语言学资料
语言学概论复习资料
(一)名字解释一、语言：从结构和功能两方面看，语言是一种复杂的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。
二、口语是以语音为载体的语言形式，书面语是以文字为载体的语言形式。
书面语是在口语的基础上产生的。
三、副语言：语言不是人类惟一的交际工具，除了语言以外，人类还有其他辅助性交际工具，例如文字、体态等等，这类辅助性交际工具有时也被称为“语言”，为了跟真正的语言相区别，所以称为副语言。
四、自然语言：是由社会群体在日常交际活动中自然形成的语言，人工语言是个别人人工设计出来的语言。
五、组合关系：若干较小的语言单位组合成较大的语言单位，其构成成分之间的关系就是组合关系，又称线性序列关系。
词语之间的组合是有规则的；语言单位之间的组合是有层次性的。
六、聚合关系：具有相同组合功能的语言单位之间的关系，就是聚合关系，又称联想关系。
具有聚合关系的语言单位之间一般能互相替换。
具有相同聚合关系的语言单位，就构成某种聚合类。
七、词根语又成孤立语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示。
八、屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。
九、粘着语的特点是通过附加多种词缀来表示语法意义。
十、编插语又叫多式综合语或复综语，其特点是以动词词根为中心，在词根的前后可以附加上各种词缀，来表示各种语法意义或语汇意义。
十一、语音是在人类大脑神经支配下由发音器官发出的负载一定意义并能为人们所理解的声音。
十二、语音学：研究语音的学科就是语音学。
语音学的任务是研究语音在“发音---传递---感知”过程中的生理、物理和心理特性，分析语音的各种要素的社会功能，彼此之间的关系，以及语音系统的构成和发展演变规律。
语音学的分支：从研究对象的范围来看，语音学可以分为普通语音学和具体语音学；从研究对象的时间来看，语音学可以分为共时语音学和历时语音学；从研究对象的性质来看，语音学可以分为声学语音学、发音语音学、感知语音学和音系学；从研究的方法和手段来看，语音学研究有传统方法与现代方法之分。
语言学概论完整版复习资料
语⾔学概论完整版复习资料第⼀章语⾔和语⾔学1.语⾔与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系，在这种情况下，语⾔学必须明确⾃⼰的研究对象，才能成为⼀门现代意义上的科学。
2.任何符号，包括语⾔符号都是形式和意义的统⼀体。
3.什么是语⾔的客观存在形式语⾔的客观存在形式⾸先表⽰为有声的⼝头语⾔即⼝语，⽽当出现了⽂字以后，⼜表现为有形的书⾯语⾔即书⾯语。
4.语⾔符号的强制性正因为语⾔符号是社会约定俗成的，因此在同⼀社会，同⼀时代，对使⽤同⼀种语⾔的每⼀个社会成员来说是强制性的，是不能任意改变的，因为如果个⼈可以任意改变，那就互相听不懂了，也就从根本上丧失了交际⼯具的作⽤。
5.语⾔与⾔语的区别语⾔是⾔语活动中同⼀社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循⽽⼜成系统的那⼀部分；⽽含有个⼈要素或个⼈杂质的说话⾏为和说出来的话只能属于⾔语。
第⼆章语⾳1.声⾳的四要素：⾳⾼，⾳强，⾳长，⾳质2.振幅：也就是发⾳体振动时离开平衡位置的最⼤偏移距离。
3.频率：发⾳体在每⼀秒钟内振动的次数。
4.⾳⾼：就是声⾳的⾼低。
它是由频率的⼤⼩决定的。
频率同⾳⾼成正⽐。
频率越⼤，声⾳越⾼；频率越⼩，声⾳越低。
5.⾳强：就是声⾳的强弱。
它是由振幅的⼤⼩决定的。
振幅同⾳强成正⽐，振幅的⼤⼩⼜决定于使发⾳体振动外⼒的⼤⼩。
外⼒⼤，振幅就⼤，声⾳就强；外⼒⼩，振幅就⼩，声⾳就弱。
6.⾳长：就是声⾳的长短。
它是由发⾳体振动的持续时间决定的。
发⾳体振动的持续时间长，声⾳就长；发⾳体振动的时间短，声⾳就短。
7.基⾳：振动中有⼀个频率最低的振动，由它发出的声⾳叫做“基⾳”。
其他振动发出的声⾳叫做“陪⾳”。
8.乐⾳：当基⾳的频率的陪⾳的频率之间存在着整数倍的⽐例关系时，会形成⼀种复杂⽽有规则的，具有周期性重复特征的声波形式，这种声⾳叫做乐⾳。
9.噪⾳：如果基⾳的频率和陪⾳的频率之间不存在整倍数的⽐例关系，就会形成⼀种杂乱⽆章的不规则的声波形式，这种声⾳叫做噪⾳。
10.语⾳的⽣理基础：语⾳是由⼈的发⾳器官协同动作⽽产⽣的，⼈的发⾳及其运动是“语⾳的⽣理基础”，决定着语⾳的⽣理特征。
语言学复习资料
Chapter one Introduction一、定义 1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima l system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性） Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance （具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historic al study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole （具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain s ocial environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
语言学纲要复习资料
语言学纲要复习资料语言学纲要复习资料语言学作为一门研究语言的学科，涵盖了广泛的内容，包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个分支。
本文将对语言学的主要概念和理论进行复习和总结，以帮助读者更好地理解和掌握这门学科。
一、语音学语音学研究的是语音的产生、传播和接收。
它关注的是语音的物理特性和语音单位的分类与描述。
语音学的基本概念包括音素、音位、音节等。
音素是语言中最小的语音单位，而音位是具有区别意义的音素。
音节则是由一个或多个音位构成的，是语言中的基本音节单位。
二、语法学语法学研究的是语言的结构和规则。
它关注的是句子的构成和句法关系。
语法学的基本概念包括词类、短语、句子等。
词类是语言中的基本单位，包括名词、动词、形容词等。
短语是由一个或多个词构成的，具有某种语法功能的单位。
句子是由一个或多个短语构成的，具有完整意义的单位。
三、语义学语义学研究的是词语和句子的意义。
它关注的是词语和句子的含义和语义关系。
语义学的基本概念包括词义、句义、语义角色等。
词义是词语的基本含义，而句义是句子的整体含义。
语义角色是句子中不同成分所承担的语义功能。
四、语用学语用学研究的是语言使用的情境和目的。
它关注的是语言的交际功能和言语行为。
语用学的基本概念包括语用规则、语用失误、语用推理等。
语用规则是语言使用中的约定和规范，它决定了言语行为的合理性和恰当性。
语用失误是指在语言使用中出现的不恰当或误导性的言语行为。
语用推理是根据上下文和语境进行的推理和理解。
五、语言变异与语言变化语言是一种活动的、变化的社会现象。
语言变异研究的是不同地区、社会群体和个体之间的语言差异。
语言变化研究的是语言随时间的变化和演变。
语言变异和语言变化的原因包括地理因素、社会因素、历史因素、个体因素等。
六、语言习得与语言教学语言习得研究的是儿童和成人在自然环境中学习语言的过程。
语言教学研究的是如何有效地教授和学习语言。
语言习得和语言教学的理论和方法包括行为主义、认知主义、社会交际主义等。
语言学复习资料
语言学复习资料下定义1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics.2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds.6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers.11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head positionin another is known as head movement.12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word.13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.14.(P70)Relational opposites（关系反义词）: Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.15.(P74)Argument（论元）: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.16.(P77)Pragmatics（语用学）: Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.17.(P81)Constatives（表述句）: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.填空题第一章1. (P3) If a linguistic aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive（描写性的）. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive（规定性的）.2.(P4) The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic(共时的）study; the description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic（历时的）study.3.(P4) Langue(语言）refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole(言语)refers to the realization of language in actual use4. (P5) Chomsky defines competence(语言能力）as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance （语言表现）the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.第二章5.（P17)As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics(发音符号/辨音符）6. (P23) A phoneme(音素）is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value, it is an abstract value.7. (P24) It can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes,they are said to form a phonemic contrast(音素对照),e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].8. (P24)When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occur the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to from a minimal pair(最小配对).e.g pill and bill, pill and till are a minimal pair.9.(P25) Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, the rules are called sequential rules(序列规则).10.(P27) The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental feature(超音段特征).第三章11.