英语语言学概论期末复习
语言学概论期末复习(男神版)
语言学概论Chapter 1Invitations to Linguistics1.What is language?Senses of language in Webster’s New World Dictionary (our book, p. 2) “Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication. “(Wardaugh)2.Design features of language语言设计特征1. arbitrariness (任意性)2. duality (双重性)3. Creativity (创造性) or productivity4. displacement (移位性)5. interchangeability (互换性)6. specialization (专业化)7. cultural transmission （文化传承）3.Functions of Language(语言功能)Jakobson’s view: 1.Emotive(情感功能) 2.Referential（指代功能) 3.Poetic(诗学功能) 4.Phatic（寒暄功能） 5.Metalingual(元语言) 6.Conative(意动功能) Halliday’s view: 1.ideational function (概念功能) 2.Interpersonal function（人际功能） 3.Textual function（语篇功能）Functions on the book: rmative(告知性的) 2.InterpersonalFunction(人际功能) 3.Performative(行事功能)4.Emotive Function5.Phatic Communion（寒暄功能） 6.Recreational Function(娱乐功能)7.Matalingual Function(元语言功能)4．What Is Linguistics• Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language.•1) Exhaustiveness（穷尽性）2) Consistency（贯通性） 3) Economy（经济性） 4) Objectivity（客观性）petence vs. performance言语能力 vs. 言语行为•N oam Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.•C ompetence refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.•P erformance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chapter 2Speech sounds1.Consonants and vowelsDistinction between consonants and vowels: theobstruction （阻塞） of airstream2.Minimal pairs and minimal sets（最小对立体）① When two words are identical in every way except for acontrast in one sound segment occurring in the sameposition in the string, the two words are called a minimalpair 最小对立体.E.g: pit and bit junk and chunkban and bin bet and bat②A minimal pair should follow three conditions: 1) they aredifferent in meaning; 2) they differ only in one sound segment;3) the different sounds occur in the same position in thestrings.Chapter 3From morpheme to phrase1.R oot & affixRoot 词根: 1.a morpheme which is the basic part of a word.（Occur on its own、may be joined to otherroots、or take affixes (manly, coldness) orcombining forms (biochemistry)2 It is that part of the word left when all the affixes areremoved.3．All words contain a root morphemeAffix词缀: 1.a letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds(=amorpheme), which is added to a word, and whichchanges the meaning or function of the word.（Prefix前缀,Suffix后缀，infix中缀：feet，geese）2. inflectional affix 曲折词缀 and derivational affix 派生词缀Chapter 5Meaning1.The Referential Theory(所指理论)①The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of aword to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known asthe referential theory.②Reference 所指 refers to the relationship between aword and the object it denotes in the physical world, i.e.denotation 外延 in philosophy.③Is a very popular theory (semantic triangle by Ogdenand Richards in Meaning of Meaning )④Problems with this theory：Not every word has areference 所指.2. Sense relations 意义关系Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between onelinguistic unit and another.*distinctions between sense and reference:The distinction between sense and reference is comparable to that between connotation and denotation in philosophy①The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity,while the latter refers to the concrete entities having theseproperties.②Every word has a sense, but not every word has areference.③Reference in its wider sense would be the relationshipbetween a word or phrase and an entity in the externalworld.④So sense is intra-linguistic and reference is extra- l linguistic3.3 kinds of sense relations:Synonymy （同义关系）▪Semantic relation of sameness or similarity in meaning of two ormore linguistic expressions. （absolute synonyms 绝对同义词、relative synonyms 相对同义词、Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词、Emotive synonyms 情感同义词、Collocational synonyms：搭配同义词）Antonymy （反义关系）·Relation of semantic opposition.·three main sub-types： 1）Gradable antonymy （等级反义关系）：They are gradable; the denial of one is notnecessarily the assertion of the other. There is anintermediate ground between the two.（hot\coldwarm\cool tall\short big\small ）2Complementary antonymy（互补反义关系）The members of a pair in this type are complementaryto each other. There is no intermediate ground betweenthe two.（alive\dead odd\even single\marriedmale\female pass\fail hit\miss ）3Converse antonymy（相反反义关系）The members of a pair in this type show the reversal ofa relationship between two entities. They are also knownas relational opposites. There are always two entitiesinvolved. One presupposes the other.（buy\sellgive\receive husband\wife teacher\studentabove\below before\after）Hyponymy（上下义关系）▪ A relationship between two words, in which the meaning ofone of the words includes the meaning of the other word.▪Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself.▪ A superordinate may be missing sometimes. （red greenyellow）▪Hyponyms may also be missing.（uncle rice）ponential analysis (成分分析)Componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaningcomponents or semantic features.Usually, componential analysis is applied to a group of related words which may differ from one another only by one or twocomponents.Semantic features 语义特征or semantic components are the basic unit of meaning in a word. The meanings of words may bedescribed as a combination of semantic features.5. An integrated theory（整体理论）The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combinedis usually known as the principle of compositionality(复合性原则）a dictionarya semantic theorya set of projection rules 投射规则The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semanticinformation of words.The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings ofwords together.