和斯伟恩提出的交际能⼒模型包括:语法能⼒、社会语⾔学能⼒和策略能⼒。
（填空）5、乔姆斯基的普遍语法（填空）6、两岁到13岁这段时期，列尼博格称为语⾔习得的“关键期”（填空）。
7、对⽐分析的代表⼈物是罗伯特·拉多。
（填空）8、作为假说，对⽐分析有强式和弱式之别。
⼆者的异同（简答）：①、同:⼆者都包含两种语⾔之间的对⽐。
②、异：（1）弱式假说把语⾔迁移看成是错误来源之⼀，⽤对⽐分析的结果来解释学习者的错误。
不过，弱式假说只解释已经发⽣的现象，没有预测能⼒，很难认为是⼀种学习理论。
（2）强式假说则把语⾔迁移看成是错误的唯⼀原因，并认为可以通过语⾔对⽐预测学习者的错误。
强式假说忽略的是在语⾔差异和错误之间还有⼀个学习过程。
9、对⽐分析的局限（简答）①、忽视了⼈的创造性，将语⾔获得过程同于建⽴在刺激-反应基础上的习惯形成过程也是不符合实际的。
②、结构主义语⾔学并没有为对⽐分析找到解决问题的出路。
③、对对⽐分析最主要的批评之⼀就是它将差异与困难等同起来。
④、对⽐分析的理论假设也受到实验研究和教学实践的挑战和质疑。
2020智慧树,知到《探秘二语习得》章节测试完整答案.docx
最新资料欢迎阅读2020 智慧树，知到《探秘二语习得》章节测试完整答案智慧树知到《探秘二语习得》章节测试答案第一章1、习得与学习二者之间的关系是割裂的。
()答案 :错2、最早发现习得与学习存在区别的是语言学家()A:乔姆斯基B:斯蒂芬 • 克拉申C:洪堡特D:斯韦恩答案 :斯蒂芬•克拉申3、关于习得与学习的关系，下列说法正确的是()A:可以用两个三角形表示 ;B:这两个三角形是倒置的 ;C:这两个三角形是部分交叠的 ;D:这两个三角形是完全重叠的。
答案 : 可以用两个三角形表示 ;, 这两个三角形是倒置的 ;, 这两个三角形是部分交叠的 ;4、成人完全可以做到和儿童一样习得外语。
()答案 :错5、儿童习得外语的能力总体上高于成人。
()答案 :对6、传统语言课堂收到的质疑越来越多，我们应该遵循习得规律，改革创新教学模式和方法。
()答案 :对7、最早获得的语言一定是最熟悉的。
()答案 :错8、一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他最早接触的是汉语，成长过程中主要说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是 ()A:他的母语是汉语 ;B:他的第一语言是汉语 ;C:他的第二语言是英语 ;D:他的母语是英语。
答案 : 他的母语是汉语 ;, 他的第一语言是汉语 ;, 他的第二语言是英语 ;9、一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他成长过程中只接触和说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是 ()A:他的母语是英语 ;B:他的第一语言是英语 ;C:他没有外语 ;D:他的外语是英语。
答案 :他的母语是英语;,他的第一语言是英语;,他没有外语;10、第一语言是语言学的概念，母语更多的牵涉到民族学问题。
()答案 :对11、语言学多是理论研究，心理学、心理语言学等多是实验研究。
()答案 :对第二章1、关于大脑和语言习得，行为主义心理学派有两个非常著名的观点，分别是 () 。
A:认为人的大脑存在语言习得机制。
B:认为语言能力是先天的。
第二语言习得考试试题
第二语言习得考试试题一、选择题（每题 2 分，共 40 分）1、第二语言习得中的“中介语”是指（）A 学习者母语和目的语之间的过渡语言B 学习者在学习过程中创造的一种独立语言C 教师为帮助学习者而使用的简化语言D 一种国际通用的辅助语言2、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的个体差异因素（）A 学习动机B 性格特点C 社会环境D 认知风格3、在第二语言习得中，“输入假说”的提出者是（）A 克拉申B 乔姆斯基C 皮亚杰D 布鲁纳4、学习者在第二语言习得过程中出现的“石化”现象，指的是（）A 语言能力停止发展B 语言错误固定化C 学习兴趣丧失D 学习方法不当5、以下哪种教学方法更注重语言的交际功能（）A 语法翻译法B 直接法C 听说法D 交际法6、第二语言习得中的“情感过滤假说”认为，以下哪种因素会影响语言输入的吸收（）A 自信心B 焦虑程度C 学习态度D 以上都是7、对于儿童和成人在第二语言习得方面的比较，以下说法正确的是（）A 儿童学习速度更快B 成人学习效果更好C 儿童在语音方面更有优势D 成人在语法方面更有优势8、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的语言输出的作用（）A 检验语言知识B 提高语言流利度C 促进语言输入的理解D 减少语言错误9、学习者在第二语言习得中，对目的语规则的过度概括所产生的错误属于（）A 语际错误B 语内错误C 诱导错误D 随机错误10、以下哪种语言环境更有利于第二语言习得（）A 课堂教学环境B 自然语言环境C 双语环境D 单一语言环境11、在第二语言习得中，“监控假说”认为，学习者的语言输出主要受到（）的监控。
A 潜意识B 有意识C 情感因素D 语言规则12、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的学习策略（）A 认知策略B 元认知策略C 情感策略D 语法策略13、对于第二语言习得中的“文化适应”，以下说法错误的是（）A 有助于语言学习B 只是了解文化知识C 包括价值观的适应D 能提高交际能力14、以下哪种测试方法更能准确测量学习者的第二语言实际运用能力（）A 标准化测试B 口语测试C 书面测试D 听力测试15、第二语言习得中的“关键期假说”认为，语言学习的最佳年龄是（）A 儿童时期B 青少年时期C 成年时期D 没有固定年龄16、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的外部因素（）A 教学方法B 教材质量C 学习者年龄D 语言环境17、在第二语言习得中，“可理解输入”的特点不包括（）A 略高于学习者现有水平B 有趣且相关C 语法复杂D 大量重复18、以下哪种反馈方式对第二语言习得最有效（）A 积极反馈B 消极反馈C 直接纠错D 引导自纠19、学习者在第二语言习得中出现的回避现象，主要是为了（）A 避免错误B 节省时间C 简化表达D 显示个性20、以下关于第二语言习得和第一语言习得的比较，错误的是（）A 学习动机不同B 学习环境相似C 认知能力有差异D 语言输入质量不同二、简答题（每题 10 分，共 30 分）1、请简述第二语言习得中的“输入假说”的主要内容。
对外汉语《二语习得》题库及答案
对外汉语《二语习得》题库及答案第一章单元测试1、判断题：习得与学习二者之间的关系是割裂的。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】2、单选题：最早发现习得与学习存在区别的是语言学家（）选项：A:乔姆斯基B:斯蒂芬?克拉申C:洪堡特D:斯韦恩答案: 【斯蒂芬?克拉申】3、多选题：关于习得与学习的关系，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:可以用两个三角形表示；B:这两个三角形是倒置的；C:这两个三角形是部分交叠的；D:这两个三角形是完全重叠的。
答案: 【可以用两个三角形表示；;这两个三角形是倒置的；;这两个三角形是部分交叠的；】成人完全可以做到和儿童一样习得外语。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】5、判断题：儿童习得外语的能力总体上高于成人。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、判断题：传统语言课堂收到的质疑越来越多，我们应该遵循习得规律，改革创新教学模式和方法。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】7、判断题：最早获得的语言一定是最熟悉的。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他最早接触的是汉语，成长过程中主要说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是汉语；B:他的第一语言是汉语；C:他的第二语言是英语；D:他的母语是英语。
答案: 【他的母语是汉语；;他的第一语言是汉语；;他的第二语言是英语；】9、多选题：一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他成长过程中只接触和说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是英语；B:他的第一语言是英语；C:他没有外语；D:他的外语是英语。
答案: 【他的母语是英语；;他的第一语言是英语；;他没有外语；】10、判断题：第一语言是语言学的概念，母语更多的牵涉到民族学问题。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】11、判断题：语言学多是理论研究，心理学、心理语言学等多是实验研究。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】第二章单元测试1、多选题：关于大脑和语言习得，行为主义心理学派有两个非常著名的观点，分别是（）。
智慧树答案走进“第二语言”知到课后答案章节测试2022年
第一章1. 第一语言是人出生后最早接触的语言。
答案:错2. 按照克拉申的观点，习得是获取知识的过程。
答案:潜意识3. “中介语”这一概念是首先提出来的。
答案:塞林格4. “石化”是指中介语形式没有变化而出现的一种永久性停滞状态，常指“语言”的长久停滞状态。
答案:偏误形式5. “迁移”概念最早是由学者提出来的。
答案:拉多第二章1. 第二语习得研究的早期历史的第一个阶段是20世纪50年代到60年代，人们开始系统研究二语习得，其标志是_。
答案:对比分析假说;偏误分析理论2. 20世纪70年代到80年代初，学习者语言获得了同自然语言相同的地位，人们开始转向对语言习得机制的研究。
其标志是和两种理论的提出。
答案:克拉申系列假说;中介语理论3. 偏误分析理论重新复苏的时代是。
答案:20世纪 80年代末90年代初4. 第二语言研究学者关于偏误分析的文章成为第二语言习得研究的起点，偏误分析也成为应用语言学研究领域公认的一部分。
答案:科德5. 中介语也称为“语际语”或“过渡语”，是非本族语者产出的语言，是学习者形成的有关的系统化知识。
答案:目的语第三章1. 普遍语法理论的创始人是。
答案:乔姆斯基2. 乔姆斯基建立的转换-生成语法理论体系的标志是1957年出版的《》一书。
答案:《句法结构》3. 乔姆斯基的《》一书被认为是20世纪理论语言学研究上最伟大的贡献。
答案:《生成语法》4. 乔姆斯基理论中经常出现“UG”的概念，“UG”就是。
答案:普遍语法5. 乔姆斯基理论中经常出现“LAD”的概念，“LAD”就是。
答案:语言习得机制第四章1. 句子“*老师，你媳妇工作在哪儿？”主要涉及到下面哪些范畴？答案:得体性;准确性2. 迁移这一概念，是指个体将本族语言文化中的渗透到外国语言文化中去的二语习得现象。
答案:功能;意义;分布;形式3. 迁移不仅仅是母语迁移，还包括。
答案:目的语迁移;中介语迁移4. 俄罗斯学生把汉语的“啤酒”说成“bíjiǔ”,其错误下列描述正确的是？答案:将送气音ｐ与不送气音ｂ混淆了5. 汉语的“时间”，在韩语中的表现，属于？答案:语义扩大第五章1. 克拉申二语习得理论体系的理论核心是答案:输入假说2. Krashen认为是二语习得的必要条件。
第二语言习得试题及答案
第二语言习得试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共10分）1. 第二语言习得理论中，克拉申的“输入假说”主张学习者需要接收到什么样的语言输入？A. 完全理解的输入B. 可理解的输入C. 无理解的输入D. 超过理解的输入答案：B2. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于什么？A. 模仿B. 强化C. 内化D. 社会互动答案：B3. 在语言习得中，“临界期”假说主张语言学习的最佳时期是？A. 任何年龄B. 儿童时期C. 青少年时期D. 成年时期答案：B4. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为语言技能的发展遵循一定的顺序，以下哪项不是该假说的内容？A. 语法结构的习得顺序是固定的B. 词汇的习得顺序是固定的C. 发音的习得顺序是固定的D. 语言习得的速度是个体差异决定的答案：D5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调以下哪个因素在语言学习中的作用？A. 认知发展B. 社会互动C. 语言输入D. 语言输出答案：B二、填空题（每空1分，共10分）1. 语言习得的“监控假说”是由________提出的。
答案：克拉申2. 语言习得中的“输入假说”认为，学习者需要接收到________的输入。
答案：可理解的3. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为，语言技能的发展遵循一定的________。
答案：顺序4. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于________。
答案：强化5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调________在语言学习中的作用。
答案：社会互动三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. 简述克拉申的“输入假说”。
答案：克拉申的“输入假说”认为，为了习得第二语言，学习者需要接收到略高于其当前语言水平的可理解输入，这样的输入被称为“i+1”输入。
2. 描述斯金纳的操作条件反射理论在语言习得中的应用。
答案：斯金纳的操作条件反射理论认为，语言习得是通过强化机制实现的。
当学习者正确使用语言时，他们会受到奖励（强化），这会增强他们使用正确语言形式的倾向。
【精品】二语习得(L3)正汇编
Acquisition device
Nativist theories of language acquistion emphasize the importance of the innate capacity of the language learner at the expence of environmental factors. Each learner is credited with an ‘acquisition device’ which directs the process of acquisition. This devece contains information about the possible form that the gramar of any language can take.