(P33)Morpheme(词素): the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme(自由词素). Whereas a morpheme that must beattached to another one is called bound morpheme(粘着词素).12.(P33) The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs(词素变体).第四章13. (P44) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases(短语), the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.14. (P45)Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head(中心语), specifier(标志语）and complement(补语).15. (P48)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andtermed subcategorization（次范畴化）.16. (P52) Transformation(转换）is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.第五章17. (P67-68)Synonymy:近义关系的分类:1) Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词)-- synonyms used in different regional dialects.(来自不同地域的人使用同一种语言产生的不同）2) Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词) -- synonyms differing in style3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative(评价) meaning4) Collocational synonyms(搭配同义)5) Semantically different synonyms（不考）18.(P69) When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones(同音不同形不同义). When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs(同形不同音不同义). When twowords are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(同形同音不同义).19. (P70) Antonymy:反义关系的分类1) Gradable antonyms(可分等级的反义词)2) Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)3) Relational opposites(关系反义词)20.(P72) Componential analysis(成分分析)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.第六章21. (P81)Three Speech Acts:三种言语行为According to Austin new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act(言内行为), illocutionary act(言外行为), and perlocutionary act(言后行为).22.(P90)Pragmatic failure(语用失误) occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary(言外之意) force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of c ommunication.第八章23.(P111) Speech variety(言语变体), or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.24. (P117) Halliday further distinguishes three social variables(语域三变量)that determine the register: field of discourse(语场), tenor of discourse(语旨), and mode of discourse(语式).25. (P122) The term diglossia(双言制度) refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.上一页下一页。
语言学纲要 资料pdf
语言学纲要资料pdf摘要：一、引言1.语言学的定义和重要性2.语言学的历史发展二、语言学的基本分支1.语音学2.语法学3.语义学4.语用学5.语言学的历史比较研究三、语言学与相关学科的关系1.心理学2.社会学3.人类学4.计算机科学四、语言学在实际应用中的价值1.教育领域2.翻译和interpretation3.语言治疗和康复4.语言技术应用五、语言学的前沿发展与挑战1.神经语言学2.语言演化与演化语言学3.语言多样性与语言濒危4.语言技术的新发展六、结语1.语言学的重要性和影响2.语言学的发展趋势和前景正文：语言学是一门研究语言的科学，探讨语言的结构、起源、发展、变化、认知、社会与文化等方面的问题。
语言学的研究对于了解人类思维、沟通和文化交流具有重要意义。
语言学的历史发展可以追溯到古希腊时期，当时的哲学家们开始对语言的本质和结构进行思考。
随着历史的发展，语言学逐渐分化出许多不同的分支，如语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等。
语音学研究语音现象，包括音位、音高、音节、音调等方面。
语法学研究语言的结构和规则，包括单词、句子的构成和语法关系。
语义学研究语言的意义，包括词汇、句子的意义和语义关系。
语用学研究语言的用途和语境，包括语言行为、言语交际和话语分析等方面。
语言学的历史比较研究则关注语言的起源、演变和亲缘关系。
语言学与其他学科如心理学、社会学、人类学和计算机科学等有着密切的联系。
心理学研究心理过程和行为，对于理解语言的认知机制具有重要意义。
社会学关注社会结构和文化背景，对于理解语言的社会与文化功能有重要作用。
人类学则从人类进化的角度研究语言，探讨语言的起源和演变。
计算机科学则将语言学应用于自然语言处理和人工智能等领域。
语言学在实际应用中具有很高的价值。
在教育领域，语言学为提高教学质量、设计课程和评估体系提供了理论依据。
在翻译和interpretation 领域，语言学为准确传达信息、消除语言障碍提供了方法指导。
语言学概要复习资料
语⾔学概要复习资料普通语⾔学概要复习资料完整版第⼀章语⾔与语⾔学第⼀节语⾔⼆、语⾔是符号系统1、什么是符号？它有哪些因素构成？符号是⼀个社会全体成员共同约定⽤来表⽰某种意义的记号、标记。
符号包括了形式和内容（意义）两个⽅⾯的要素。
形式和内容互相依存。
2、符号和征候的区分？符号和所标记的事物是具有约定性的（或者是由某些⼈规定，或者是社会习惯），⽽征候与它所标记的事物之间往往具有⾃然（本质或必然）的联系。
3、符号的分类:象征（有⼀定的含义,有⼀定的理据）狭义的符号（没有理据，任意约定的）4、语⾔是⼀种符号系统？语⾔具有符号的⼀切特征：语⾔是由语⾳和意义两个⽅⾯统⼀构成。
语⾳和意义在具体的语⾔中统⼀于⼀体，密不可分，⼆者互为存在条件。
语⾳和语义的联系是社会成员约定俗成的，个⼈不能任意改变这种联系。
注：具体来说语⾔中的词可以分为三种情况：⼀类是“哈哈”“啊”等叹词，它们可以说是⼈类感情的本能的反应，可以归⼊征候。
⼀类是“哗啦”“汪汪”等拟声词，⽤事物所发出的声⾳来记录事物本⾝，和事物间有着⼀定的联系，但同⼀种事物的声⾳在不同的语⾔中往往有着不同的记录，也体现了它的社会约定性，可以归⼊象征。
剩下的语⾔中绝⼤多数的词，它们的⾳和义之间关系完全是社会约定俗称的，没有任何理据可⾔，属于真正意义上的狭义的符号。
5、语⾔符号的任意性和线条性特点？任意性和线条性是语⾔符号的两个最基本的特点。
语⾔符号的任意性是指语⾔符号的⾳义关系是由社会约定的，⽤什么样的“⾳”去表达什么样的“义”⼈们说不出什么道理，完全由社会约定，这种⾳义关系⼜叫约定性。
语⾔符号的任意性是就语⾔创制时来说的，语⾔符号⼀旦形成，在整个社会范围内的执⾏就具有强制性，因⽽也就表现为⼀定的稳固性（可变性）。
——民族性；——时代性语⾔符号的线条性是指符号的使⽤只能在时间的线条上绵延，⼀个符号跟着⼀个符号依次出现。
语⾔符号的排列只能成⼀条线，线条性限制了语⾔在组合时的空间位置。
语言学整理资料
第一章：语言与语言学A语言的特性：一、任意性与规约性1. 任意性：语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。
2. 规约性：语言的形式和意义是约定俗称的关系。
二、二层性：指拥有两层结构这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
（有限手段无限使用，人类交际最显著特征）三、创造性：指语言的能产性，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
四、移位性：指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间和观点（好处：使得我们有可能用抽象的概念来交流或思考）B与动物语言区别：由于喉部结构的差异，不适合吐字发音。
但可使用手势语言C语言的功能：信息功能人际功能施为功能感情功能寒暄交谈娱乐功能元语言功能D语言学的发展脉络：一、传统语言学：1.从哲学角度思考（名实之争）：区分主语、谓、宾等逻辑成分概念、对语言起源问题的讨论2. 语文学习角度研究（梵文）：为阅读理解古代经典文献服务的3. 历史比较角度（主要比较印欧语系）：试图通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律，拟测它们共同母语（提供了科学的方法）二、现代语言学（20c，结构语言学）语言是一个符号系统，提出语言的线条性、任意性、“能指”（符号可感知）与“所指”（符号所代表的内容）、“组合关系”（两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性顺序组合的关系）与“聚合关系”（某一位置能够互相替代）（区分历时）更强调共时研究，重视排除历史干扰而对语言现状进行现实的描写区分“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”，认为语言学首先要进行语言系统和系统内部各个要素的研究。
E当代语言学三个主要流派的基本思想：生成语言学派：语言是人类内在化的能力，人类语言虽然差别很大但遵循的原则相同。
强调语法的天赋性、自主性，着重探索人类语言的机制、共性，同时探究各个语言的参数差异，即在探索人类语言共性的基础上探究各个语言的特点。
天赋假设：语言是天赋，儿童生下了就有普遍语法，婴儿言语获得过程是先天的“语言习得机制”。
语言学概论复习资料全
语言学概论复习资料全语言学概论名词解释1.小学：中国传统语言研究主要是抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语言学。
2.语言的人际互动功能（情态）:人际互动功能是社会功能的一个方面，是依靠语言来建立或保持某种社会关联的功能。
互动包括两个方面，一是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，一是对受话者施加影响，得到反馈。
3.符号：符号就是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号或标记。
又叫做记号、信号，是用来代表其他事物的事物。
4.征候：征候是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。
5.组合关系：语言结构中各个成分之间的关系称为“组合关系”,即语言符号的链条上各个符号之间的关系，具体说来就是句子内部词与词之间、词内部语素与语素之间的关系。