(P.107)Chapter 6Language and cognition1.What is cognitionTwo definitions about cognition:①In psychology it refers to the mental processes of an individualwith particular relation to the view that argues that the mindhas internal states (beliefs, desires, and intentions) and can beunderstood in terms of information processing.②Mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such asawareness, perception, reasoning, and judgement.2.W hat is psycholinguistics（心理语言学）Definition：is the study of psychological aspects of languages; it usually studies the psychological states and mentalactivity associated with the use of language.6 subjects of research within psycholinguistics:Acquisition(语言习得) Comprehension(语言理解) Language and thought Production(语言产出) Disorders（语言无序性） Neurocognition3.W hat is Cognitive Linguistics?Definition: is a newly established approach to the study of language.Chapter 7Language, culture and Society1.L anguage and Culture①What is culture :Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people,including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions,techniques, and language that characterizes the life of thehuman community.In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice,beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture,enterprise culture or food culture etc.②The relationship between language and cultureA language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events whichrepresent similar world knowledge by its people, but also reflectsthe people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks etc. In a word,language expresses cultural reality.2.S apir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设)Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.This hypothesis primarily suggests that our language will mould our view of the world.But few people would tend to accept the original for this theory.Thus, two versions, strong version and weak version have been developed.the strong version: the language patterns determine people’sthinking and behavior.the weak version: the former influences the latter.3.L anguage and society①Definition of sociolinguistics(社会语言学):Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.②The relatedness between language and society：1) While language is principally used to communicatemeaning, it is also used to establish and maintain socialrelationships.2) Users of the same language in a sense all speakdifferently. The kind of language each of them chooses to useis in part determined by his social background.3) To some extent, language, especially the structure of itslexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environmentsof a society4) Judgments concerning the correctness and purity oflinguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.4.Halliday’s register theory:Definition of register（语域）: The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Field of discourse（语场） refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language.Tenor of discourse（语旨）refers “to whom the speaker is communicating”Mode of discourse（语式）mainly refers to the means of communication.Chapter 8Language in use1.What is Pragmaticsthe study of language in use.2.Speech act theory1)The first major theory in the study of language in use, whichoriginated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin: How to Do Things with Words2)Speech act: an utterance(表达) as a functional unit incommunication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning:a.propositional meaning 命题意义(also known aslocutionary meaning发话意义)b. illocutionary meaning行事意义(also known asillocutionary force行事语力).A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has bothpropositional meaning and illocutionary force.3) 2 types of sentences:Performatives（施为句；行事话语）: an utterancewhich performs an actConstative（表述句；述事话语）: an utterance whichasserts something that is either true orfalse.*It has even been suggested that there is no real differencebetween constative and implicit performatives.All sentencescan be used to do things.3.A theory of the illocutionary act(行事行为理论)▪Three different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence:▪Locutionary act（发话行为）is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.▪Illocutionary act （行事行为）is using a sentence to perform a function，related to the speaker’s intention.▪Perlocutionary act（取效行为）is the result or effects that are produced by means of saying something.4.Categories of speech acts by Searle1. Representative（阐述类）:stating or describing, saying whatthe speaker believes to be true (e.g. I swear…)2. Directives（指令类）: trying to get the hearer to dosomething.(e.g.Your money or your life.)3. Commissives（承诺类）:committing the speaker himself tosome future course of action. (e.g. I promise..)4. Expressive（表情类）:expressing feelings or attitudetowards an existing state(e.g. Thank you…)5. Declarations（宣告类）: bring about immediate changes bysaying something.(e.g. you are fired...)5.The theory of conversational implicature 会话含义理论The second major theory in the study of language in use proposed by Herbert Paul Grice: Logic and Conversation.1)Definition: Conversational implicature is a type of meaning,which is deduced on the basis of theconventional meaning of words together withthe context, under the guidance of the CP andits maxims2)Characteristics of implicature:calculability（可计算性）cancellability/ defeasibility（可删除性/可取消性）Non-detachability（非可分离性）Non-conventionality（非规约性）1. The cooperative principle合作原则: The co-operationbetween speakers in using the conversational maxims is calledthe cooperative principle.2.Conversational maxim对话准则: an unwritten rule aboutconversation which people know and which influences theform of conversational exchanges▪ Grice introduced 4 categories of maxims:a. the maxim of Quantityb. the maxim of Qualityc. the maxim of Relationd. the maxim of Manne r6.Post-Gricean developments1) Relevance theory 关联理论Definition:Every act of ostensive communicationcommunicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.