The notion of interlanguage (theoretical construct used to identify the stages of development )
‘natural’ route of development (The principal goal of this chapter )
AD contained the UG to work and required the learner access to primary linguistic data.
For Chomsky the task of the linguist (or psychologist) was to specify the properties of the AD that were responsible for the grammar.
它们的习得是通过参数值的设定。儿童由于具有这种 习得机制, 在广泛接触语言素材中,通过假说验证与先天 的普遍语言相比较, 认识到母语的语言规则, 即取得了 语言能力。
英语二语习得66题问答答案解析
Discussion Questions of SLAChapter 1: Learning a first language1. Think of three or four ‘telegraphic’sentences that a young child might produce. These may be in English or another language you know well. How are these ‘little sentences’similar to those in the adult language? How are they different?Both of sentences contain the necessary key words, especially nouns, verbs and adjectives. But, telegraphic sentences are shorter, and lack function words, in which grammatical elements are often omitted or inserted incorrectly, and single-clause.2. Researchers have used both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to investigate the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by young children. Describe these approaches in your own words. What are the challenges and the potential benefits of each?Cross-sectional approach studies subjects at different ages and stages of development. Longitudinal approach study the same learner’s over a period of time.Longitudinal study approach takes a lot of time and are very expensive and inconvenient. Meanwhile longitudinal studies track the same people, avoid differences of cultural differences across generations,and make observing changes more accurate.When it comes to cross-sectional approach, routine data not designed to answer the specific question, and other variables will affect the relationship between the cause and effect. The use of routinely collected data allows large cross-sectional studies in large scale, and cost less to the researcher.3. What is the ‘wug test’? What do the findings from the wug test tell us about Children’s developing language? What advantages does the wug test have over studies that observe children’s language in natural settings? Can you think of some disadvantages?“Wug test”is designed as showing students make-up words, and blank filling exercise, to explore children’s knowledge of language. By age four, children have mastered the basic structure of the language.It can be demonstrated that children not only know a list of memorized word pairs, but can apply these rules to words which they have ever heard before.The acquisition of the more complex grammatical structures of the language requires a different sort of explanation.4. What is metalinguistic awareness? Why is it a prerequisite for beingable to understand most jokes and riddles? Think of a joke or riddle you know. How is metalinguistic awareness related to your understanding of what makes this joke funny?The ability to treat language as a object, separate from the meaning it conveys.Metalingusitc awareness also includes the discovery of such things as ambiguity---words and sentences that have multiple meaning.A joke always relates to funny pun, which is closely related to metalinguistic awareness.5. What have researchers observed about the frequency with which young children engage in imitation and repetitive practice? In what way are young children’s linguistic imitation and practice patterns different from those of some foreign language classes?From less than 10 percent to 40 percent.Young children choose what they will imitate and practice, and the choice is based on something they have already begun to understand, which is different from foreign language classes.6. Give examples of both grammatical and lexical overgeneralization errors found in early child language. What is the general learning principle that underlies such errors?Randall(2,9): Are dogs wiggle their tails?Randall(3,0) asks: Why? So he can doc my little bump?Children appear to pick out patterns and then generalize them to new contexts.7. How do the stories of Victor and Genie (pages 19–21) support the critical period hypothesis? Do you find this evidence convincing? Why do most researchers consider that the evidence from users of American Sign Language that was collected by Newport and her colleagues (page 21) is stronger support for the CPH?Victor and Genie who have been deprived of contact with language in their early years, CANNOT learn language like normal people, reason of which may be that their language acquisition device was stimulated too late.No, because the sample is too unusual and other factors are not excluded.Because the children are usual learners and the circumstances of their early lives are known to the researchers.8. How are Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views of first language acquisition similar? How do they differ?Both of them stand in the interactionist position, believe that childrenare active learners and development declines with age.Piaget believes that children's cognitive development would partly determine how they use language; while Vygotsky believes that Language develops entirely from social interaction.9. What was unusual about Jim’s exposure to language? How does this case support an interactionist perspective on language acquisition? Jim had little contract with hearing/speaking adults up to the age of 3,9, only contract with oral language was through TV. His parents did not use sign language with Jim.It was Jim’s conversations with sessions with an adult improve his language development, which is highlighted in interactionist perspective.Chapter 2: Theoretical approaches to explaining second language learningThe behaviourist perspective10. State the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) and explain why it is often linked to the behaviourist theory. What are its limitations?①The CAH predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second languagestructures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.②Because the CAH is based on behaviorists’explanation on the learning of L1, that language development is the formation of habits; it is assumed that a person learning a second language starts off with the habits formed in the first language and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.③limitations: a) The theory itself has its imperfections: the differences of the first and second languages do not necessarily lead to difficulties; students’difficulties in using second language does not lead to errors.b) According to empirical evidences: only a few errors made during the second language learning attributes to the interferences of the mother tongue; not all errors predicted by the CAH are actually made; many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.11. What contribution has behaviourism made to our understanding of how languages are learned? What is the theory not able to explain?①Behaviorism accounts for the learning of L1 in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation, and helps to explain that the process of L2 learning would be interfered by L1.②Behaviorism fails to explain children’s acquisition of the morecomplex grammatical structures of the language in L1 learning.The innatist perspective12. Sum up, in your own words, the main points surrounding the debate about the nature and availability of UG in SLA. Where do you stand?①Main points: a) the nature and availability of UG in L2 acquisition is no different from that which is hypothesized to guide L1 learners. b) UG operates in L2 acquisition, but via the L1. c) UG is not available to L2 learners.②I agree on that UG operates in L2 acquisition the same as L1, because UG is considered to consist of a set of principles which are common to all languages and it has explained L2 acquisition to some extent, for example, error correction.13. Name the five hypotheses that make up Krashen’s Monitor Model. According to this model, what conditions must be present for ‘acquisition’to take place? What are the conditions for language ‘learning’?①The acquisition-learning hypothesis; The monitor hypothesis; The natural order hypothesis; The input hypothesis; The affective filter hypothesis.②Meaningful interaction in the target language; exposure to adequate and comprehensible input:" i+1".14. What are the limitations of Krashen’s theory? Why do you think that Krashen’s ideas have been so influential in second- and foreign-language education?①The main limitations are: a) there are difficulties to define; b) it is mostly based on observation, but lacks empirical researches.②It appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice; it appeals intuitively to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they felt stressed or uncomfortable. The cognitive perspective15. How does information-processing model explain SLA?From the view of information processing, SLA is the building up of knowledge systems that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding.Interactionist position16. In what way are proponents of the interactionist position in SLA in agreement with Krashen’s monitor model? In what way do they go beyond it?①Interactionists agree that comprehensible input is necessary forlanguageacquisition.②They are more concerned with the question of how input is madecomprehensible;③they assume that all cognitive development arises as a result of socialinteractions between individuals.17. What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers? What similarities and differences would you expect to find between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed speech? Why?①Modified interaction involve linguistic simplification, elaboration, slower speech rate, gesture, or the provision of additional contextual cues.②similarities: they are both conversational interaction; they both involvea slow rate of delivery, repetition, some clues, etc.③differences: a) child-directed speech: children still learn language by their siblings even without such modification from parents; comprehensible input is the focus; b) these modification in interaction: how the input is made comprehensible is more important; it is not thesimplification but an opportunity to interact with others.④Different objects—one is for the first language learning and one is for the second language learning; the difficulties—it’s harder to learn the second language.18. Several theories for L2 learning have been proposed in this chapter. Is one of them more consistent with your own understanding of how languages are learned? If so, how have your experiences as a learner brought you to this view?I agree on Krashen`s monitor model. He cites evidences of some fluent speakers without having learned rules, while others may 'know' rules but fail to apply them in real language use( like some incompetent 'high-score' learners). According to my experience, adequate practice can make learned knowledge habitual so that it is available for spontaneous use in real communication. In this case, the learned language becomes the acquired knowledge.Chapter 3: Factors affecting second language learning19. Why is it difficult to assess the influence that personal characteristics have on the development of L2 proficiency?①it is not possible to directly observe and measure qualities such asmotivation and intelligence.②personal characteristics are not independent.③it is not widely acknowledged that how the language proficiency is defined and measured.Intelligence20. Language learners’performance on IQ tests is related to certain aspects of L2 ability but not to others. Give examples to explain this statement.In our experience, many students whose academic performance has been weak have experienced considerable success in second language learning.Aptitude21. What lessons can language teachers learn from the research on language aptitude and L2 instruction by Wesche (1981)?It is that a high level of student and teacher satisfaction when students were matched with compatible teaching environments.Learning styles22. Based on what you read in this chapter, do you think that there is an ideal way to teach/learn a language? For example, as a foreign language learner or teacher, what are your views about teachinggrammar? Do you have any specific preferences for how it should be taught or when? Do you know what your students’preferences might be for grammar teaching and do you think it would be useful to find out?①I don't think there is an ideal way to teach or learn a language.②Teaching grammar is of great importance. It is not only about what the rules are but also how to use the rules.③I have a preference for teaching grammar in context, and I think that it should be taught in early childhood.(Before age 15)④Funny and challenge activities might be students’preference for grammar teaching. It would be useful to find out students’preference for it.Personality23. What can we learn from research about the relationship between L2 learning and•extroversion•inhibition①It is often argued that an extroverted person is well suited to language learning. However, research does not always support this conclusion.②Inhibition is a negative for L2 learning as it discourages risk-taking. Itmay also has more influence in language performance than in language learning.Motivation and attitudes24. Define instrumental and integrative motivation in your own words and give an example to illustrate each. Comment on how these types of motivation might be manifested differently in different learning environments.