（p31）6.聚合关系:根据在组合关系中具有相同的作用而成为一个聚合，这就是语言符号的一种聚合关系，是具有某种共同特点的语言符号之间的关系。
7.音位（p43) ：根据一个语言交际所需的必须区别而确定的语音小单位，叫做“音位”，即在具体语言或方言中，有区别词的语音形式作用的最小语音单位，它是从语音的社会属性和语音在具体语言中的作用的角度划分出来的音系学中的语音单位。
音位多用/ / 来表示。
8.音位变体：属于同一个音位的各个语素，是这个音位在具体语音环境中的具体表现，叫作音位变体。
9.语素：语素是语言中音义结合的最小的单位。
既有语音形式，又有意义内容。
（p85）10.词：词是语法结构中最重要的一级语法单位，是语言中能够自由运用的最小的语言单位。
11.单纯词：单纯词：指由一个词根语素或一个词根语素加上屈折语素构成的词，又称单语素词。
如：人、天、地、菠萝、琵琶、阿司匹林。
12.合成词：由两个或两个以上的构词语素构成的词叫合成词。
例如“高兴”“铁路“chairman”“notebook”等。
语言学概论复习资料(全)
语言学概论复习资料（全）一、知识题（填空与选择）：1、语言的客观存在形式，首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为。
2、口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
3、瑞典、挪威、丹麦三个国家使用同一个语言。
4、口语和书面语包括物理现象和心理现象。
5、口头交际活动有两个因素：语言和言语。
6、瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》开创了20世纪现代语言学的新局面。
7、语言系统是由语音系统、语汇系统、语法系统、语义系统组成。
8、在任何语言中，音调变化都是语调的主要构成因素。
9、音强变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。
10、音质是由声波的形式决定的。
11、音质是声音四要素中最重要的。
12、人体的发音器官包括发音的动力源、发音体、共鸣腔。
13、口腔、鼻腔和咽腔是人类共鸣腔。
14、语音的物理属性和生理属性是语音的自然属性。
15、[e][ ε][a][ u ][o ][ ][ ɑ]八个音被称作定位元音或标准元音。
16、辅音的音质决定于发音部位和发音方法。
17、音位变体分条件变体和自由变体。
18、音素之间存在着对立关系和互补关系。
19、韵母分成韵头、韵腹、韵尾。
20、常见的语流音变现象有同化、异化、脱落、弱化、增音。
21、同化又可分顺同化和逆同化。
22、从音位理论的角度看，最小的音段是音位。
音位的组合又可进一步划分为音节、音节组合、语句。
23、汉藏语系包括汉语、藏语、苗语。
印欧语系一般都是非声调语言，包括英语、法语、俄语等。
24、声调可从调值和调位两方面来分析。
25、重音可分为词重音和句重音。
26、语汇学包括语汇的类聚系统和语汇的构造形式。
27、根据音节的数量将词分成单音节词、双音节词和多音节词。
根据包含语素的数量将词分成单纯词和合成词。
28、古语词包括历史词语和文言词语。
根据词的不同来源分成新造词、古语词、方言词和外来词。
29、语法分为词法部分和句法部分。
30、语法单位通常分成语素、词、词组和句子。
31、语法手段分成词法手段和句法手段。
语言学概论复习资料
1现代汉民族共同语（普通话）：以北京语音为标准音，以北方话为基础方言，以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的普通话。
2现代汉语：是现代汉民族所使用的语言。
既有多种方言，也有民族共同语。
3方言特点：本身也有一种完整的系统。
语音，词汇，语法结构系统。
语音的差异最大，词汇的差异次之，语法比较小。
4汉语地位：1.世界上历史悠久的，发展水平最高的语言之一。
2.各兄弟民族的语言接受了汉语的许多影响。
3.世界上使用人数最多的语言。
4.与国外许多民族的语言相互影响。
5.联合国六种正式工作语言之一。
5语素——词——短语——句子（手）人（有读音，有意义，最小的语素）（沙发）（无法拆后原来意义不变）（伟）（无法单独成词）6现代汉语的特点：（一）语音方面①没有复辅音②元音占优势③有声调（二）词汇方面①汉语词形较短，单音节语素多②双音节词占优势③新词的构成广泛运用词根复合法（三）语法方面①汉语表示语法意义的手段主要用语序和虚词，不大用形态②词、短语和句子的结构原则基本一致③词类和句法成分关系复杂④量词和语气词十分丰富7七大方言区：1.北方方言（现代汉民族共同语的基础方言，以北京话为代表，内部一致性较强，分布地域最广，使用人口占73%）。
包含有华北东北方言和西北方言、西南方言、江淮方言2.吴方言（苏州话。
占7.2%）包括上海、江苏省大部、浙江大部地区3.湘方言（长沙话，3.2%）。
包括湖南大部分地区4.赣方言（南昌话，3.3%）。
江西省大部分地区5.客家方言（广东梅县话，客家方言仍自成系统，内部差别不太大，3.6%）。
6.闽方言（最重要的是闽东方言，福州话。
闽南方言，厦门话。
5.7%）。
主要包括福建和海南大部分地区7.粤方言（广州话。
4%）。
8语音的性质：一、语音的物理属性。
语音四要素：1.音高：声音的高低，决定于发音体颤动的快慢。
2.音强：声音的强弱，决定于发音体颤动幅度的大小。
3.音长：声音的长短，决定于发音体颤动的时间的久暂。
语言学复习资料
第一章绪论A.Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. linguistics2. langue3. parole4. arbitrariness5. displacement6. language7. design features 8. performance 9. competence 10. semanticsB.Fill in each blank with one word.1.Linguistics is the scientific study of ＿＿＿.2.In professional usage, the ＿＿＿is a scholar who studies language objectively,observing it scientifically, recording the facts of language, and generalizing from them.3.When the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of use, itbecomes another branch of linguistic study called ＿＿＿.4.The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society from thecore of the branch is called ＿＿＿.5.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is ＿＿＿.6.The branch of study related to sounds is called ＿＿＿.7.＿＿＿relates the study of language to psychology. Modern linguistics carried out inthe century is mostly ＿＿＿, it differs from the linguistic study normally known as “grammar”.nguage refers to the ＿＿＿linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.9.Chomsky defines ＿＿＿as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and＿＿＿of the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.10.Five of the design features of human language are ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿, ＿＿＿,＿＿＿.C.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1.The study of language as a whole is often called ＿＿＿.A. general linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics2.The study of language meaning is called ＿＿＿.A. syntaxB. morphologyC. semanticsD. pragmatics3.The description of a language at some point in time is a ＿＿＿.A. diachronicB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. prescriptive4.＿＿＿made the distinction between langue and parole.A. ChomskyB. SapirC. HallD. Saussure5.Which of the following isn’t the design features of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. PerformanceC. DualityD. Displacement6.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is known as ＿＿＿.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics7.＿＿＿refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.A. ParoleB. LangueC. SpeechD. Writing8.The definition “language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicat ing ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols”was proposed by ＿＿＿.A. SapirB. HallC. ChomskyD. Bloomfield9.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a goodillustration of the ＿＿＿nature of language.A. arbitrarinessB. productivityC. dualityD. cultural transmission10.Which of the following isn’t a major branch of linguistics?A. PhonologyB. SyntaxC. PragmaticsD. SpeechD.Indicate the following statements true or false.1.Linguistics studies a particular language.nguage is an isolated phenomenon.3.The language a person uses often reveals his social background.nguage is human-specific.nguage is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, and it is possible forlinguists to deal with it all at once.6.