（每一个明示交际行为都传递一种假设：该行为本身具备最适宜关联）2)the Q- and R-principleThese two principle was proposed by Laurence Horn①The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim ofGrice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the Relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.②Horn reduces all the Gricean maxims to two principles: the Q-and R-principleA. The Q-principle (hearer- based):Make your contribution sufficientSay as much as you canB. The R-principle (speaker-based):Make your contribution necessarySay no more than you mustIn other words, the Q-principle is concerned with the content.The R- principle, on the other hand, is concerned with the form.Chapter 11Linguistic and Foreign Language Teaching1.Definition:SLA: Second language acquisition 二语习得CPH :Critical Period Hypothesis 关键期假设UG：Universal Grammar 普遍语法LAD：Language Acquisition Device 语言习得基质IL：Interlanguage 中介语CA：Contrastive Analysis对比分析EA: Error Analysis 错误分析2．Universal Grammar 普遍语法Universal grammar holds that there are certain basic structural rules that govern language that all humans know without having to learnthem.3. Input and language learningLanguage Acquisition Device 语言习得基质·Krashen’s Input Hypothesis1）There were two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition and learning.Acquisition is a process similar to the way childrenacquire their first language.Learning as another route is a conscious learning of thesecond language knowledge by learning the rules andtalking about the rules.2）Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”.He defined comprehensible input as “i+1”: “i”represents learners’ current state of knowledge, thenext stage is i+1.4.Inter language (IL,中介语):Definition: is defined as an abstract system of learners’ targetlanguage system, it has now been widely used to refer to thelinguistic expressions learners produce (especially the wrong ornot idiomatic ones) or learner language.5.Contrastive analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析●Contrastive analysis (CA) is a way of comparing languages inorder to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose ofisolating what needs to be learned and what does not need tobe learned in a second language learning situation. The goal isto predict what areas will be easy to learn and what areas will bedifficult to learn.●Error analysis (EA) involves, first independently or objectively,describing the learner’s interlanguage (that is, their version ofthe target language and the target language itself), then acomparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches.●Two main sorts of errors: interlingualerrors 语际错误 intralingual errors 语内错误.。
英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
语言学概论期末考试范围
语言学概论期末考试范围语言学概论期末复习1. diachronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present.2. arbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between the linguistic signs and their meanings is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages.3. langueAccording to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language that members of a speech community seem to abide by.4. competenceChomsky defines competence as the abst ract ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. According to him, anyone who knows a language has internalized a set of rules about the sequences permitted in his language. This internalized set of rules is termed as a person’s competence.5. morphemeThe most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. The “morpheme’ is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.6. MorphologyMorphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation. So it refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed7. Semantic triangleAccording to Ogden an d Richard’s semantic triangle, there is no direct link between language and the world, or between the symbol ( the linguistic elements, the word, the sentence) and referent ( the object in the world of experience). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds.8. Lingua francaLingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers.9. componential analysisComponential analysis is a way to analyze lexical meaning, and it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.10. Cooperative PrincipleCooperative Principle (CP) was proposed by Paul Grice, under which there are four maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner. It means in communication, both parties involved will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning.11. acquisitionThe term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a language through exposure. It refers to the subconscious or conscious processes. It is learned in a natural or a tutored settings.12. interlanguageIt refers to the learner’s independent system of th e secondlanguage which is neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from native language to the target language.I.Students should be able to answer the following questions:1) Explain the three kinds of intersentential sematic relations: entailment, presupposition and implicature.Entailment is a relation of inclusion , If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.. X: I have been to Shanghai. Y: I have been to Chinaif x is true, then y is also true, If Y is false, then X is also X entails Y.X presupposes Y. ( Y is a pre-requisite of X).X: John’s brother has got married. Y: John has a brother.Implicature: The speaker may use implied meaning but not the literal meaning.2)According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performingwhile