①Instrumental motivation refers to languange learning for immediate or practical goals. Example: Many college language learners have a clear instrumental motivation for language learning: They want to fulfill a college language requirement!Integrative motivation refers to language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment. Example: Someone becomes a resident in a new community that uses the target language in its social interactions.②In learning environment such as school, these types of motivation might be manifest as integrative or instrumental. In learning environment such as society they might be manifest as mono-cultural or bicultural.Learner beliefs25. How did Carlos Yorio (1986) reveal that it is important for teachers to consider the beliefs their students hold about language instruction?How might this change their approach to teaching a particular group of students?①In a survey for international students learning ESL in a highly communicative program, students express their dissatisfaction and concern about the type of communicative instruction they received, which implied with their beliefs about language instruction.②Guide them to choose the suitable learning strategies or adjust his own teaching method.Age of acquisition26. Which language features were studied in Patkowski’s (1980) study to examine L2 development of immigrants? Does his study support the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)? How?①Accent, syntax, phonological development, Morphology.②He sets limits on the development of native-like mastery of a second language and that this limitation does not apply only to accent.27. Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle carried out a comprehensive study in which they assessed language development of L2 speakers on a variety of measures. Describe the development of the child, adolescent, and adult L2 learners in relation to each other. In your own words, explain why the results may not be relevant for assessing the Critical PeriodHypothesis (CPH).①In the first period, the adolescents made the most progress. In the first period, the adults did better than the children and adolescents on pronunciation. By the end of the year, children were catching up and even surpassed the adults on several tests.②Some of the tasks were too difficult for young learners. For adults and adolescents, L2 may be similar to L1, they may learn faster. Young children eventually catch up if they have enough exposure to L2. Adults and adolescents can make rapid progress because they can make use of L2 in daily interaction.Chapter 4: Learner LanguageLearner Language28. A language learner begins making errors with a feature of the language that was previously used correctly. What does this suggest about the way in which the feature was previously learned? Why might one be justified in concluding that the learner has actually made progress? Illustrate with examples.①It suggests that movement from one point in a sequence ofdevelopment to another can actually lead from apparently correct performance(Sometimes based on rote learning or very limited knowledge.) to incorrect performance(Based on an emerging understanding of the underlying rules or grammatical relationships in the language being learned.).②I buyed a bus ticket.Second language learners usually learn the irregular past tense forms of certain verbs before they learn to apply the regular simple past -ed marker. It means that a learner who says 'I buyed a bus ticket' may know more about English grammar than one who says 'I bought a bus ticket.'29. What was an important difference between the error analysis approach to understanding L2 learner language and the contrastive analysis approach?The main difference between these two is that contrastive analysis was the basis for identifying differences between the first and second languages and for predicting areas of potential error, but error analysis tries to discover and describe differnt kinds of erros in an effort to understaning how learners process L2 data, and it focus on identifying the errors from L2 production.(Error analysis differed from contrastive analysis in that it did not setout to predict errors. Rather, it sought to discover and describe different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how learners process second language data. )30. What phenomenon did Larry Selinker describe when he coined the term interlanguage? What does it mean to say that interlanguages are both systematic and dynamic?Characteristics influenced by:①learner's previously learned language(s)②some characteristics of the second language③some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systemSystematic: Interlanguage is relatively independent of the language system, it has a unique set of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary rule system.Dynamic: Interlanguage is continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypothese about the second languge. 31. There are various kinds of errors made by learners, such as developmental errors, overgeneralization, simplification, transfer (or interference errors), and avoidance. Give an example of each to explain.Developmental errors are errors which reflect learners’understanding of the second language system itself rather than an attempt to transfer characteristics of their first language.(eg. a cowboy go, they plays ) Overgeneralization: errors caused by trying to use a rule in a context where it does not belong.(eg. I play the game. We play the game. She play the game.He play the game.)Simplification: errors where some elements of a sentence are left out or where all verbs have the same form regardless of person, number, or tense.(eg. I play games today. I play games yesterday. / I play games today. He play games, too.)Transfer (interference errors) are errors which caused by the habits formed in the first language interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.(eg. In French, direct objects which are nouns follow the verb, but pronoun direct objects precede the verb, so a French learner of English may say ‘The dog it eats’.) Avoidance: Learners sometimes avoid using certain features of language which they perceive to be difficult for them.(eg. “A+倍数+the size/height/length/width+of+B”This street is four times the length of that one./This street is four times as long as that one.) Developmental Sequences32. An L2 learner, in speaking about his brother, tells you ‘he don’t eatmeat’. What stage of negation would he be at: Stage 2 or Stage 3? What evidence would you need to have confidence in your assessment?don’t →negation →The speaker is in stage 2.(or stage 3?)Stage 1：The negative element (no/not) is typically placed before the verb or the element being negated.（E.g. I not like it.）Stage 2：‘no’and ‘not’may alternate with ‘don’t’ . However, ‘don’t’is not marked for person, number, or tense and it may even be used before models.(E.g. He don’t like it. /I don’t can sing.) Stage 3: Learners begin to place the negative element after auxiliary verbs like ‘are’‘is’and ‘can’. But at this stage the ‘don’t’form is still not fully analyzed.(E.g. You can not go. /He was not happy./She don’t like rice.)Stage 4: ‘do’is marked for some tense, person, and number.(E.g. He doesn’t like it. We didn’t see it.)For some time, however, learners may continue to mark tense, person, and number on both the auxiliary and the verb.(E.g. I didn’t went there. )33. The description of developmental stages suggests that a learner’s L1 interacts with developmental sequences in the L2 acquisition ofnegation, questions, relative clauses, and past tense. Give an example of each, using either the information in the text or from your knowledge of how learners from other L1 backgrounds develop these language features.Second language learners from different first language backgrounds behave somewhat differently with the stage of using negation.(eg. 4 stages)Second language learners learn to form questions in a sequence of development which is similar in most respects to first language question development. (eg. ‘Können sie tanzen?', 'Can they dance?' German learners of English will pass through a pharse of asking quesitons without inversion, However, once they reach stage4 and ask English questions with subject-auxiliary inversion, they may assume that suject-verb inversion is also possible. They may form questions such as ' Play you baseball?')Second language learners first acquire relative clauses which refer to nouns in the subject and direct object positions, and only later(and in some cases, never) learn to use them to modify nouns in other sentence roles(for example, indirect object and object of preposition) (eg. In Chinese, we don't have sentence structure like this. We usually use many adjs to modify a noun instead of using subordinate clauses.)Reference to psat is one example of developmental sequence which reflects learners’changing ability to express the same meaning. (eg. In Chinese, we don't have the grammatical morpheme -ed being attach to the verb when we talk about something happen in the past. We may notice that by the influence of our mother tounge many students forget to add -ed especial in spoken English.)34. The car that mine is similar to is over there. According to the accessibility hierarchy for relative clauses in English, which clause type is this? If we find evidence that an L2 learner is capable of producing this sentence, what other relative clause types can this learner probably also produce?This is a object clause in which the object is introduced by the preposition “to”.This learner can also produce subject clause, direct object clause, indirect object clause. Languages which included the structures at the bottom of list would also have those at the top. Research on this aspect of second language development: A learner can use one of the structures at the bottom of the list, he/she can use any the precede it.35. Which of the following verbs would beginner level learners most likely mark with past tense? Which would they be least likely to usepast with? Explain your response by discussing how the verbs are different from each other.need a haircutmake lasagnawin a prizelike action moviesfeel nervousbreak a glassmost likely to marked past tense: break a glass/make lasagna/win a prizeleast likely to marked past tense: need a haircut/like action movies/feel nervousIn the beginning, learners with very limited language may simply refer to events in the order which they occurred or mention a time or place to show that the event occurred in the ter, learners start to attach a grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is marked for the past.Even after they begin marking past tense on verbs, however, learners may still make errors such as the overgeneralization of the regular -ed ending.Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig and her collegues found that learners are more likely to mark past tense on some verbs(completed events) than onothers(states and activities which may last for extended periods without a clear end-point).First language influence36. In addition to influencing how learners pass through developmental sequences, what other ways has a learner’s knowledge of L1 been observed to influence L2 acquisition? You should be able to identify at least four ways.①AvoidanceIf a feature in the target language is so distant and different from their firstlanguage, they prefer not to try it (Schachter 1974).②Learner’s sensitivity to degrees of distance or difference between L1 and L2Swedish and English belong to the same language family, while Finnish belongsto a different one. Because Swedish and English are closely related languages,bilinguals(who can speak Swedish and Finnish) tend to avoid using Finnish as asource of possible transfer, whether their own first language isSwedish orFinnish (Hakan Ringbom 1985).③Similar but not identical language patternsSometimes, L1 makes it difficult for learners to notice that something they aresaying is absent from the target language, as the learner’s interlanguage form doesnot cause any difficulty in conveying meanings (Lydia White 1989).④Interaction when learners encounter in the inputThe interaction during the input sessions includes L1, some universal knowledgeor processes, and the samples of the target language. We may see how instructionand metalinguistic information contribute to this interaction in Chapter 6.Chapter 5: Observing second language teaching37. Make use of the table on P93 and try to explain the characteristics of natural acquisition, traditional instruction and communicative instruction.①In natural acquisition settings, learners’errors are rarely corrected. Learners will be exposed to a wide variety of vocabulary and structures, is surrounded by the language for many hours each day, usually encounters a great number of proficient or native speakers of the target language, observe or participate in many different types of language events, have less pressure to speak. Modified input is available in many one-to-one conversations.②In traditional instruction settings,learners’errors are frequently corrected. Linguistic items are presented and practiced one at a time. Learning is often limited to only a few hours a week. The teacher is often the only proficient speaker the students interact with. Learners experience a limited range of language discourse types and often feel great pressure to speak or write the second language. Modified input is given only when they use the target language, ensuring comprehension and compliance.③In communicative instruction settings, error correction is limited. Input is simplified and made comprehensible by the use of contextual cues, props, and gestures, rather than through structural grading. Learners usually have only limited time for learning, limited contact with proficient or native speakers of the language, have access to a variety of discourse types, have little pressure to perform at high levels of accuracy. Modified input is a defining feature of it.。