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.7.The study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society is calledsociolinguistics.8.Today, the grammar taught to learners of a language is basically prescriptive, so modernlinguistics is mostly prescriptive.9.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.10.The distinction between langue and parole is the same as the distinction betweencompetence and performance.11.Linguists Sapir and Hall both treated language as a purely human institution.12.“lblk” is not a possible sound combination in English.参考答案：B. 1. language 2. linguist 3. pragmatics 4. sociolinguistics5.descriptive6. phonology7. psycholinguistics, descriptive8. abstract9. competence, performance 10. arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement,cultural transmissionC. 1-5ACBDB 6-10CBAADD. 1-5FFTTF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TT第二章音系学A.Define the following terms, giving examples if necessary:1.Phonetics2.Stops3.Voicing4.Allophone5.Suprasegmental features6.Phonology7.Tone8.Consonant9.Vowel10.Narrow transcriptionB.Indicate the following statements true or false:1.Of the media of language, writing is more basic than speech.2.There have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have nothad written form.3.Speech sounds are limited in number.4.Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the mosthighly developed, is acoustic phonetics.5.Sound [l] in the word leaf is a dark [\].6.Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.7.In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels.8.Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a language; it aims to discover howspeech sounds form patterns and how they differ from each other.9.In English, the position of word stress distinguishes meaning.10.English is a typical tone language.11.Phonetics is of a general nature.12.Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense andloose vowels.C.Fill in each of following blanks.1.In linguistic evolution, ＿＿＿prior to writing.2.The three branches of phonetics are: ＿＿＿phonetics, ＿＿＿phonetics and ＿＿＿phonetics.3.The major suprasegmental features in English are: ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.4.The major rules in phonology are ＿＿＿rule, ＿＿＿rule, and ＿＿＿rule.5.Clear [l] and dark [\] are the ＿＿＿of the phoneme [l].6.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called ＿＿＿.7.The transcription with letter-symbols only is called ＿＿＿＿＿, the transcription withdiacritics is called ＿＿＿＿＿＿.8.In English these are two affricates, ＿＿＿and ＿＿＿.9.All the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are ＿＿＿.10.＿＿＿can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.D.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1.The ＿＿＿is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulationthan any other.A. lipsB. nasal cavityC. tongueD. oral cavity2.Liquids is classified in the light of ＿＿＿.A. manner of articulationB. place of articulationC. place of tongueD. none of the above3.In English, there is only one glottal. It is ＿＿＿.A. [l]B. [h]C. [k]D. [f]4.The phonetic symbol for “voiced, labiodental, fricative” is ＿＿＿.A. [v]B. [d]C. [f]D. [m]5.The difference between [u] and [u:] is caused by ＿＿＿.A. the openness of the mouthB. the shape of the lipsC. the length of the vowelsD. none of the above6.What kind of tone is used when what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-factstatements?A. The rising toneB. The falling toneC. The fall-rise toneD. None of the above7.In a sentence, which of the following is usually not stressed?A. NounsB. Demonstrative pronounsC. Personal pronounsD. All of the above8.Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above9.Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ＿＿＿.A. phonemic contrastB. complimentary distributionC. minimal pairD. None of the above10.The sound [v] can be described as ＿＿＿.A．voiced, labiodental, fricativeB．voiceless, labiodental, affricateC．voiced, alveolar, fricativeD．None of the above参考答案: A. 1-5 FTTFF 6-10TTFTF 11-12TF C. 1-5 CABAC 6-10 BCBBAB. 1. speech 2. articulatory, auditory, acoustic 3. word stress, sentence stress,intonation 4.sequential, assimilation, deletion 5. allophone 6. voicing 7. broadtranscription, narrow transcription 8. [] [] 9. rounded 10. Phone第3章形态学A.Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false).（）1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（）2. Inflectional morphology is one of the two sub-branches of morphology.（）3. The structure of words is not governed by rules.( ) 4. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.( ) 5. Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.( ) 6. Sometimes bound morphemes can be used by themselves.( ) 7. There is only one type of affixes in the English language.( ) 8. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.( ) 9. Compounding is the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.( ) 10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.B.Fill in each blank below with one word.1. __________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.2. The affix "-es" conveys a __________ meaning.3. __________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselves.4. __________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such asnumber, degree, and case.5. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called __________.6. The combination of two or sometimes more that two words to create new words is called__________7. Semantically, the meaning of a __________ is often idiomatic, not always being the sum totalof the meanings of its components.8. __________ morphology studies word-formation.9. A __________ can never stand by itself although it bears clears, definite meaning.10. __________ are added to the end of stems.C.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement.( ) 1. The word "boyish" contains two ____________.A. phonemesB. morphsC. morphemesD. allomorphs( ) 2. Inflectional ____________ studies inflections.A. derivationB. inflectionC. phonologyD. morphology( ) 3. ____________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. RootD. Affix( ) 4. ____________ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes( ) 5. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of ____________to froma new word.A. rootB. affixC. stemD. word参考答案：A．1-5 TTFTF 6-10 FFTFTB. 1. Morpheme 2. grammatical 3. Free 4. Inflectional5. prefixes6. derivation7. compound8. Derivational9. root 10. SuffixesC．1-5 CDBAC第5章语义学A．Indicate the following statements T (true) or F (false).( ) 1. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation ofmeaning they are linked through the meditation of concepts in the mind.( ) 2. Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning.( ) 3. There are words with more or less the same meaning based in different regional dialects. ( ) 4. Componential analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can not be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.( ) 5. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. ( ) 6. Among the approaches to the study of meaning, the naming theory is better than others.( ) 7. Kid and child are stylistic synonyms.( ) 8. "furniture" is the superordinate of "bed".( ) 9. Antonyms contrast each other only on a single dimension, such as "live" and "die".( )10. "Cold" and "hot" are complementary antonyms.( )11. In English, there is no argument in some sentences.( )12.The sentence "Tom, smoke!" and "Tom smokes." have the same semantic predication. ( )13. The sentences that contain the same words are same in meaning.( )14. The meaning of a word is the combination of all its elements, and so is the sentence. ( )15. The meaning of the word we often use is the primary meaning.( )16. Meaning is central to the study of communication.( )17. The naming theory of meaning was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.( )18. In the classic semantic triangle, the symbol is directly related to the referent.( )19. Sense and reference are the same.( )20. Complete synonyms are rare in language.( )21. Stylistic synonyms differ in style because they come from different regions.( )22. Polysemy is the same as homonymy.( )23. Homophones are words which are identical in sound.( )24. The superordinate term is more general in meaning than its hyponyms.( )25. In a pair of gradable antonyms, the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.( )26. In componential analysis, the plus sign is used to indicate that a certain semantic feature is present.( )27. The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality.( )28. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are semantically well-formed.( )29. A predicate is something said about an argument.( )30. There is only one argument in the sentence "Kids like apples".B. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1.In semantic analysis, ___________ is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.2.___________ restrictions are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.3.___________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided intomeaning components4.___________ is a relation of inclusion.5.For ___________ antonyms, it is a matter of either one or the other.6.There are often intermediate form between the two members of a pair of ___________antonyms.7.The various meanings of a ___________ word are related to some degree.8.Synonyms which differ in the words they go together with are called___________synonyms.9.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different ___________ in differentsituations.10.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.11.___________ is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from observablecontexts.12.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to according to the___________ view.13.According to Wittgenstein, for a large class of cases, the meaning of a word is its___________ in the language.14.In the study of meaning, ___________ focus their interest on understanding the human mindthrough language.15.According to the ___________ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to belabels of the objects they stand for.16.Autumn and Fall are two ___________ ___________.17.The words of English are classified into ___________ words and ___________ words.18.Hyponymy is the relation of ___________, superordingate entails all ___________.19.“Father” and “son” are ___________ ___________.20.In the sentences of entailment, if X is true, Y is ___________.21.___________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.22.___________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.23.The same one word may have more that one meaning, this is what we called ___________,and such a word is called ___________ word.24.___________ refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and amore specific word.25.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ___________.C．Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:( ) 1. “Lorry” and “truck” are ____________.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. synonyms that differ in their emotive meaningD. none of the above( ) 2. Which pair is the emotive synonyms ____________.A. dad, fatherB. flat, apartmentC. mean, frugalD. charge, accuse( ) 3. In the collocational synonyms, "rebuke" is collocated by ____________.A. withB. forC. ofD. against( ) 4. The noun tear and the verb tear are ____________.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. none of the above( ) 5. The sentence John likes ice-cream contains ____________ arguments.A. oneB. twoC. noneD. three( ) 6. The classic semantic triangle reflects ____________.A. the naming theoryB. the conceptual viewC. the contextualist viewD. the behaviorist view( ) 7. ____________ concerns with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it's abstract and de-contextualized.A. ReferenceB. SemanticC. SenseD. none of the above( ) 8. The same word may have more than one meaning, which is called ____________.A. synonymyB. homonymyC. hyponymyD. polysemy( ) 9. ____________ analysis is a way to analyze sentence meaning.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. none of the above( )10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called ____________.A. selectional restrictionsB. grammatical rulesC. phrase structure rulesD. all of the above( ) 11. Semantics can be defined as the study of ____________.A. namingB. meaningC. communicationD. context( ) 12. In the study of meaning, the ____________ are interested in understanding the relations between linguistic expressions and what they refer to in the real world.A. linguistsB. philosophersC. psychologistsD. phoneticians( ) 13. The linguistic ____________ is sometimes known as co-text.A. contextB. situationC. contextualizationD. situation of context( ) 14. Bloomfield drew on _____________ psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. contextualB. conceptualistC. behavioristD. naming( ) 15. Sense and reference are two related ______________ different aspects of meaning.A. butB. andC. orD. as well as( ) 16. ____________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.A. SenseB. ReferenceC. MeaningD. Semantics( ) 17. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ____________ dialects.A. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional( ) 18. Hyponyms of the same ____________ are co-hyponyms.A. wordB. lexical itemC. superordinateD. hyponymy( ) 19. Words that are opposite in meaning are ____________.A. synonymsB. hyponymsC. antonymsD. homophones( ) 20. An ____________ is a logical participant in a predication.A. argumentB. predicateC. predicationD. agentD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration.1. semantics2. the naming theory3. superordinate4. complete homonym5. hyponymy参考答案：A. 1-5 TTTFT 6-10 FFTFF 11-15 TTFFF 16-20 TTFFT21-25 FFTTF 26-30 TTFTFB. 1. predication 2. Selectional 3. componential 4. Entailment5. complementary6. gradable7. polysemic8. collocational9. references 10. Sense 11. Contextualization 12. conceptualist13. use 14. psychologists 15. naming 16. stylistic synonyms17. native, loan 18. entailment, hyponyms 19. relational opposites20. true 21. Sense 22. Reference 23. polysemy, polysemic24. Hyponymy 25. predicationC. 1-5 ACBBB 6-10 BCDBA 11-15 BBACA 16-20 BBCCA第6章语用学A．Decide whether each of the following statements is T (true) or F (false). ( ) 1. The contextualist view is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.( ) 2. Pragmatics is related to and also different from semantics.( ) 3. The notion of context is not important to the pragmatic study of language.( ) 4. All utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 5. Speech act theory was proposed by the British philosopher John Austin in the late 1950s ofthe 20th century.( ) 6. Grice made a distinction between what he called "constatives" and "performatives". ( ) 7. A locutionary act is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology.( ) 8. In their study of language communication, linguists are only interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and pay no attention to how his intention is recognized by thehearer.( ) 9. Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.( ) l0. The Cooperative Principle was proposed by John Searle.( ) 11. There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle.( ) 12. The violations of the maxims make our language indirect.( ) 13. All the utterances take the form of sentences.( ) 15. According to the speech act theory, when we are speaking a language, we are doing something, or in other words performing acts; and the process of linguisticcommunication consists of a sequence of acts.( ) 16. All the acts that belong to the same category of illocutionary act share the same purpose or the same illocutionary act, and they are the same in their strength or force.( ) 17. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in the syntactic form.( ) 18. Conversation participants nearly always observe the CP and the maxims of the CP. ( ) 19. A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.( ) 20. Utterance is based on sentence meaning, it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or simply in a context.( ) 22. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.( ) 23. Gradually linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.( ) 24. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.