making an utterance Give an example.According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking. They are locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. For example: You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words. “you” , “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by ,asking such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, that is , asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance .If the then hearer g ets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, then the speaker goes to close the door for the speaker.3) What are the major differences between acquisition and language learningRod (1985) and Krashen (1981) regard acquisition as the spontaneous internalization of rules and formulas. The term acquisition is often used to refer to first language acquisition and second language acquisition. First language acquisition is also called mother tongue acquisition.Acquisition takes place in the speech community where one's first language or second language is spoken. It is often natural, without much focus on form. Thelearning of English by speakers of other languages in the United States is an example of second language acquisition.Foreign language learning usually takes place in the speech community where one's first language is spoken. It is a conscious process through formal school-like settings and requires time for processing, with focus on linguistic form in addition to knowledge of the rules of language use. For example, the learning of English in China.4) What are the similarities and differences between Semantics and Pragmatics Semantics focuses on the meaning that comes from linguistic knowledge without considering the context. Pragmatics studies the meaning in a certain context taking our knowledge about the physical and social world into account. Semantic analysis look for rules which are black and white, . you are either right or wrong. Pragmatic analysis look for principles. You can obey them to some extent and violate them to some extent.5) Why do we say Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Explain it in details.a. Language is systematic. Language must be a system since elements in the language are arranged according to certain rules. Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings.b. Language is symbolic. People use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs.c. Language is arbitrary. Language is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.d. Language is primarily vocal. Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed their writing systems.e. Language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species.f. Language is used for communication.6) What is the Sapir –Whorf hypothesisThe hypothesis assumes that people’s habitual thoug ht patterns and ways of perceiving the world are conditioned to a certain extent by the categories and distinctions that are available to them in their native language. Speakers of different languages may therefore have rather different world-views, depending on how different the languages are from one another semantically and grammatically. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be broken down into two basic principles: Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativity.II.Students should be able to draw the tree diagrams for common simple sentences and complex sentences.III.Students should be able to analyze the formation of words.IV.Students should be able to identify errors in given sentences and be able to explain the causes for errors.1. He speaked to T om yesterday.This intralingual error is due to the overgeneralization of the rule about the English v erb’s past tense form.2. There were some people came to watch the football match.The relative pronoun at the beginning of the attributive clause is missing. The learner has made an inter-lingual error because of the influence of his mother tongue, that is the Chinese grammatical pattern.3. They are loving basketball very much.This sentence should be corrected as: They love basketball very much. The learner has made an intra-lingual error caused by the over-generation of the target language grammatical rule. The learner failed to realize that in English some verbs never appear in the continuous tense including the verb: love.。
语言学概论》期末考试复习题及参考答案
语言学概论》期末考试复习题及参考答案语言学概论复题一、单项选择题1.音高取决于什么？A.发音体振动的振幅B.发音体振动的频率C.发音体振动的持续时间D.共鸣器的形状2.北京话“慢”单念时读[man]，但“慢慢儿”却有人读做[maimar]，前一音节的语流音变现象是什么？A.同化B.异化C.弱儿D.增音3.英语“worker”中的“-er”是什么？A.构词语素B.构形语素C.虚词语素D.词根语素4.下列汉语词语中的“儿”不属于词根语素（实义语素）的是什么？A.健儿B.女儿C.少儿D.花儿5.“吓唬”和“恐吓”在非理性意义上的主要差别是什么？A.语气意义不同B.感情色彩不同C.语体色彩不同D.形象色彩不同6.“XXX说服了XXX”中“XXX”是行为的施事，“XXX”是行为的受事，这种意义是什么？A.语汇意义B.语法意义C.语境意义D.蕴含意义7.语言成分的借用，最常见、最突出的是什么？A.词语的借用B.语音成分的借用C.词缀的借用D.语法结构的借用8.下列几种类型的社会方言中，具有排他性的是什么？A.行话B.黑话C.官腔D.贵族语言9.下列辅音音素都是XXX的一组是什么？A.[d。
l]B.[b。
k]C.[p。
n]D.[t。
v]10.从语音的社会功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是什么？A.音位B.音素C.音节D.音渡11.英语“students”中的“-s”是什么？A.虚词语素B.词根语素C.构形语素D.构词语素12.下列现象中不属于词法手段的是什么？A.虚词B.重叠C.轻重音D.词形变化13.下面词组中，结构类型与其他各组不同的一组是什么？A.年轻漂亮/朴素大方B.我们大家/首都北京C.铁路民航/工人农民D.贯彻执行/讨论研究14.下列成对的词语中，属于相对反义词的一组是什么？A.成功—失败B.合法—非法C.本地—外地D.勤劳—懒惰15.造成“北京人多”一句歧义的主要原因是什么？A.一词多义B.不同的句法结构关系C.不同的语义结构关系D.不同的层次构造16.下列关于语言起源的表述中，正确的一项是什么？A.语言产生于人类对外界各种声音的摹仿B.语言产生于人们的相互约定C.语言是人类有意识地在短时间内创造出来的D.语言是人类在长期进化发展过程中创造出来的17.在儿童学会说话的过程中，“双词阶段”标志着儿童已经具备了语法能力，能够组合两个词来表达意思。
英语语言学概论复习资料 (2)
Prescriptive:how things ought to beDo/Don’t say X. (Commands)
Descriptive:how things arePeople do/don’t say X. (Statements)
2. What will you say to a statement like “one culture’s meat is another culture’s poison”?
答案及评分标准
I.Definition.共5题
1.arbitrarinessrefers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bears no natural relationship to their meaning.