课后练习答案---第6章.doc
第6章课后练习答案1.第二语言习得研究的学科性质和学科特点是什么？答：第二语言习得研究从20世纪70年代发展到现在，跨越了近三十年的历史。
作为一个相对独立的学科，随着自身的发展，其学科性质和学科特点不言自明。
(1)第二语言习得研究的学科性质第二语言习得研究具有跨学科的性质，具体表现在：第二语言习得研究与语言学密切相关正如Ellis (1994)曾经指出的那样，第二语言习得研究与语言学是一种相依共生的关系，二者彼此借鉴。
在这个意义上说，第二语言习得研究不仅仅是语言学理论的消费者，而旦是一个贡献者。
第二语言习得研究与心理学密切相关语言的获得必然涉及学习者的心理过程和心理机制。
这是第二语言习得研究和心理学共同关心的领域，因此二者密切相关。
第二语言习得研究与心理语言学有共通之处(2)第二语言习得研究的学科特点第二语言习得研究具有跨学科特点，这种跨学科特点是由其研究对象的性质决定的，主要体现在以下方面：第二语言习得过程涉及学习者语言系统的研究，与语言学研究相关。
第二语言习得研究涉及心理学的某些研究领域第二语言习得研究不仅仅是语言系统的研究，它还涉及获得语言系统的一系列心理过程，因而必然涉及心理学的某些研究领域。
第二语言习得研究涉及心理语言学的某些领域学习者自身的研究包括学习者的个体差异，如年龄、性别、情感、认知方式以及学习策略等方面。
这些方面的研究与心理学以及心理语言学关系更为密切。
第二语言习得研究涉及人文学科的某些领域此外，学习者的学习环境、文化背景以及社会等级对语言习得都会产生一定的影响。
这些外在因素的研究必然涉及教育学、社会语言学、文化人类学等人文学科。
2.第二语言习得研究与语言学研究的对象有何异同？答：近年来，第二语言习得研究与语言学的关系越来越密切。
尽管如此，二者在研究对象上还是表现出一些异同。
(1)研究对象的相同点第二语言习得研究与语言学都关注语言本体的研究。
(2)研究对象的差异研究对象不同一般的语言学研究是以母语使用者符合母语规则的语言现象作为研究对象的。
二语习得 思考题答案
思考题Unit 11. What is applied linguistics?The term 'applied linguistics' refers to a broad range of activities which involve solving some language-related problem or addressing some language-related concern. The problems applied linguistics concerns itself which are likely to be:1) How can we teach languages better?2) How can we diagnose speech pathologies better?3) How can we improve the training of translators and interpreters?4) How can we write a valid language examination?5) How can we evaluate a school bilingual program?6) How can we determine the literacy levels of a whole population?8) How can we helpfully discuss the language of a text?9) What advice can we offer a Ministry of Education on a proposal to introduce a new medium of instruction?10) How can we compare the acquisition of a European and an Asian language?11) What advice should we give a defense lawyer on the authenticity of a police transcript of an interview with a suspect?2. What is the difference between linguistics and applied linguistics?1)Linguistics deals with theory2)Applied linguistics is simply not in the business of developing new theories. Its concern is with newdata.3)Both sides of the linguistics/applied linguistics relationship ought to be accountable to and in regulardialog with each other with regard to theories as well as practices.3. What are the domains of applied linguistics?Major branches of applied linguistics include bilingualism and multilingualism, computer-mediated communication (CMC), conversation analysis, language assessment, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, second language acquisition, language planning and policies, pragmatics, forensic linguistics, and translation.4. What are the research methods in applied linguistics?Progress in understanding cognitive developmental change mechanisms requires methods that yield detailed data about particular changes. The microgenetic method is an approach that can yield such data. It involves (a) observations of individual children throughout the period of the change, (b) a high density of observations relative to the rate of change within that period, and (c) intensive trial-by-trial analyses intended to infer the processes that gave rise to the change. This approach can illuminate both qualitative and quantitative aspects of change, indicate the conditions under which changes occur, and yield otherwise unobtainable information about short-lived transition strategies. The cost in time and effort of such studies is often high, but the value of the information about change can more than justify the cost.5. What is the trend of the development of applied linguistics?Kaplan suggests that in the future "applied linguistics is likely to be marked by a more powerful version of descriptive linguistics as the central linguistic resource for research," and he refers particularly to the development of corpus linguistics in this respect. He mentions, too, the increasing importance of technology inmany branches of the field. Applied linguists will increasingly need to participate in interdisciplinary research projects, he believes.Unit 21. Is the relationship between linguistics and applied linguistics, hierarchy or partnership?Yes, because Applied linguistics can not only test the applicability and replicability of linguistics and its application, but also question and challenge them where they are found wanting. (p.4)Both sides of the linguistics/applied linguistics relationship ought to be accountable to and in regular dialogue with each other with regard to theories as well as practices.Accountability will center on set of responsibilities failing on the shoulders of linguistics and applied linguistics in turn.2. Should applied linguistics be theoretical? Why?Yes, I think so. Because ‘Being theoretical’ is a desirable thing. But theoretical stance is more useful as a motto than theoretical allegiance. Encountering problems and adopting a convincing stance towards them is what defines applied linguistics as a discipline.3. What is the disciplinary nature of applied linguistics?1) Applied linguistics has many of the markings of an academic discipline: professional journals, professional associations, international recognition for the field, funding resources for research projects, a large number of individuals who see themselves as applied linguists, trained professionals who are hired in academic institutions as applied linguists, students who want to become applied linguists, and a recognized means for training these students to become applied linguists.2) Applied linguistics recognizes that linguistics must be included as a core knowledge base in the work of applied linguistics, although the purpose of most applied linguists’ work is not simply to “apply”linguistics to achieve a solution.3) Applied linguistics is grounded in real-world, language-driven problems and issues (primarily by linkages to practical issues involving language use, language evaluation, language contact and multilingualism, language policies, and language learning and teaching). There is also, however, the recognition that these practically driven problems have extraordinary range, and this range tends to dilute any sense of common purpose or common professional identification among practitioners.4) Applied linguistics typically incorporates other disciplinary knowledge beyond linguistics in its efforts to address language-based problems. Applied linguists commonly draw upon and are often well trained in psychology, education, anthropology, political science, sociology, measurement, computer programming, literature, and/or economics.5) Applied linguistics is, of necessity, an interdisciplinary field, since few practical language issues can be addressed through the knowledge resources of any single discipline, including linguistics.6) Applied linguistics commonly includes a core set of issues and practices that is readily identified as work carried out by many applied linguists (e.g., language teaching, language teacher preparation, and language curriculum development).7) Applied linguistics generally incorporates or includes several further identifiable sub-fields of study: second language acquisition, forensic linguistics, language testing, corpus linguistics, lexicography and dictionary making, language translation, and second language writing research. Some members of these fields do not see themselves as applied linguistics, though their work clearly addresses practical language issues.8) Applied linguistics often defines itself broadly in order to include additional fields of language-relatedstudies (e.g., language pathology, natural language processing, first language literacy research, and first language composition studies). The large majority of members of these fields do not see themselves as applied linguistics, but the broad definition gives license for applied linguists to work with and borrow from these disciplines for their own goals.4. What is the successful way of applying linguistics?1)Identifying and defining problems.2)Contextualizing those problems with linguistic study and developing a theoretical stance.3)Harnessing appropriate resources for the exploration of possible solutions.4)Evaluating the proposed solutions5. How to be a good applied linguist?The good applied linguist not only starts from day-to-day practical problems and looks for solutions in description, models and theories of language, but also develops his or her own models and theoretical stance.Unit 31. Is it necessary to draw a division between a general, abstract view of human language and the study of the different, specific languages spoken by human beings? Why?A division between a general, abstract view of human language and the study of the different, specific languages spoken by human beings should not over stressed.2. Of what does the historical perspective on applied linguistics remind us?The historical perspective on applied linguistics reminds us that scholars of languages and language over the centuries have combined the study of individual languages with comparison across languages and with debates about language as a whole.3. What are the key points concerning the nature of human language?The professional community as a whole would agree on a number of key points concerning the nature of human language in general:1)All normal human acquire a first language with little or no formal tuition.2) Humans can learn one another’s language.3) All human languages have forms and meanings. Forms are reflected in syntax, vocabulary and phonology.4) All languages function are realized in substance, whether sound alone or sound and writing.5) All human languages function adequately in their social settings6) All languages function within social contexts.7) All languages reflect and are integrally bound up with some sort of psychological, social and cultural reality for their speakers.4. What should cross-linguistic comparison be seen as?Cross-linguistic comparison should not be seen as merely error or difficulty-driven, but problem-driven in the true sense.Problem includes: curiosity, enquiry, comparison, evolution and questioning, trouble-shooting errors, obstacles and difficulties and sorting out failure.5. What is the most significant influence that discourse analysis has on linguistic comparison?Discourse analysis has had a profound effect on how languages are compared.The most significant influence: providing a new set of parameters within which to carry out the comparisons, which are independent of the traditional levels of analysis such as sentence grammar and semantics.Unit 41. In what ways can language be viewed as abstract system?Abstract system, existing independently of its contexts of use, as associated with “mental constructs”.1) Innate capacity of acquiring human language. That all normal human beings acquire human language of some sort, whille other animal species do not.2) Universal features of languages.3) Native speakers can say of their own languages by intuition and retrospectiono4) Competence and performance, which are two characteristics of language proposed by Chomsky.2. In what ways can language be viewed as social phenomenon?The forms and meanings of languages have evolved in social contexts.Language itself contributes to construct social and cultural realities.Language is acquired in social contexts.Performance constitutes the most important evidence for how language works and what it is.Performance is best observed in real language phenomena such as written text.Linguistic evidence is external.“Meaning” is only an abstraction from the actual communicative achievements3. What is the role of sentence in grammar?The use of sentences as a theoretical and descriptive unit lie a number of basic assumptions. Sentences recur across many different models and in descriptions of many different languages:1) Sentences have meaning. They are often traditionally defined as ‘completed thoughts’ or units of meaning.2) Sentences express fundamental meanings found in all languages. In other words, sentence is the universal of human language.3) Sentences are formed in individual language according to rules.4) Sentences are formed from other, lower-level grammatical units.5) Sentences exist in both spoken and written language.4. What is item and paradigm approach?According to McCarthy, it is the way individual words( e.g. nouns, verbs), inflect or combine to create the paradigms of tenses, number, person, etc. The item and paradigm approach has a good deal of usefulness in modeling languages in relation to one another.But the weakness of the item and paradigm approach is that it does not always bring together into formal paradigms items that learners may have to make genuine choices from when constructing real texts.5. What is the place of lexis in different views of language?Lexis has been the poor relation of features and it has had something of a struggle to establish itself as an independent, yet systematic level of linguistic encoding. Vocabulary was usually seen to be a lower prioritythan the learning of structure.Unit 51. When did the term SLA first appear as a sub-discipline of applied linguistics ?The notion of ‘acquiring’ a second language through the mediation of an efficiently ordered methodology is not new. For centuries, language pedagogues have claimed to offer the most effective methods for acquiring foreign tongues. Parallel with the methodological debates, high-level theoretical concerns have emerged, such as the differences between first and second language acquisition, etc.2. What are the questions and issues addressing SLA?1) Is second language acquisition like or different from first language acquisition?2) Is conscious ‘learning’ the same as ‘acquisition’?3) Are there universal features of second language acquisition regard less of which L2 is being learned?4) What role do the first or other languages play in the ease or difficulty encountered when learning asecond language?5) What non-linguistic factors affect SLA?6) What is the difference between SLA in a naturalistic setting compared with a formal setting?7) Can learners’ language be described systematically at various stages of development or is learnerlanguage erratic and unsystematic?3. What is interlanguage?