( ) 25. Without the shared knowledge both by the speaker and the hearer, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge,linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a semantic sense. ( ) 26. An perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention.( ) 27. According to Paul Grice's idea, in making conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. ( ) 28. An illocutionary act is the consequence of or the change brought about by the utterance.B. Fill each of the following blanks with one word.1. The shared knowledge which constitutes context is of two types; the knowledge of the _____they use, and the knowledge about the _____, including the general knowledge aboutthe word and specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communicationis taking place.2. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, itbecomes an _____, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actuallyused.3. The idea of Paul Grice is that in making conversation, the participants must first of all bewilling to _____; otherwise, if would be impossible for them to carry on the talk. Thegeneral principle is called the ______ ______, abbreviated as CP.4. There are four maxims under the CP: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of ______, themaxim of relation and the maxim of ______.5. The maxim of relation requires that what the conversation participants say must be ______.6. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certaincontext, ______can be regarded as a kind of meaning study.7. If ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.8. The meaning of an _______is concrete and context-dependent.9. An ______ is not considered, the study of meaning is restricted to the area of traditionalsemantics.10. According to Searle, ______ acts fall into five general categories.11. ______ are those speech acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course ofaction.12. To ask someone to pass a book is obviously a ______.13. According to Paul Grice, in making ______, the participants must first of all be willing tocooperate.14. Most of the violations of the four maxims give rise to ______ implicatures.15. The significance of Grice’s ______ Principle lies in that it explains how it is possible for thespeaker to convey more than is literally said.C．There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.( ) 1. __________ resulted mainly from the expansion of the study of linguistics, especially that of semantics.A. PragmaticsB. PragmatismC. PhonologyD. Practicalism( ) 2. Once the notion of __________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content( ) 3. If a sentence is regarded as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes __________.A. a sentenceB. an actC. a unitD. an utterance( ) 4. A __________ analysis of an utterance will reveal what the speaker intends to do with it.A. semanticB. syntacticC. pragmaticD. grammatical( ) 5. __________ act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language.A. SpeakingB. SpeechC. SoundD. Spoken( ) 6. __________ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.A. A locutionaryB. An illocutionaryC. A perlocutionaryD. A speech( ) 7. One of the contributions Searle has made is his classification of __________ acts.A. IocutionaryB. illocutionaryC. perlocutionaryD. speech( ) 9. All the utterances that can be made to serve the same purpose may vary in their __________ form.A. syntacticB. semanticC. grammaticalD. pragmatic( ) 10. The Cooperative Principle is proposed by __________.A. John SearleB. John AustinC. Paul GriceD. John Lyons( ) 11. Linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the __________ of language use was left unconsidered.A. brevityB. contextC. accuracyD. none of the above( ) 12. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the __________.A. locutionary actB. perlocutionary actC. illocutionary actD. none of the above( ) 13. The maxim of quantity requires: __________A. make your contribution as informative as required.B. do not make contribution more informative than is required.C. do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.D. Both A and B.( ) 14. The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to be __________.A. falseB. trueC. briefD. orderly( ) 15. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to __________.A. utterance meaningB. speech act theoryC. conversational implicatureD. all of the above( ) 16. The significance of Grice's CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey __________ is literally said.A. more thanB. less thanC. the same asD. none of the aboveD. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration:1. context2. utterance meaning3. locutionary act4. illocutionary act5. perlocutionary art参考答案：A. 1-5 TTFFT 6-10 FTFTF 11-16 TTFTT 16-20 FTFTT 21-25 FTFTF 26-28 FTFB. 1. language, world 2. utterance 3. cooperate, Cooperative Principle4. quality, manner5. relevant6. pragmatics7. context8. utterance 9. illocutionary 10. speech 11. Commissives12. directive 13. conversation 14. conversational 15. CooperativeC. 1-5ABDCB 6-10 CBCAC 11-15 BCDAC 16 A。
英语语言学整理资料名词+简答
英语语言学整理资料名词+简答第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicablein any linguistic studyPhonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communicationPhonology,which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics,neurological inguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学Modern linguistics与传统语法Traditional grammar 有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study （共时研究）; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study（历时研究）. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。