(a) cheery (b) funny (c) loony (d) crazy (e) happy
2. Make distinctions between the following pair of terms.
descriptive vs. prescriptive
3. What are the allomorphs of the morpheme ‘plural’ in this set of English words?
2.morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
语言学概论期末复习精要语言学概论期末复习精要
1.Students should be prepared to be able to define the following linguistics terms:1)Linguistics语言学Linguistics should be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.2)Language语言it is a system of arbitrary ˈɑ:bitrəri主观的vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a means of verbal communication. It distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated.[səˈfistikeitid].精密的, 尖端的than animal communication system.3)Langue语言Langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community.4)Parole言语refers to the actualized language5)linguistic competence语言能力Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language or the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relation6)linguistic performance语言运用Performance is the actual realization of his knowledge in utterances. It refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the indefinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors.7)Phonetics语音学The study of human speech sound.8)Phonology音位学The study of the sound patterning(sounds functioning)9)minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds combinations are said to form a minimal pair.10)deep structureThe syntactic structure which is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure11)surface structureThe syntactic structure ,which corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations is called surface structure.12)Semantics语义学the meaning of language13)Senseit is concerned with the inherent .[inˈhiərənt]固有的; 内在的meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.14)Referenceit means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.15)Pragmatics语用学it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.16)Register语域the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.17)Dialect方言A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called dialect.18)Acquisition获取First language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue. Second language acquisition refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.19)inter-lingual errorserrors result from language transfer, or caused by the learner’s mother tongue. i.e. caused by the learner’s NL e.g. “Elle regarde les”20)intra-lingual errorsThey mainly result form faulty or partial learning of the target language. It may be caused by the influence of one TL. Term upon another.21)applied linguisticsit refers to the application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to the study of language learning and teaching22)the aptitude testit is designed to measure the learner’s aptitude or natural ability to learn languages.23)the achievement testit focus on assessing a testee’s mestery of the contents of a particular course.24)co-operative principleit refers to that the participants in a convasation normally communicate in a maximally efficient natual and cooperative way.2.Students should be able to answer the following questions:1)In what ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?The focus of research has been transformed from the language system to the use of language.The rise of the inter-displinery research and the borderline介于两者之间的subjects.2)For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? Speech is prior to writing；The writing system is invented when needed；Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written；Speech plays a greater role than writing in daily communication；Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing；Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech.3)What is a phone? How is it differ from a phoneme? How are allophones related to aphoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.These sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit . It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.in English the sounds (phones) that possess the distinctive value are called phonemes.Phonemes are said to be the distinctive sounds.4)What are the five sense relations between words? Please illustrate them. p1361. difference in origin answer-reply;2. difference in the shades不同程度的of meaning;3. difference in socio-expressive meaning;4. difference in stylistic meaning;5. difference in collocation and distribution.5)According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing whilemaking an utterance? Give an example.locutionary act (言内行为) illocutionary act(言外行为) perlocutionary act(言后行为)“Good Morning!What did he do ?”He produced a sound, word, or sentence.The act performed in this sense is called locutionary act.