‘Interlanguage’, often abbreviated to IL, was introduced by Larry Selinker (1972) to refer to L2 learner’s independent language system. The theory claimed that learners construct a series of interlanguages (i.e. mental grammars that are drawn upon in producing and comprehending sentences in the L2) and that they revise these grammars in systematic and predictable ways as they pass along an interlanguage continuum.4. What is connectionism and connectionist approach?Connectionism is the general metaphorical construct in associative models. It is the idea that important information about language can be extracted from ‘ probabilistic patterns of grammatical and morphological regularities’. The mind makes connections among multiple nodes of processed information; the mor e connections, the stronger the trace in acquisition.While connectionist approaches do not only help to explain emergent approximations to target behavior.5. What is ‘zone of proximal development and its implication?The zone of proximal development defines functions that have not matured yet, but are in a process of maturing, that will mature tomorrow, that are currently in an embryonic state; these functions could be called the buds of development, the flowers of development, rather than the fruits of development, that is, what is only just maturing.Unit 61. What is the significance of understanding the differences between speech and writing?It is useful to better organize the skill-based language teacheing and offer a window into the immerse variety of discoure-types that exit in our complex societies.2. What is the difference between text and discourse?Texts are products of language use (e.g.. novel, article, etc). It attempts to account for how sentences are linked together using linguistic resources.Discourse is the process of meaning-creation and interaction, whether in writing or in speech. It concerns with the distribution of linguistic elements in extended texts, and links between the text and its context.3. What is discourses analysis?Discources analysis exmines patterns of language across texts and considers the relationship between langaueg and the social and cultural contexts in which it is used. Discourse analysis also considers the ways that the use of languaeg presents different views of the world and different understandings. It examines how the use of language is influenced by relationships between participants as well as the effects the use of languaeg has upon social identities and relations. It also considers how views of the world, and identities, are constructed through the use of discourse.4. What is conversation analysis?The study of talk in interaction. CA generally attempts to describe the orderliness, structure and sequential patterns of interaction, whether this is institutional (in the school, doctor's surgery, courts or elsewhere) or casual conversation.Conversation Analysis prefers to work with individual conversations analyzed in depth rather than multiple conversations analyzed more quantitatively.5. How can the speech genre be realized?Speech gener is a high-order feature of speech events (Hymes, 1972).Genre is something separate from the speech event itself. A genre may coincides with a speech event, but genres can also occur within speed events, and the same genre can show variation in different speech events.Some genre-type studies focus more on variability and mixing of activities. Duranti(1983) argues that the same genre can be realized in different ways according to the nature of the speech, even, depending on who the speakers are, what the purposes are, etc.Unit 71. What is the role of theory in SLA research?There are at least 40 theories of SLA.Two forms of theories:1. Set-of-laws form2. Causal-process formNativist theoryEnvironmentalist theoryInteractionist theoryTheory building is concerned with Explanation as well as Description.Two approaches to theory building:1.Theory-then-research2. Research-then-theoryStudy of SLA involves both approaches.Both have strengths and weaknesses.Different researchers may use different approaches.2. What is Acculturation Model? Any implications?The process of becoming adapted to a new culture.Acculturation/SLA is determined by the degree of social and psychological distance between the learner and the target language.Such distance influences SLA by determining the amount of contact with the target language and the degree to which the learner is open to that input which is available.3. What are the similarities and differences between Acculturation Model and Accommodation Model?Schumann’s Pidginization Hypothesis and Acculturation Model of Second Language Acquisition (1976) is a composite of eight major variables that, according to research, help to enforce, or altogether extinguish, the process of second language learning.Contrastingly, the Giles's Accommodation Theory of Second Language Acquisition (1991) is, as the term states, a theoretical framework that illustrates how individuals do not have a set and defined way of using a second language. Instead, individuals tend to switch, change, intone, and mold the language depending on who they are speaking with, what they are talking about, or also depending on the circumstances of the discourse.Now, if we semantically analyze the terms "acculturation" (assimilation) and "accommodation" (fitting the language "in") both terms would almost amount to the same thing, which is the acquisition of the target language.Some similarities include:Acculturation and Accommodation are complimentary processes and both aid in the SLA process.They are both related to how students learn languages.Both process take place simultaneously through social interaction.Both form what Piaget referred to as "equilibrium".In both processes there is a form of problem-solving taking place; in acculturation the ELL has to "beat the odds" of the social variables; in accommodation, the ELL has to decide how to use the target language.However, some possible points to consider when it comes to stating main differences include: Acculturation is a model of social and cognitive language learning, while Accommodation is a theory of language learning adaptation.Acculturation contends that the language can be acquired if the majority of the eight possible variables are effectively infused. Accommodation entails that language is already nearly mastered enough to add variations to it.Acculturation presents a number of SLA scenarios to consider when researching about ELLs. Accommodation is a scaffolding system of learning used by ELLs where they add on information as they go along the learning process.4. What is the Monitor Model?The Monitor is the device that learners use to edit their language performance.It utilizes ‘learnt’knowledge by acting upon and modifying utterances generated from ‘acquired’knowledge.Three conditions for its use:1. there must be sufficient time2. focus must be on the form3. must know the rule5. What is Universal Hypothesis?The universal hypothesis states that language acquisition is governed by the way in which natural language are organized. That is, certain universal linguistic properties influence the order in which the rules of a specific language are acquired. According to the universal hypothesis, then, it is linguistic rather than general cognitive factors that determine acquisition.Unit 81. What are external factors in SLA?Social factors: social demand and language policy2. Give examples to indicate social factors’ influence on SLA.1) Females are more successful in L2 learning in classroom settings.2) Females benefit from more and better input as a result of their superior listening comprehension skills.3) Middle class children achieve higher lever of L2 proficiency than lower class & working class children.4) Females have more positive attitudes to learning an L2 than males.5) Women nearly always outstrip males in the standardness of their speech and use of prestige forms, and yet they also tend to be in the forefront of linguistic change.3. Why are women more capable to succeed in language acquisition?1) Women nearly always outstrip males in the standardness of their speech and use of prestige forms, and yet they also tend to be in the forefront of linguistic change.2) Women might be better at L2 learning than men; they are likely to be more open to new linguistic forms in the L2 input and they will be more likely to rid themselves of interlanguage forms that deviate from target-language norms.3) Females have more positive attitudes to learning an L2 than males.4) Women tackle the task of learning an L2 different from men. Men use the opportunities to interact to produce more output. Whereas women use it to obtain more input. Bacon (1992) found that men reported using translation strategies more than women, while the women reported monitoring their comprehension more.5) Females are more successful in L2 learning in classroom settings.6) Females benefit from more and better input as a result of their superior listening comprehension skills.4. What is the role of explicit teaching?Explicit instruction must usually take place in the learner's first language, many have argued that it simply starves learners of input and opportunities for practice. Research on this at different levels of language has produced quite different results.5. What advantages do children have in acquiring second language?Chambers and Trudgill (1980) suggests that younger speakers are subject to social pressures from their peer group, while middle-aged speakers have less cohesive social networks and are more influenced by mainstream societal values. In older, retired people, social pressures lessen and social networks again become narrow.Unit 91. What are internal factors in SLA?1) Motivatio n:InstrumentalIntegrative2) Age3) Learning strategya. CognitiveRepetitionTranslationNote-takingb. MetacognitiveOrganizingSelf-monitoringSelf-evaluation4) Personality5) Attitude2. What is language transfer in SLA?Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired. (Odlin 1989:27)3. What are the six general constraints on L1 transfer?1) Language level2) Sociolinguistic factors3) Markedness4) Language distance and psychotypology5) Developmental factors4. What is interlanguage theory?In 1972, Selinker introduced the concept of interlanguage, which built upon Pit Corder's previous work on the nature of language learners' errors.5. What is universal grammar?Linguist Noam Chomsky made the argument that the human brain contains a limited set of rules for organizing language. In turn, there is an assumption that all languages have a common structural basis. This set of rules is known as universal grammar.Unit 101. What is interlanguage?‘Interlanguage’, often abbreviated to IL, was introduced by Larry Selinker (1972) to refer to L2 learner’s independent language system. The theory claimed that learners construct a series of interlanguages (i.e. mental grammars that are drawn upon in producing and comprehending sentences in the L2) and that they revise these grammars in systematic and predictable ways as they pass along an interlanguage continuum.2. What are the characteristics of interlanguage?Dynamic, permeable and systematic.3. What is the relationship between interlanguage and errors?In 1972, Selinker introduced the concept of interlanguage, which built upon Pit Corder's previous work on the nature of language learners' errors.Interlanguage is characterized by errors which are thought to be a learning strategy.4. What is the development of interlanguage?The starting point of interlanguage is the learner’s L1. The L2 learner builds up his interl anguage by gradually replacing his L1 with L2 features. But this does not necessarily mean that the learner has to forget his L1 in order to learn L2. Cognitive theories believe that human brain process information in the same way a computer works.Within the cognitive capacity, a new language can be built systematically in our brain without exclusively conflicting with other already existed language. Interlanguage develops in its own way towards target language.5. What is fossilization?Fossilization has been used to label the process by which non-target forms become fixed in IL.Fossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules and subsystems which speakers of a particular NL will tend to keep in their IL relative to a particular TL, no matter what the age of the learner or amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the TL. (Selinker 1772: p.215)Unit 111. What is Universal Grammar?Linguist Noam Chomsky made the argument that the human brain contains a limited set of rules for organizing language. In turn, there is an assumption that all languages have a common structural basis. This set of rules is known as universal grammar.2. What does poverty of the stimulus suggest?As they considered issues of the Argument from poverty of the stimulus is to arise from the constructivist approach to linguistic theory. The contrasting school of thought is known as functionalism.3. How does Minimalist Theory shed light on UG in SLA?Minimalist Theory proposes that languages are based on simple principles that interact to form often intricate structures. The Language faculty is not redundant and can still be the basis for grammatical mapping integration of UG principles in the grammar of the specific target language.4. What is learnability?Learnability refers to the ability to acquire one state of knowledge to another from language input.. 5Which branch does learnability theory belong to?Learnability is a constraint on Universal Grammar.Unit 121. What is corpus?A corpus is a collection of written or spoken texts (Oxford). It is a large collection of written or spoken。