(完整版)00541语言学概论资料
第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式一、语言:1．语言是一种社会现象，不是一种物质实体.2．言语交际是一个编码（说话）和解码（听话）的过程。
（语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为,有声的口头语言,即口语）3．语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言是不完全一模一样的.二、口语和书面语的主要差别：1．口语：是有声的口头语言.2．书面语：是经过加工提炼和发展了的口语书面形式。
3．口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
4．书面语比口语更精练、更精确。
5．书面语比口语省略成份少一些。
（多了一些成份）三、口语与书面语的关系：1．口语是第一性的，书面语是第二性的。
2．书面语反过来影响和促进口语的发展.3．口语、书面语基本是一致的.（一般情况下）四、书面语产生具有重大的历史意义：书面语的产生克服了口语的时间、空间的限制,是人类进入文明社会的标志。
五、语言和民族：1．语言是民族的重要标志，但不是最可靠的标志.(1）在绝大多数情况下一个民族使用一种语言.（2）也有一个民族使用多种语言.（犹太民族）（3）不同民族使用同一种语言。
(满族、汉族）（4)尽管语言是最直观的，最容易识别民族的标志,从目前了解到的情况来看，“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”,也许是维系一个“民族"的最根本的因素。
因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准. 不能单凭“互相理解程度"来区分语言和方言。
(广东上海）六、语言与种族的关系：语言和种族没有必然的联系，但不是完全没有联系。
特别就“语系”而言，两者之间的联系还是比较明显的。
（汉语、汉藏语系都有声调)七、语言和种族没有必然联系的根本原因是：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关,但是语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是先天遗传的，它是一种社会现象，完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。
八、语言的客观存在形式：口语、书面语。
语言的客观存在形式首先表现为有声的口头语言即口语，而当出现了文字以后,又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语.口语和书面语都有两个方面：一方面是表示一定意义的声音或图形，这是一种物理现象；另一方面则是由声音或图形(字）表示的意义,那是一种心理现象，或者说是思维活动的结果和感情流露。
语言学资料
1、中国（文言文）、印度（梵语）、希腊-罗马（拉丁语）是语言学的三大发源地。
2、人类对语言的研究大体上可分为：语文学阶段、历史比较语言学阶段、结构主义语言学阶段、形式语言学阶段、交叉语言学阶段。
3、结构主义语言学派可以分为三派：布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派。
4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔，《普通语言学教程》，明确语言学研究对象，标志现代语言学的诞生。
5、新时期语言学的最大特点是：（交叉性）、（边缘性）。
6、形式语言学的主要代表人物是（乔姆斯基），他认为对语言进行描写和分析的目的在于研究人的（语言生成能力）。
他的目标是建立一个能产生所有句子的语法系统。
7、布龙菲尔德，《语言论》，美国结构主义语言学的奠基。
8、语言交际运用信息论的术语来说分为五个阶段：编码—发送—传递—接受—解码。
语言交际过程中，语言学关心的核心是编码和解码。
9、语言研究的最根本问题是：语言形式和内容的关系。
10、语言是第一性的，文字是第二性的，文字是对语言的再编码系统。
11、人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的（左半球）控制语言活动，（右半球）掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。
12、语言的功能：社会功能（信息传递功能，最基本的；人际互动功能）、思维功能。
13、语言的最根本性质：普遍性。
14、语言是具有沟通特性的、强制的、有声的符号系统。
1、语法规则是大家说话时必须遵循的习惯，不是语言学家规定的。
语言学家的任务是归纳、整理客观存在的规则，选择适当的方式将之描写出来。
2、组合关系和聚合关系是语言结构的两种根本关系。
组合规则的实现依托于聚合，聚合类的归并源于具体的组合。
聚合规则是潜在的，储存于人们大脑之中；组合规则是现实的，存在于话语中。
说话时，组合规则提出要求，局和规则提供可能。
3、语素是语言中音义结合的最小单位，也是最小的语法单位。
就汉语来说，大抵一个音节对应一个语素，即一个字就是一个语素。
同一个语素在组合时可能有不同的语音形式，如英语中的复数。
语言学复习资料
为什么语言是一种特殊的社会现象？语言是社会约定俗成的，一个人掌握和使用哪种语言，取决于他所处的社会。
因此，语言是一种社会现象。
社会生活的两个基本领域是经济基础和上层建筑。
无论是经济基础和上层建筑都是有阶级性的。
经济基础是指一定社会发展阶段占统治地位的生产关系各个方面（即所有制形式、交换形式、分配形式）的总和。
而语言的特殊性体现在它既不属于经济基础，也不属于上层建筑，是全民性的，是全民共同使用的交际工具，没有阶级性。
经济基础和上层建筑的变化都不会从根本上影响语言。
因此，语言是一种特殊的社会现象。
除语言外，还有哪些信息传递的方式？它们同语言是什么关系？文字、旗语和电报代码等、面部表情、手势、躯体姿态等。
文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助性交际工具；旗语和电报代码是对语言、文字的再编码，有语言文字，这些符号就不能独立存在；面部表情、手势、躯体姿态等多半是辅助语言来传递信息。
语言系统的二层性。
语言系统分为音系和语法两个层面，两个层面都有最小单位和小单位组成大单位的多级组织结构，这是语言系统最重要的特点，即语言系统的两层性。
音系层（形式层）：音位——音节语法层（符号层）：语素——词——词组/短语——句子特点：形式层的最小单位大大少于符号层的最小单位。
人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的根本区别（1）任意性动物语言中一定程度的“任意性”都局限于一个题目，是僵硬的，不能与人类语言符号的任意性同日而语。
（2）单位明晰性动物语言无论是借助声音还是借助形体都是不可分的。
（3）结构二层性动物语言不能分解成单位，谈不上有结构，更不用说有结构的二层性。
（4）能产性动物语言只能表达有限的信息，所能传递的信息是固定的。
它们的交际方式及其所表示的意义可以一一列举。
（5）传授性动物语言是与生俱来的本能，不用学习。
（6）不受时、地环境的限制动物的交际都是由当时当地的刺激引起的，是对具体情境的感性的反应，只能传递某种信息，既不能回顾过去发生的事，也不能设想未来。
语言学复习资料
1、第一章2、语言学，是研究语言的科学。
语言是语言学的研究对象。
3、语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
4、中国、印度、希腊-罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
5、语言研究的任务也只是给古代流传下来的政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。
6、人们抓住汉字、分析它的形体，讲求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学。
7、从研究古代经典中的书面语的语文学发展到全面研究语言的语言学，是语言研究的深刻转折。
8、语言本身的构造很复杂，可以分为语音、词汇和语义、语法三个部分。
9、综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律，这是理论语言学的任务。
10、语言活动深入人类社会生活的一切领域，只要有人活动的地方就需要语言。
语言不仅与社会科学，而且还和很多的自然科学发生了密切的关系。
11、语言进行交际的过程可以分为：编码—发送—传递—接收—解码，五个阶段。
12、语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学，既与社会科学有密切的关系，也与自然科学有密切的关系。
它的研究成果越来越为其他学科所关心、所运用。
它在整个科学体系中占有重要的地位。
13、话的长短差别很大。
短可以只有一个词，长可以长到无止境。
例如，在一定的环境中，“看”就可以是一句话，表达一个完整的意思。
但这种现象不典型。
说话通常是把几个词按照一定的顺序组合起来，造出一句话。
如看。
看书。
看一本书。
看一本有趣的书......不论多长的句子，我们都可以加上一些成分，使它更长。
当然实际说话的时候，句子是不会太长了。
因为说话的人说到后来会忘记前面说过的内容。
14、句子的数目无限，每句话又可以拉得很长。
事实告诉我们：无限的句子中包含着有限的词和为数不多的规则，学话就是掌握这套材料和规则。
15、每个人说话是自由，想什么时候说就什么时候说，想说什么就说什么，但说话时选择什么材料，遵循什么规则是不自由的，必须服从社会的习惯。
语言学概论复习(完整)
语言学概论复习资料一、名词解释1.语言的主观性：说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图。
（互动的另一方面包括受话人受到影响，做出相应的语言或行动上的反馈。
）2.语言能力：人的抽象思维能力与灵活发音的能力有机结合。
人的语言能力的生理基础相同。
3.心理现实：贮存在人脑的人对客观现实认知的成果，是关于客观现实的各种知识信息。
其来源：①感官对客观现实的直接感知，经脑神经综合处理转化为记忆信息；②对语言文字的接收处理。
4.颤音：舌尖或小舌连续颤动而发出的音。
（是舌尖、小舌这两个柔软的尖状物处在十分放松并有气流的冲击的状态下连续颤动而发出的音。
）例如：俄语中的Р（如РУка，手）是舌尖颤音[r]。
5.闪音：舌头颤动一次发出的音。
例如：英语very中的处于弱读音节的r[ʃ]。
6.区别特征：具体语言中有区别音位作用的发音特征。
每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。
例如汉语普通话/ɑ/音位有不圆唇和舌位低两个发音特征；某个音位利用哪些特征和其他音位对立，这由该特征在音位系统中所处的地位而定。
例如：英语音位用清/p/浊/b/对立而不同于汉语普通话的用是否送气来区别。
7.语言节奏：语言的节奏是狭义的节奏，是语流中某些超音段要素在时间上等距离地、周期性地交替出现。
相当于音乐节拍但不如音乐规整严格。
包括音节（或韵素）型节奏和音步型节奏。
8.成句范畴：语气（陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹）、情态、时、语态等句子功能意义类别。
成句范畴有一定的表达形式，例如疑问句语气可以用语调或虚词表达。
9.黏着语：只以黏着语素替换作为表示语法关系的主要手段的语言。
例如土耳其语、维吾尔语、芬兰语等。
10.概念结构：词义之间的相互关系叫做一种语言的概念结构，词义的形成以现实现象为基础，同时也受制于本语言词义的相互关系（概念结构）。
不同的语言对现实有不同的切分，也就具有不同的概念结构。
11.中心意义：离开上下文后人们最熟悉的意义，它大多同本义一致，有时同本义不一致。