言内行为He offered a greeting. illocutionary act言外行为. Locationary act (言内行为) is the act of saying something . It is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.E.g. “John, it’s very cold outside! ”母亲说出这句话的本身就是言内行为；母亲说出这句话的意图是为了让JOHN穿上大衣再出去，这是言外行为；JOHN听了母亲的话后，穿上大衣在出门，这就是言后行为。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性: One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammarwhich studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes派生词素: Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties. It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language. 2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules forpeople to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what the sign stands for.2) Productivity: provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent before and for understanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be moreinterested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and th e i r f i n d d i f f e r e n c e s . / p > p > P h o n o l o g y d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o u n d s y s t e m s o f p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s a n d h o w s o u n d s f u n c t i o n t o d i s t i n g u i s h m e a n i ng . / p > p > A p h o n e t i c i a n w o u l d b e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s c o s s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l n o t c o s d i f f e r e n c e s i n m e a n i n g . / p > p > 2 . W h a t i s p h o n e ? H o w i s i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m a p h o n e m e ? h o w a r e a l l o p h o n e s r e l a t e d t o a p h o n e m e ? / p > p > P h o n e i s a p h o n e t i c u n i t , i t h a s n o m e a n i n g . / p > p > P h o n e m e i s a p h o n o l o g i c a l u n i t w i t h d i s t i n c t i v e v a l u e . / p > p > T h e p h o n e m e / l / c a n b e r e a l i z e d a s d a r k / l - / a n d c l e a r / l / , w h i c h a r e a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e p h o n e m e / l / / p > p > A l l o p h o n e s - - - a c t u a l r e a l i z a t i o n o f a p h o n e m e i n d i f f e r e n t p h o n e t i c c o n t e x t s . / p >。
《英语语言学概论》期末考试doc
《英语语⾔学概论》期末考试docI．Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F). (10 points, 1 point each)1.Articulatory Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.2.Adjectives belong to open class words.3.John Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.4.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning the context of use is considered.5.English is a typical intonation language.6.Phones in complementary distribution should be assigned to the same phoneme.7.Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.8.There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regionaldialects.9.Transformations are the rules which can change the meaning of sentence.10.Sense and reference are two different notions of semantics, and they are related toeach other.II. Fill in the following blanks. (10 points, 1 point each)1.The word “and” is a c____________ conjunction.2.Linguistic c__________ is a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge of his language.3.The relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is a________.4. A m________ is the smallest linguistic unit that carries meaning.5. A sentence is formed by phonological rules, m______ rules, syntactic rules andsemantic rules.6.The most recognizable difference between American English and British English arein p________ and vocabulary.7.Speech v________refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers.8.P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.9.Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.10.As a type of linguistic system in L2 learning, i_______ is a product of L2 training,mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner..III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. (20 points, 1 point each)1. Which of the following branch of linguistics takes the inner structure of word as its main object of study?A. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. Morphology.D. Sociolinguistics.2. ________refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. DialectB. IdiolectC. PidginD. Register3. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stop?A.[w].B. [m].C. [b].D. [p].4. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called ________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy5. Which of the following words is NOT formed by blending?A. Smog.B. Botel.C. Brunch.D. Edit.6. What phonetic feature distinguishes the [p] in please and the [p] in speak?A.V oicingB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality7. The word boyguard is a ______.A. compound wordB. complex wordC. derivational wordD. free morpheme8. All words contain a _________.A. rootB. bound morphemeC. prefixD. suffix9. Of the following sound combinations, only ______ is permissible.A. kiblB. hkilC. ilkbD. ilbk10. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology?A. pho.B. no.C. lo.D. gy.11. Conventionally a ________ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme12. The plural affix in the word tables is a(n) _______.A. inflectional suffixB. derivational suffixC. free morphemeD. root13. Language is tool of communication. The symbol “highway closed”serves___.A. an expressive functionB. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function14. Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pair?A. but/pubB. wet/whichC. cool/curlD. fail/find15. Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experienced the world differently, that is relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of ______________.A. linguistic determinationB. linguistic relativismC. linguistic nativismD. linguistic behaviorism16. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and meaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.17. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic18. According to Krashen ______ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communication.A. learningB. competenceC. performanceD. acquisition19. Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguistics?A. Phonology.B. Psycho-linguistics.C. Sociolinguistics.D. Anthropology.20. The relationship between “flower” and “tulip” is _________.A. homonymyB. hyponymyC. polysemyD. synonymyIV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)A. From English to ChineseB. From Chinese to English1. acoustic phonetics 6. 应⽤语⾔学2. closed class words 7. 格语法3. componential analysis 8. 积极迁移4. distinctive features 9. 历史语⾔学5. Critical Period Hypothesis 10. 声调语⾔V. Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence by applying TG Grammar. (10 points)The man saw a horse.VI. Answer the following questions briefly. (20 points)1. Define phoneme. (4 points)2. Explain complementary distribution with an example.(5 points)3. What are the four criteria for classifying English vowels. (4 points)4. Analyze the following conversation by applying the Cooperative Principles.(7points)A: Teheran is in Turkey, isn’t it, teacher?B: And London is in France, I suppose.VII. Do the following analysis. (20 points)1. Write the one proper description from the list under B for the underlined part of each word in A. (5 points, 1 point each)A B(1) terroriz ed a. free root(2) un civil ized b. bound root(3) terror ize c. inflectional suffix(4) luke warm d. derivational suffix(5) im possible e. inflectional prefixf. derivational prefix2. Consider the following sentences in Swahili, and anwer the questions:(15 points) mtu amelala The man has slept. mtu analala The man is sleeping.mtu atalala The man will sleep.watu wamelala The men have slept.watu wanalala The men are sleeping.watu watalala The men will sleep.visu vinaanguka The knives are falling.kikapu kimeanguka The basket has fallen.watoto watafika The children will arrive.1)toto in Swahili means ______ in English.2)The meaning of the morpheme wa- in Swahili is _______.3)______ in Swahili means “sleep” in English.4)Translate mtoto anaanguka into English.5)Translate vikapu vimefika into English.台州学院_____学年第___学期___级____专业《英语语⾔学概论》期末试卷A卷（闭卷）参考答案及评分说明I．Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F). (10 points, 1 point each)II. Fill in the following blanks. (10 points, 1 point each)1. coordinate2. competence3. arbitrary4. morpheme5. morphological6. pronunciation7. variety8. performance9. scientific 10. interlanguage III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. (20 points, 1 point each)IV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)1. 声学语⾳学 6. applied linguistics2. 封闭词类7. case grammar3. 成分分析8. positive transfer4. 区别性特征9. historical linguistics5. 临界期假说10. tone languageV. Draw a tree diagram for the sentence by applying TG Grammar. (10 points)SNP Infl VPDet N pst V NPDet Nthe man saw a horseVI. Answer the following questions. (20 points)1. A contrastive phonological segment whose phonetic realizations are predictable by rules. (4 points)(or: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.)2. The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment.（4 points）e.g. [p] and [p h] never occur in the same position. （1 point）3. the position of the tongue in the mouth(1 point), the openness of the mouth(1 point), the shape of the lips(1 point), and the length of the vowels. (1 point)4. According to the Cooperative Principle, the participants of the conversation should obey the four maxims of the principle: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, the maxim of manner. (2 points) In this conversation, B’s reply deliberately violated the maxim of quality, (2 points) because B wanted A to infer the information that Teheran is not in Turkey. The main purpose of B is to let A know that it is absurd to make such a mistake.(3 points)VII. Do the following analysis. (20 points)1. (1) c (2) a (3) d (4) b (5) f (1 point each)2. 1) child （2 points）2) human, plural （3 points）3)lala （2 points）4)The child is falling.（4 points）5)The baskets have arrived.（4 points）。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
语言的起源语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）什么是语言学（linguistics）语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
认为，语言是一个言语集团的所有成员共享的抽象的语言系统。
言语是语言在世纪使用中的实现。
语言是习惯、规则，而言语是对习惯、规则的具体运用。
语言是抽象的、稳定的，而言语是具体的、变化的。
索绪尔认为言语是纷繁多变的，容易引起混乱，无法穷尽的语言事实对于系统的语言研究是很困难的，语言学家应该从纷繁的言语中抽象出规则，并将其作为语言学研究的主题。
即作为科学的语言学研究的对象应该是语言，而不是言语。
（2）规定（prescriptive）和描写（descriptive）如果一种语言研究是描写和分析人们实际使用的语言，那就是描写性研究。
如果一种语言研究的目的是为人们如何正确使用语言制定规则，告诉人们应该怎么说，不应该怎么说，那就是规定性研究。
在语言学史上的传统语法时期，语言研究的规定性的。
现代语言学多为描写性研究。
语言研究是描写还是规定是区别现代语言学和传统语法的重要标准。
（3）共时（synchronic）和历时（diachronic）在某一个时间点上对语言进行描写时共时研究；在某一个时间段内对语言的描写则是历时研究。
共时是历时的基础，历时是共时的延伸。
只有在对一种语言的各种共时状况都成功研究之后，才能对其历史发展中的变化进行研究。
即索绪尔认为共时研究应限于历时研究。
（3）组合（syntagmatic）和聚合（associative）索绪尔认为，语言的能指和所指之间的关系时任意性的，所以很难单独解释每一个符号的意义，而必须从符号与符号之间的关系来了解符号的价值。
组合关系结构的要素之间的关系，是水平关系（链条关系）。
聚合关系时一个结构中某个特定位置上可以互相替换的各要素之间的关系，是垂直关系（选择关系）。
组合是个语言要素之间的排列，聚合是各语言要素之间的选择。
（4）语言能力（competence）和语言运用（performance）语言能力和语言运用是美国语言学家乔姆斯基（Chomsky）在《句法理论要略》中提出的一对概念。
语言能力指一个理想的语言使用者关于语言规则系统的潜在语言知识。
语言运用则指在语言交际中这种语言知识的实际使用。
一个语言使用者具有一套内化的语言规则，这套规则使他能够说出和理解无限多的句子并能够辨别句子是否合乎语法，是否具有歧义。
每一个理想的语言使用者的语言能力都是完美的、稳定的，具有普遍性。
而语言运用则是不完美的、易变的，具有偶然性。
索绪尔的语言和言语的区分与乔姆斯基的语言能力和语言运用之间的区别在于。
索绪尔的语言是一个社会的观点，认为语言是社会的产物，是适用于一个言语集团的一套约定俗称的习惯和规则。
乔姆斯基的语言能力是个人大脑的特征，是一个心理学的观点。
语言学的运用第二章语音和音系语音及语音学2.1.1什么是语音2.1.2语音学及其研究对象2.1.3语音学的分支学科发音（1）发音器官（2）音素（phone）音素是从音质的角度划分出来的最小语音单位。
音素分为元音音素和辅音音素。
国际音标（International Phonetic Alphabet——IPA）国际音标是1888年由国际语音学会创制的，用来记录一种未知语言语音的符号系统。
国际音标的原则是“一个音素，一个符号；一个符号，一个音素”。
国际音标标音有宽式标音（broad transcription）和严式标音（narrow transcription）两种。
宽式标音是音位标音，严式标音是音素标音。
英语的元音和辅音2.4.1元音2.4.2 辅音音位2.5.1什么是音位2.5.2归纳音位的方法和原则最小对立对（minimal pairs）区别性特征（distinctive features）序列限制规则（sequential constraints）2.8.1什么是序列限制规则2.8.2英语中的序列限制规则若词的开头是l或r，则其后必为一个元音。
除部分叹词外，每一个词至少要有一个元音。
三辅音序列通常为：S+清塞音+流音音节(syllable)2.9.1英语的基本音节结构节首（onset）+节峰（peak/nucleus）+节尾（coda）2.9.2英语的音节结构特点（1）一个音节必须要有一个节峰。
（2）节峰通常由元音充当。
最小的音节是单个元音。
（3）节首辅音和节尾辅音都可省略。
首辅音可出现1-3个，节尾辅音可出现1-4个。
（4）一个音节有节尾辅音，叫闭音节（closed syllable）。
（5）一个音节没有节尾辅音，叫开音节（open syllable）（6）英语中有闭音节词，也有开音节词，但充当开音节节峰的只能是长元音和双元音。
重音（stress）声调（tone）语调（intonation）第三章形态学和词汇形态学（morphology）是语法学的一个分支。
它研究词的内部结构和构词规则。
词和词类3.1.1什么是词词是“最小的自由单位”（Bloomfield），即词是语言中能够独立运用的最小单位。
3.1.2词类（word classes）（1）开放词类（open class）和封闭词类（closed class）封闭词类：介词（preposition）、限定词（determiners）、代词（pronouns）、连词（conjunctions）、情态动词（modal verbs）、基本动词（primary verbs）开放词类：名词（nouns）、实动词（lexical verbs）、形容词（adjectives）、副词（adverbs）（2）变化词（variable words）和非变化词（invariable words）根据词形是否呈现出有规律的变化，把词分为变化词和非变化词。
变化词：名（数）、代（性、数、格）、动（时体）、形（级）、副（级）非变化词：连、介、叹词等（3）词汇词（lexical words）和语法词（grammatical words）根据词的功能，把词分为表达词汇意义的词汇词和无词汇意义，只有语法功能的语法词。
词汇词：名、动、代、形、副、数语法词：连词、介词（4）实词（cotent words）和虚词（empty/function words）根据词所表达的意义，分为实词和虚词。
实词指那些具有词汇意义的词，虚词只表语法关系。
实词表达语言的主要内容，虚词则从语法角度把它们连接起来。
实词即词汇词，虚词即语法词。
形态（morpheme）3.2.1词素/语素语素是语言中最小的音义结合单位（不能再拆分）。
一个语素可能是一个完整的词，也可能使一个词缀（affix）。
3.2.2 语素变体（allomorphs）同一语素在不同的构词环境中会有不同的形式，这些不同的形式就是语素变体。
语素变体可分为：（1）语音条件变体：变体的选择由基础词的语音形式决定。
如：英语中的复数的语素变体有[s] （pests）、[z] （dogs）、[iz] （houses），动词过去式的变体有[t]（stopped）、[d] （played）、[id] （wanted）（2）语素条件变体：变体的选择由基础词的词汇形式决定。
如：英语中的不规则复数、不规则的动词3.2.2 语素类型（1）自由语素（free morpheme）和粘着语素（bound morpheme）根据语素是否可以独立使用，可以分为自由语素和黏着语素。
·自由语素是可以独立成词的语素。
如：teach·粘着语素即词缀（affix），通常要附着在其他语素上。
有前缀（prefix），如：un-、in-、dis-；中缀（inffixes），如men、mice、 feet；后缀（suffixes），如：-er、-ed等。
（2）屈折语素（inflectional morpheme）和派生语素（derivative morpheme）粘着语素可根据是否构成新词分为屈折语素和派生语素。
屈折语素：对一个已有的词汇项提供更多的语法信息。
英语中多为后缀，如-s、-ed派生语素：指完全创造一个新词的语素。
英语中的前缀和部分后缀，如-er、dis-屈折与构词3.3.1屈折（inflection）指区别统一词汇单位不同语法形式的任何形式或形式改变。
屈折是语法关系的标志，这个关系是通过添加词缀实现的。
添加对象往往是名、动、代、形等实词。
词缀只表示数量、人称、体、格、语气、时态等语法关系。
不改变被添加成分的语法范畴。
3.3.2 构词法（word-formation）词位（lexeme）习语（idioms）和谚语（proverbs）第四章句法句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。