对外汉语《二语习得》题库及答案
第一章单元测试1、判断题：习得与学习二者之间的关系是割裂的。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】2、单选题：最早发现习得与学习存在区别的是语言学家（）选项：A:乔姆斯基B:斯蒂芬•克拉申C:洪堡特D:斯韦恩答案: 【斯蒂芬•克拉申】3、多选题：关于习得与学习的关系，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:可以用两个三角形表示；B:这两个三角形是倒置的；C:这两个三角形是部分交叠的；D:这两个三角形是完全重叠的。
答案: 【可以用两个三角形表示；;这两个三角形是倒置的；;这两个三角形是部分交叠的；】成人完全可以做到和儿童一样习得外语。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】5、判断题：儿童习得外语的能力总体上高于成人。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、判断题：传统语言课堂收到的质疑越来越多，我们应该遵循习得规律，改革创新教学模式和方法。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】7、判断题：最早获得的语言一定是最熟悉的。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他最早接触的是汉语，成长过程中主要说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是汉语；B:他的第一语言是汉语；C:他的第二语言是英语；D:他的母语是英语。
答案: 【他的母语是汉语；;他的第一语言是汉语；;他的第二语言是英语；】9、多选题：一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他成长过程中只接触和说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是英语；B:他的第一语言是英语；C:他没有外语；D:他的外语是英语。
答案: 【他的母语是英语；;他的第一语言是英语；;他没有外语；】10、判断题：第一语言是语言学的概念，母语更多的牵涉到民族学问题。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】11、判断题：语言学多是理论研究，心理学、心理语言学等多是实验研究。
（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】第二章单元测试1、多选题：关于大脑和语言习得，行为主义心理学派有两个非常著名的观点，分别是（）。
二语习得答案
1. 1. Think of three or four ‘telegraphic’ sentences that a young child mightproduce. These may be in English or another language you know well. How are these ‘little sentences’ similar to those in the adult language? How are they different?“telegraphic”sentences：（1）"I can see a cow" repeated as "See cow"（2）I having this. I'm having 'nana.（3）Baby fall downSimilarities: They both contain the necessary key words, especially nouns, verbs and adjectivesDifferences: “Telegraphic”sentences lack function words like prepositions and conjunctions. They are shorter, and grammatical elements are often omitted or inserted incorrectly, and they are single clauses.2.Researchers have used both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to investigatethe order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by young children.Describe these approaches in your own words. What are the challenges and the potential benefits of each?Cross-sectional approaches: A research method studies subjects at different ages and stages of development.Longitudinal studies: It is a type of observational study. By longitudinal studies, we mean that we can study learner’s language with a period of time, one month, one year, or more. This contrasts with Cross-sectional studies.The challenges of longitudinal study approaches: They are time-consuming and money-consuming. Also, they are not convenient.Potential benefits of longitudinal study approaches: Longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations.The challenges of Cross-sectional approaches: Routine data are not designed to answer the specific question.Potential benefits of Cross-sectional approaches: . The use of routinely collected data allows large cross-sectional studies to be made at little or no expense.3.What is the ‘wug test’? What do the findings from the wug test tell us about Children’s developing language? What advantages does the wug test have over studies that observe children’s language in natural settings? Can you think of some disadvantages?(1)“Wug test”is a procedure to explore children’s knowledge of languagedeveloped by Jean Berko Gleason. It was designed as a way to investigate the acquisition of the plural and other inflectional morphemes in English-speaking children.(2) By the age of three-and-a-half or four years, most children can ask questions,give commands, report real events, and create stories about imaginary ones-complete with correct grammatical morphemes.(3) Advantages of wug test By completing these sentences, children demonstratethat they actually know the rules in English, not just a list of memorized word pairs, and can apply these rules to words which they have never heard before.(4)Some disadvantages: The acquisition of the more complex grammaticalstructures of the language requires a different sort of explanation4. What is metalinguistic awareness? Why is it a prerequisite for being able to understand most jokes and riddles? Think of a joke or riddle you know. How is metalinguistic awareness related to your understanding of what makes this joke funny?(1) Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to treat language as an object, separatefrom the meaning it conveys.(2)Because Metalinguistic awareness includes the discovery of such things asambiguity---words and sentences that have multiple meaning.(3)Jokes: Why is the bride feeling unhappy in her wedding? Because she cannotmarry the ‘best man’.5. What have researchers observed about the frequency with which youngchildren engage in imitation and repetitive practice? In what way are young children’s linguistic imitation and practice patterns different from those of some foreign language classes?(1) Observation:●First year, most babies can understand quite a few frequentlyrepeated words.●Speech consists of imitation, but different children havedifferent rate of imitation●Children’s imitations are not random; they do not imitateeverything they hear●Children sometimes repeat them selves or produce a series ofrelated practice sentences(2) Differences: Linguistic imitation and practice patterns are the natural process inwhich children subconsciously possess and develop the linguisticknowledge of the setting they live in. Young children learnlanguage through exposure to the language and meaningfulcommunication.Foreign language classes take place where the target language isnot the language spoken in the language community. Childrenhave the need of systematic studies of any kind.6. Give examples of both grammatical and lexical overgeneralization errorsfound in early child language. What is the general learning principle that underlies such errors?Examples of grammatical overgeneralization errors：Randall (2, 9), who is in stage 3 of question formation, concluded that thetrick of asking questions is to put a certain word (in this case: are) at thebeginning of the sentence. for example: Are dogs wiggle their tailsCorrect form: Do dogs wiggle their tails?Examples of lexical overgeneralization errors:Michel (2, 0) says: Mummy, I'm hiccing up and I can't stop.(Michel has heard many two-word verbs with up, such as "standing up" and"picking up." So he makes such a generalization.)The general learning principle that underlies such errors:(1)Children appear to pick out patterns and then generalize them to newcontexts. They create new forms or new uses of words until they finallyfigure out how the forms are used by adults. Their new sentences areusually comprehensible and often correct.(2)Behaviorism in first language learning.7. How do the stories of Victor and Genie (pages 19–21) support the critical period hypothesis? Do you find this evidence convincing? Why do most researchers consider that the evidence from users of American Sign Language that was collected by Newport and her colleagues (page 21) is stronger support for the CPH?(1) Victor and Genie are children who have been deprived of contact with language in their early years. Their language acquisition device was stimulated too late. As a result, even though they were taught to speak when they were 12 or 13 years old they CANNOT learn language like normal people and their language development was abnormal. So the stories of Victor and Genie support the critical period hypothesis.(2) It is difficult to argue that the hypothesis is confirmed on the basis of evidence from such unusual children and the unknown circumstances of their early lives. We cannot know what other factors besides biological maturity might have contributed to their inability to learn language. Therefore, this evidence is not convincing(3) These users of American Sign Language are usual children who acquire their first language at different ages. They come from loving homes, yet do not receive exposure to language at the usual time. Besides, the circumstances of their early lives are known to the researchers. They begin learning ASL often when they start attending a residential school where sign language is used for day-to-day communication. Moreover, in the study, there were three distinct groups of ASL users: Native signers who were exposed to sign language from birth, Early learners whose first exposure to ASL began at ages four to six at school, and Late learners who first came into contact with ASL after the age of 12. Results of the research showed that the Native group outperformed the Early learner group who outperformed the late learner group on tests focusing on grammatical markers. The study supports the hypothesis that there is a critical period for first language learning.8. How are Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views of first language acquisition similar? How do they differ?Similarities:(1) Both of them thought that interaction played a very important role in languagedevelopment;(2) Children are active learners;(3) Development declines with ageDifferences:(1)Piaget hypothesized Children's cognitive development would partly determinehow they use language!(2) Vygotsky believed that Language develops entirely from social interaction.9.What was unusual about Jim’s exposure to language? How does this casesupport an interactionist perspective on language acquisition?Unusual:(1) Jim, the hearing children of deaf parents, had little contract with hearing/speakingadults up to the age of three years and nine months.(2) His only contract with oral language was through TV.(3) His parents did not use sign language with JimSupport:(1) Interactionism focus on the role of the linguistic environment in interaction withthe child’s innate capacities in determining language development.And Vygotsky thought was essentially internalized speech, and speech emerged in social interaction.(2) Jim’s only contract with oral language was through TV, which cannot giveimmediate adjustment for the needs of Jim. But when Jim began conversations with sessions with an adult, his expressive abilities began to improve. By the age of four years and two months, most of the unusual speech patterns had disappeared, replaced by structures more typical of Jim’s age.10.State the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) and explain why it is oftenlinked to the behaviourist theory. What are its limitations?(1) The CAH was put forward by Dr. Robert Lado and it predicts that where thereare similarities between the first and second language, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty(2) The CAH is based on the behaviouristic psychology. It holds that languagedevelopment is viewed as the formation of habits; it is assumed that a person learning a second language starts off with the habits formed in the first language and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.(3) Limitations:I. Not all errors predicted by CAH are actually made.II. Many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basisof the CAH.III. Only a few errors made during the second language learning attributes tothe interferences of the mother tongue.VI. It only focuses on making comparisons between the mother tongue and thesecond language in terms of phonology and syntax, ignoring the comparisonsin semantics, vocabulary, and pragmatics.V. Except from the mother tongue, the national culture also influences thesecond language learning.11. What contribution has behaviourism made to our understanding of howlanguages are learned? What is the theory not able to explain? (1). I. Behaviourists account for learning in terms of imitation, practice,reinforcement, (or feedback on success), and habit formation.II. All learning takes place through the same underlying processes.III. Learners receive linguistic input from speakers in their environment and they form "association" between words and objects or events.IV. Learners receive encouragement for their correct imitations and corrective feedback on their errors.V. Learners start off with the habits formed in the first language while learning a second language and these habits interfere with the new ones needed for thesecond language.(2).I. Where there are differences between the first language and the targetlanguage, the learners will have difficulty.II. Not all errors predicted by it are actually made. Many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of it.III. Many of the sentences produced by second language learners would be quite ungrammatical in their first language. Some characteristics of these simplestructures are very similar across learners from a variety of backgrounds.IV. The learner's first language may not simply be a matter of the transfer of habits.12. Sum up, in your own words, the main points surrounding the debateabout the nature and availability of UG in SLA. Where do you stand?UG is not suitable for explaining second language acquisition. (1) UG is suitable for acquiring language during a critical period; it is not available for second language learners who have passed the critical period. (Even if it may be present and available, its exact nature has been changed.) (2) Formal instruction and error correction will not affect the learner’s knowledge of second language.(3) Instead of UG, many different theories might be vital to explain some earlylanguage performance.UG is suitable for explaining second language acquisition. (1) There is still a logical problem of second language acquisition, which also appears in mother language learning, even if learners begin learning a second language after the critical period. (2) Second language learners need both formal instruction and error correction or they will be affected by their first language. (3) UG is necessary to explain learner’s knowledge of complex syntax.My stand:Although it doesn’t cover all aspects, UG has exactly explained second language acquisition to some extent.(logical problem, error correction, etc.)13. Name the five hypotheses that make up Krashen’s Monitor Model. According to this model, what conditions must be present for ‘acquisition’ to take place? What are the conditions for la nguage ‘learning’?1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis.2. The monitor hypothesis.3. The natural order hypothesis.4. The input hypothesis.5. The affective filter hypothesis.What conditions must be present for ‘acquisition’ to take place?Meaningful interaction in the target language.Exposure to adequate and comprehensible input:" i+1".What are the conditions for language ‘learning’?According to Krashen, for the Monitor to be successfully used, three conditions must be met: The learner must master the knowledge of rules. The learner must be focused on correctness The learner must have sufficient time to use the monitor14. What are the limitations of Krashen’s theory? Why do you think thatKrashen’s ideas have been so influential in second- and foreign-language education?Limitation1. Difficulties to define--Whether acquisition and learning are interchangeable is not clear;--The definition of Acquisition and Learning are not clear. 2. Lack of empirical evidenceIt’s difficult to show the evidence of monitor use; we don’t know what is produced by acquire system or monitor use; The natural order comes from “morpheme studies”, which is criticized by other experts; Input hypothesis has not been substantiated by empirical studies; It is difficult to be sure that affective factors cause the differences in language acquisition;Why Monitor Model is so influential?It appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice; It appeals intuitively to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they felt stressed or uncomfortable;The cognitive perspective15. How does information-processing model explain SLA?Information processing is the change of information in any manner detectable by an observer. It is a process which describes everything which happens in the universe, from the falling of a rock (a change in position) to the printing of a text file from a digital computer system. Cognitive psychologists working in an information processing model of human learning and performance tend to see SLA as the building up of knowledge systems that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding. Information processing model explain SLA from 3 stages:1. At first, there is a limit to the amount of information a human can payattention to at one time. For example, a learner at the earliest stages of secondlanguage learning will probably pay attention to the main words in a message and not be able to notice grammatical morphemes which are attached to some of those words. So, learners have to pay attention to any aspects of the language which they are trying to speaking and understanding.2. Gradually, through experience and practice, learners become able to use certain parts of their knowledge so quickly and automatically that they are not even aware that they are doing it. This frees them to focus on other aspects of the language which, in turn, gradually become automatic (McLaughlin).3. Eventually, the performance will become automatic. It may originate from international learning, for example in formal study, but this is not always the case. We can use our mental "processing space", a possible source for information or skills which can eventually be available automatically, if there has been enough practice (something which involves effort on the part of the learner). Interactionist position16. In what way are proponents of the interactionist position in SLA in agreement with Krashen’s monitor model? In what way do they go beyond it?AccordanceInteractionists agree that comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition.Extension1 Michael Long: is more concern with the question of how input is made comprehensible; views that modified interaction (negotiation of meaning) is very important during the conversation. Modified interaction theory: interactional modification makes input comprehensible, while comprehensible input promotes acquisition so that interactional modification promotes language acquisition.2 Vygotsky: socialcultural theory——assumes that all cognitive development arises as a result of social interactions between individuals.3 More focus on the use and social functions of language.17. What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers? What similarities and differences would you expect to find between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed speech? Why?What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers?Interactional Modifications:Comprehension checks: efforts by the native speaker to ensure that the learner has understoodClarification requests: efforts by the learner to get the native speaker to clarify something which has not been understood. These requests from the learner lead to further modifications by the native speakerSelf-repetition or paraphrase: the native speaker repeats his or her sentence either partially or its entiretyWhat similarities and differences would you expect to find between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed speech? Why?The similarities The way——conversational interaction They both involve a slow rate of dilivery, repetition, some clues, etc.The differencesChild-directed speech --difficult to judge the importance of these modifications --children still learn language by their siblings though without such modification from parents --comprehensible input is the focus These modifications in interaction --how the input is made comprehensible is more important --not the simplification but the opportunity to interact with others --modification is more important than the linguistic simplificationThe reasonsDifferent objects—one for the first language learning and one for the second language learning The difficulties—it’s harder to learn the second language 18. Several theories for L2 learning have been proposed in this chapter. Is one of them more consistent with your own understanding of how languages are learned? If so, how have your experiences as a learner brought you to this view?The acquisition-learning hypothesisHe cites evidences of some fluent speakers without having learned rules( like illiterate people), while others may 'know' rules but fail to apply them in real language use( like some incompetent 'high-score' learners). Many Chinese students are afraid of talking with English native speakers, though they get high marks in English. As they only know how to choose the correct answer but seldom use the knowledge in real life, they will stutter when they speak English. Hence, I think that adequate practice can make learned knowledge habitual so that it is available for spontaneous use in real communication. In this case, the learned language becomes the acquired knowledge. Otherwise, there`s no significance for school learning.The monitor hypothesisKrashen has specified that learners use the montior only when they are focused more on being 'correct' than on what they have to say, when they have sufficient time to search their memory for the relevant rules, and when they actually know these rules. We will pay more attention when we are writing, like taking an exam. However, when we are speaking, I find that we seldom use the structures we use in the writing and we make lots of grammatical mistakes.The input hypothesisIf the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learner’s current level of competence in the language (what Krashen calls 'i+1'), then both comprehension and acquisition will occur. Think about the exercise we do in the daily life. It is not that difficult and we can finish most of them. When teachers find where and why we are wrong, we actually learn something but not much, which is soonly understandable. Then, we can easily grasp them.The affective filter hypothesisThe 'affective filter' is an imaginary barrier which prevents learners from acquiring language from the available input. When we are tired, we seldom want to anything. Let alone our study.The natural order hypothesisThe rules which are easiest to state are not necessarily the first to be acquired. The rule for adding an -s to third person singular verbs in the present tense is easy to state, but even some advanced learners fail to apply it in rapid conversation. Chapter 3: Factors affecting second language learning19. Why is it difficult to assess the influence that personal characteristics have on the development of L2 proficiency?Actually, many of us believe that certain characteristics can lead to more or less successful language learning. For example, many teachers think extroverted learners who interact without inhibition in their second language and find many opportunities to practice language skills will be the most successful learners.All of us here have learned English for many years and we realize that some characters contribute to successful language learning.1. tries to get a message across even if specific language knowledge is lacking2. is willing to make mistakes3. practises as often as possible4. has a good self-image and lots of confidence5. begins learning in childhood ……Intelligence20. Language learners’ performance on IQ tests is related to certain aspects of L2 ability but not to others. Give examples to explain this statement.Examples:1. In a study with French immersion students in Canada, it was found that, while intelligence was related to the development of French second language reading, grammar, and vocabulary, it was unrelated to oral productive skills.2. In our experience, many students whose academic performance has been weak have experienced considerable success in second language learning.3. Andy Warhol, the leader of Pop Art, is a distinguished artist. His IQ is only 86, but he was successful in the film, music, publishing, writing, and many other fields.Conclusion:Intelligence is complex and that individuals have many kinds of abilities and strengths, not all of which are measured by traditional IQ test.Aptitude21. What lessons can language teachers learn from the research on language aptitude and L2 instruction by Wesche (1981)?assumptionIdeally, one could determine learners’ profiles of strengths and weaknesses and use this information to place students in appropriate teaching programs. The research by Wesche is an example to show how this could be done.From the researchResearchers find out that a high level of student and teacher satisfaction when students were matched with compatible teaching environments. In addition, some evidence indicated that marched students were able to attain significantly higher levels of achievement than those who were unmatched.ExtensionTeachers may find that knowing the aptitude profile of their students will help them in selecting appropriate classroom activities for particular groups of students. Or, if they do not have such information, they may wish to ensure that their teaching activities are sufficiently varied to accommodate learners with different aptitude profiles.Learning styles22. Based on what you read in this chapter, do you think that there is an ideal way to teach/learn a language? For example, as a foreign language learner or teacher, what are your views about teaching grammar? Do you have any specific preferences for how it should be taught or when? Do you know what your students’ preferences might be for grammar teaching and do you think it would be useful to find out?Based on what you read in this chapter, do you think that there is an ideal way to teach/learn a language?I don't think there is an ideal way to teach or learn a language. In this chapter, we have looked at the way in which intelligence, aptitude, personality, and motivational characteristics, learner preferences, and age have been found to influence second language learning.The study of individual learner variables is not easy. The results of research are not entirely satisfactory.Lack clear definitions and methods for measuring the individual characteristics. Learner variables interact in complex ways.As a foreign language learner or teacher, what are your views about teaching grammar？Do you have any specific preferences for how it should be taught or when?Learner preference: Learners have clear preferences for how they go about learning new material.Learning style: An individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills.perceptual learning styles:visual learners: learn something until they have seen it aural learners: need only to hear something once or twice before they know it kinaesthetic learners: add a physical action to the learning processcognitive learning styles:field independent learners: separate details from the general background field dependent learners: see thing more holisticallyDo you know what your students’ preferences might be for grammar teaching and do you think it would be useful to find out? When learners express a preference for seeing something written or for memorizing material, we should encourage them to use all means available to them as they work to learn another language. In a classroom, a sensitive teacher, who takes learners’ individual personalities and learning styles into account, can create a learning environment in which virtually all learners can be successful in learning a second language. Personality23. What can we learn from research about the relationship between L2 learning and•extroversion•inhibitionDifferent research about the relationship between L2 learning and extroversion produces different results. Some studies have found that learner’s success in language learning is associated with extroversion such as assertiveness and adventurousness, while others have found that many successful language learners do not get high scores on measures of extroversion.It has been suggested that inhibition discourages risk-taking which is necessary for progress in language learning. This is often considered to be a particular problem for adolescents, who are more self-conscious than younger learners. Inhibition is a negative force, at least for second language pronunciation performance(Alexander Guiora). Be aware that inhibition may have more influence in language performance than in language learning.Motivation and attitudes24. Define instrumental and integrative motivation in your own words and give an example to illustrate each. Comment on how these types of motivation might be manifested differently in different learning environments.Instrumental motivation refers to languange learning for immediate or practical goals. Learners with an instrumental motivation want to learn a language because of a practical reason such as getting a salary bonus or getting into college. Example: Many college language students have a clear instrumental motivation for language learning: They want to fulfill a college language requirement. Integrative motivation refers to language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment. Learners who are integratively motivated want to learn the language because they want to get to know the people who speak that language. They are also interested in the culture associated with that language.Example: Someone becomes a resident in a new community that uses the target language in its social interactions.Pretco stands for practical English Test for colleges. Driven by this strong instrumental motivation, the students tend to be willing to put more efforts and time into the study of vocabulary, grammar, listening and reading. However, the disadvantages also show themselves obviously. The students have a tendency to pay less importance to the input not closely related to the test. Also, learners may cease appling extra effort after the examination.。
大学二语习得题库英文
大学二语习得题库英文1、13．________ it rains heavily outside, Lily wants to meet her children at once. [单选题]* A．IfB．Although (正确答案)C．WhenD．Because.2、Medicines are to be taken according to the doctor’s advice. [单选题] *A. 发放B. 提取C. 配方D. 服用(正确答案)3、—______ is the concert ticket?—It’s only 160 yuan.（）[单选题] *A. How manyB How much(正确答案)C. How oftenD. How long4、89．The blackboard is ________ the classroom. [单选题] *A．nextB．betweenC．in front ofD．in the front of(正确答案)5、The house is well decorated _____ the disarrangement of a few photos. [单选题] *A. exceptB. besidesC. except for(正确答案)D. in addition to6、There is _______ meat in the fridge.Lets go and buy some. [单选题] *A. little(正确答案)B. a littleC. fewD. a few7、I like dancing, ______ I can join the Dancing Club.（）[单选题] *A. becauseB. so(正确答案)C. andD. but8、The（)majority of the members were against the idea. [单选题] *A. substantialB. enormousC. considerable(正确答案)D. overwhelming9、9．—Will there be more cars in the future?—________. [单选题] * A．See youB．Well, I'm not sure(正确答案)C．You're welcomeD．Thank you10、The house was completed five months ago. [单选题] *A. 完成(正确答案)B. 复杂C. 开始D. 装着11、Jack would rather spend time complaining than_____the problem by himself. [单选题] *A.solve(正确答案)B.solvedC.solvesD.to solve12、Jim will _______ New York at 12 o’clock. [单选题] *A. get onB. get outC. get offD. get to(正确答案)13、21 In a few years' time, there ________ thousands of trees on the hill. [单选题] *A．will haveB．will be(正确答案)C．are haveD．have14、He didn't allow _____ in his room. Actually he didn't allow his family _____ at all. [单选题] *A. to smoke; to smokeB. smoking; to smoke(正确答案)C. to smoke; smokingD. smoking; smoking15、33．Will Mary's mother ______ this afternoon? [单选题] * A．goes to see a filmB．go to the filmC．see a film(正确答案)D．goes to the film16、Her ideas sound right, but _____ I'm not completely sure. [单选题] *A. somehow(正确答案)B. somewhatC. somewhereD. sometime17、64．Would you like to drink ________？[单选题] * A．something else(正确答案)B．anything elseC．else somethingD．else anything18、She is _______, but she looks young. [单选题] *A. in her fifties(正确答案)B. at her fiftyC. in her fiftyD. at her fifties19、I hadn't realized she was my former teacher _____ she spoke [单选题] *A. asB. sinceC. until(正确答案)D. while20、52．I'm happy to ________ a birthday card from an old friend. [单选题] * A．buyB．makeC．loseD．receive(正确答案)21、A little learning is a dangerous thing, _____ the saying goes. [单选题] *A. likeB. as(正确答案)C. withD. if22、--Don’t _______ too late, or you will feel tired in class.--I won’t, Mum. [单选题] *A. call upB. wake upC. stay up(正确答案)D. get up23、They went out in spite of rain. [单选题] *A. 因为B. 但是C. 尽管(正确答案)D. 如果24、I think you should buy this novel. It is really worth _____. [单选题] *A. reading(正确答案)B. being readC. readD. to read25、He studied harder to _______ his reading skills. [单选题] *A. improve(正确答案)B. rememberC. memorizeD. forget26、-----How can I apply for an online course?------Just fill out this form and we _____ what we can do for you. [单选题] *A. seeB. are seeingC. have seenD. will see(正确答案)27、I passed the test, I _____ it without your help. [单选题] *A.would not passB. wouldn't have passed(正确答案)C. didn't passD.had not passed28、95．-Dad, can we walk? ? ? ? ? ? ?the road now?-No,we? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . We have to wait until the light turns green. [单选题] *A．across, needn’tB．across, mustn’t(正确答案)C．though, can’tD．through, mustn't29、3．Shanghai is my hometown. It’s ________ China. [单选题] *A．nearB．far away fromC．to the east ofD．in the east of(正确答案)30、If you don’t feel well, you’d better ask a ______ for help. [单选题] *A. policemanB. driverC. pilotD. doctor(正确答案)。
答案二语习得(DOC)
1、第一语言习得和第二语言习得的异同？（1）相同点：（反映了语言习得的普遍规律）A、两种语言的习得都必须具备一定的主观条件和客观条件。
主观：健全的大脑、语言器官；客观：一定的语言环境。
两种语言习得都是主客观条件相互作用的结果。
B、两种语言习得都是为了培养语言的交际能力。
C、两种语言习得都必须掌握语音、词汇、语法等要素和受文化制约的语用规则，都必须形成一定的听说读写技能D、两种语言习得大体上都经过感知、理解、模仿、记忆、巩固和应用阶段。
（2）不同点：A、习得动力不同：儿童是出于本能、生存和发展的需要；成人动机等多方面B、习得的环境和方式不同：儿童是在天然语言环境中习得的，充满感情、有丰富体势语，体现 i+1 式特点的“照顾式”语言，是以交际活动的参加者身份在真实交际中运用第一语言；成人在课堂中习得要从学发音、基本的词汇和语法开始，进展取决于教学计划和老师的指导，缺少真实的交际环境。
C、习得的过程不同儿童从接触实际事物开始，同时建立有关概念（包括时间、地点、空间等）。
语言能力与思维能力同时发展成人要学一种新的表达方式，要经过第一语言的思维，借助已有的系统知识和经验来帮助习得第二语言，有时有益，有时干扰。
D 文化因素的习得不同儿童通过交际自然习得语言的同时也自然习得了文化和社会价值；第二语言习得过程中特别是在非目的语环境中，如果没有专门安排则不一定能同时习得该目的语文化，而且不同文化之间还可能产生文化冲突。
E 主体的生理、心理特点不同第一语言习得过程伴随着学习者的认知、情感、生理等方面的发展变化，而第二语言习得则是在上述变化基本完成以后进行的，两者习得的条件也不同。
成人第二语言习得的特殊规律需要进行充分研究。
2、一个成功第二语言学习者的特点？成功的第二语言学习者应该做到:1.有明确的学习目的目标,有较强的学习动力,有浓厚的学习兴趣,有克服困难的毅力。
2.积极用所学的语言进行交际,不怕犯错误,也就是“脸皮厚”,“不怕丢丑”。
《第二语言习得理论》复习题库 附参考答案.doc
《第二语习得理论》复习纲要第一章引言1、二语习得研究者的研究对象一般是群体，而不是个体，你如何看待这个问题？10二语习得研究中，研究者的研究对象一般是群体，研究结论也是对某个群体而言。
但作为二语教学的老师，他更加关注一个个的个体，他关心的是如何让每一个学生很好的掌握第二语言。
这种情况下，二语习得研究者得到的结论，很可能对进行教学的老师的指导意义不是很大。
因此，二语习得研究者有必要加强对个体的研究，而不是局限于群体。
2、你认为什么是学外语的最好方式？9第二章人1、什么是一语习得的行为主义模型？提出者是？16-17一语习得的天生论模型的理论基础是乔姆斯基的转换生成语法，天生论认为人的大脑中有一个语言习得的机制，小孩出生后在任何一个语言环境中，都能利用这个语言习得机制学会所在环境的语言。
这种观点与观察到的现象是一致的，所以有较强的解释力。
2、什么是一语习得的天生论模型？18-193、什么是一语习得的社会互动模型，提出者是？20-214、什么是文化适应模型？如何评价？24-255^ 什么是perceived social distance?（另一个是social distance,在文化适应模式节）26 perceived social distance 是与social distance 相关的一个概念o Social distance 通常指人们在社会经济地位方面的差别，而perceived social distance则指学习者内部因素的差别（比如对讲所学语言的人的态度，对讲这种语言的社会的态度，对讲这种语言的人的文化价值观念的态度等）。
Acton 研究了perceived social distance与学习成绩之间的关系,研究结果表明，态度介于两种语言文化价值观的学生，学习成绩最理想。
6、文化适应分哪几个阶段？29-307、什么是言语适应模型？是谁提出来的？30-31二语学习者对所学语言文化的态度影响学习过程，言语适应模型认为人们之间的交谈包含三个不同的过程，即交谈双方保持他们各自的说话方式，让各自的说话方式与对方显得越发不同，双方采用对方的说话特点以相互靠拢。
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1、第一语言习得和第二语言习得的异同？（1）相同点：（反映了语言习得的普遍规律）A、两种语言的习得都必须具备一定的主观条件和客观条件。
主观：健全的大脑、语言器官；客观：一定的语言环境。
两种语言习得都是主客观条件相互作用的结果。
B、两种语言习得都是为了培养语言的交际能力。
C、两种语言习得都必须掌握语音、词汇、语法等要素和受文化制约的语用规则，都必须形成一定的听说读写技能D、两种语言习得大体上都经过感知、理解、模仿、记忆、巩固和应用阶段。
（2）不同点：A、习得动力不同：儿童是出于本能、生存和发展的需要；成人动机等多方面B、习得的环境和方式不同：儿童是在天然语言环境中习得的，充满感情、有丰富体势语，体现 i+1 式特点的“照顾式”语言，是以交际活动的参加者身份在真实交际中运用第一语言；成人在课堂中习得要从学发音、基本的词汇和语法开始，进展取决于教学计划和老师的指导，缺少真实的交际环境。
C、习得的过程不同儿童从接触实际事物开始，同时建立有关概念（包括时间、地点、空间等）。
语言能力与思维能力同时发展；成人要学一种新的表达方式，要经过第一语言的思维，借助已有的系统知识和经验来帮助习得第二语言，有时有益，有时干扰。
D 文化因素的习得不同儿童通过交际自然习得语言的同时也自然习得了文化和社会价值；第二语言习得过程中特别是在非目的语环境中，如果没有专门安排则不一定能同时习得该目的语文化，而且不同文化之间还可能产生文化冲突。
E 主体的生理、心理特点不同第一语言习得过程伴随着学习者的认知、情感、生理等方面的发展变化，而第二语言习得则是在上述变化基本完成以后进行的，两者习得的条件也不同。
成人第二语言习得的特殊规律需要进行充分研究。
2、一个成功第二语言学习者的特点？成功的第二语言学习者应该做到:1.有明确的学习目的目标,有较强的学习动力,有浓厚的学习兴趣,有克服困难的毅力。
2.积极用所学的语言进行交际,不怕犯错误,也就是“脸皮厚”,“不怕丢丑”。
3.在课堂上积极主动,不但注意语言的功能,同时也注意语言形式,语法概念清楚。
在初级阶段,不随便捏造没有听过见过的句子,善于猜测,而且准确率较高。
4.把学习和习得结合起来 1 7自然的习得只学言语,不学语言,而学习只学习语言,忽视言语。
5.不仅仅靠视觉,避免逐句逐词翻译,注意泛听、泛读善于排除冗余的信息,把握要点和大意。
6. 在第二语言文化环境中,能够在两种文化之间保持理想的距离,及排除母语文化所带来的保守性,又未被目的语文化所同化;对两种语言和文化的差异有清楚的了解,对歧视和差异保持理想的容忍度;具有适度的自尊心和移情。
3、如何看待中介语理论与对比分析、偏误分析之间的关系？早期的中介语理论是人们认识偏误分析和对比分析的局限后研究所的结论。
因此人们很容易认为对比分析、偏误分析、早期中介语理论这三者之间是一种承继的关系，但是这是一种误解。
三者在理论基础和研究方法上三者有明显的不同。
理论基础：对比分析是建立在行为主义心理学和结构主义语言学的基础上的，它试图从语言学习者外部寻找描写和解释学习者内部学习过程的方法；偏误分析是以认知心理学和普遍语法为基础，试图从分析学习者自身的但却片面的语言系统出发，解释其学习过程。
早期的中介语理论与对比分析的不同：早期中介语理论把学习者的语言系统看成一种不同于母语和目的语的、独立的、完整的语言系统，并且将其置于研究的核心地位。
对比分析没有把学习者的语言看成是一个独立的系统，而偏误分析虽然对这一点有所认识，但对学习者语言系统独立性的认识没有达到早期的中介语理论的水平。
研究方法：在研究方法上早期中介语理论与两者有一定的区别，首先中介语研究并不排斥对比，其对比是建立在三种语言系统对比的框架上的（母语、目的语、中介语），这和对比分析有很大的不同；另一方面，早期中介语研究也不排斥把偏误分析作为一种描写和分析的工具，但其分析的手段并不局限与偏误分析。
4、如何理解中介语语用学的定义？中介语语用学大致可以从两个角度来理解：作为第二语言运用的研究，中介语语用学考察非母语者如何理解和产出目的语的行为；作为第二语言学习的研究，中介语语用学研究非母语者如何发展他们理解和产出目的语行为的能力。
5、什么是语用语言能力和社会语言能力？语用语言能力：关注的是一种语言当中形式和功能的映射问题，即哪些语言材料可以用来实施特定的语言行为。
包括关于规约性的手段和规约性的形式的知识和实际运用这些知识的能力。
社会语言能力：研究的是某一特定语言文化社团的成员在特定的语境中如何实施和解释特定的语言行为，研究的是得体性的问题。
包括关于交际行为和权势、社会距离以及强加度之间关系的知识、关于交际双方权利义务、禁忌以及规约性行为的知识。
6、什么是语用迁移？语用迁移指的是学习者所具有的语用知识对第二语言语用信息的理解、产出以及学习所施加的影响，这种语用知识指的是与第二语言以外的语言和文化相联系的语用知识。
语用迁移不仅表现为一种静态的现象，还会随着学习者第二语言习得的深入而动态变化发展。
7、什么是第二语言的语用能力第二语言的语用能力包括语用语言层面和社会语用层面。
语用语言能力关注的是一种语言当中形式和功能的映射问题，即哪些语言材料可以用来实施特定的语言行为，学习者需要能够表达自己的交际意图，例如请求、道歉、拒绝等。
包括规约性手段和规约性形式。
规约性手段的三种方式：直接策略，规约性间接策略，非规约性间接策略。
社会语用能力研究的是某一特定语言文化社团的成员在特定的语境中如何实施和解释特定的语言行为，研究的是得体性的问题。
习者还需要能够把自己的意图通过一定的方式表达出来，以免引起误会。
8、行为主义心理学和认知心理学对于语言习得观点的差异？（行为主义和心灵主义在看待语言习得方面有何不同？）行为主义学习理论认为，语言不是一种思维现象，而是一种行为。
语言学习过程就是人们的行为形成过程，这种行为和人类的其他行为一样，是习惯的养成，是对外界刺激不断作出反应的结果。
因此，外在环境因素是语言学习的关键所在。
心灵主义语言学习理论从人的大脑本身去寻找语言习得的答案，认为语言习得是在人类与生俱来的大脑语言习得机制和实际语言接触共同作用的基础上，由学习者主动建构起来的，在这个过程中学习者是参与的、主动的、具有创造性的。
外界因素对语言习得所能发挥的作用是有限的。
9、第一语言习得顺序是否等于第二语言习得顺序？（简答）（1）、第一语言习得与第二语言习得既有差别也有相似之处。
第一语言和第二语言习得都经历了沉默期、使用程式语、简化语法结构、简化语义。
但也有差异，所有的一语学习者都会经历沉默期，而很多二语学习者特别是成年人却没有沉默期。
（2）、第一语言习得与第二语言习得的主要差别：①习得结果不一样。
正常儿童都能习得母语，只有一小部分第二语言习得者能够成功地获得目的语。
②两者的关系不一样。
母语知识肯定会对第二语言习得产生正面或负面影响。
③认知机制不一样。
由于第一语言习得和第二语言习得的学习者年龄往往不一样，因此两者的认知机制就不一样。
④习得环境不一样。
大部分第二语言学习者接触和使用目的语的机会都很有限。
⑤语言习得机制是否发生作用不一样。
母语习得依赖大脑中天生的语言习得机制，第二语言习得无法或只能部分借助语言习得机制。
⑥学习动力和情感状态不一样。
母语习得是生存需要，不存在动力学习。
第二语言习得的动力和情感状态因人而异。
10、克拉申的语言监控模式五个假说（名词解释、填空）“习得与学习假说”：按照克拉申的观点，成人第二语言学习者可以通过两种独立的方式获得第二语言规则，即“习得”和“学习”。
“习得”与“学习”是学习者在第二语言习得过程中经历的两种不同的心理过程，即“下意识的语言习得”和“有意识的语言学习”。
“自然顺序假说”：指儿童在习得母语规则和语言项目时遵循一种相似的习得顺序。
自然习得顺序假说实际上区分了两种不同的习得过程：自然习得顺序自然反映的是“习得”的过程，这个过程是受学习者内在大纲支配的，因而是可以支配的；课堂语言知识的学习反映的是“学习”过程，是受外在大纲支配的，因而这种知识的运用所表现出的顺序与自然习得顺序不同。
“监控假说”：所谓“监控”是对学习者“学习”知识的作用或功能而言的。
克拉申认为，学习者的言语输出主要是依靠习得的知识生成的。
“学习”的知识只是用来监控学习者的语言输出过程，通过“习得”获得的语言能力使学习者可以把要表达的意思流利的说出来，通过“学习”获得的语言知识使学习者在说话之前会有意识地判断和调整语言形式。
“输入假说”：人们习得一种语言，必须通过理解信息或者接受可理解的语言输入。
学习者的习得按照自然顺序，通过理解在下一阶段将要习得的结构来进行。
输入的语言难度要略高于学习者的现有能力。
即“i+1”。
“情感过滤假说”：情感过滤指组织学习者充分利用所接受的可理解输入来习得语言的心理障碍。
也就是说，情感因素并不在整个语言习得的过程当中，其作用是阻碍或协助输入进入语言习得机制。
情感因素分为三大类：动机、自信、焦虑。
11、情感因素是怎样影响第二语言习得的？克拉申提出的“情感过滤假说”阐述了情感因素是如何影响第二语言习得的。
“情感过滤”指的是组织学习者充分利用所接受的可理解的输入来习得语言的心理障碍。
情感因素并不在整个语言习得的过程当中，其作用是阻碍或协助输入进入语言习得机制。
情感过滤假说把成功的二语习得相关的情感因素分为三类：①动机。
学生的学习目的是否明确直接影响其学习效果。
目的明确则动力强、发展快，反之则收效甚微。
②自信。
自信会让学习者表现得更好，那些比较自信、自我感觉良好的学习者在学习中进展较快。
③焦虑。
不管是个人的焦虑程度还是整个课堂的焦虑程度，焦虑程度低都有助于二语习得，顾虑较少的学习者容易得到更多的语言输入。
克拉申认为，学习者动力越大，自信心越强，焦虑感越低，对语言输入的过滤就越少，从而获得的输入就越多，二语学习的成绩就越好。
相反，当学习者没有动机缺少自信心，或心情焦虑，有防范心态，其心理屏障会增强，对“可理解输入”的吸收就越少，二语习得的效果就越差。
12、什么是可理解性的语言输入？可理解输入是如何促进第二语言习得的？怎样才能为学习者提供可理解性的语言输入？①可理解性语言输入：克拉申认为，习得一种语言必须通过理解信息或接受可理解的语言输入，“i+1”水平的语言材料，第二语言习得才能产生。
当学习者进行附有意义的交际时，二语习得才能进行。
②促进：人本身就有学习语言的特殊机制，生成语法的基本规律是人的智力的一部分，这种智力是语言习得先决条件，是与生俱来的。
在语言中，应调动学生的内在智力因素，避免不动脑筋的机械模仿。
当学生进行有意义的交际时，会获得可理解性的语言输入，激活语言习得机制，促进语言习得。