(整理)文献翻译中文版
外文参考文献翻译-中文
外⽂参考⽂献翻译-中⽂基于4G LTE技术的⾼速铁路移动通信系统KS Solanki教授，Kratika ChouhanUjjain⼯程学院，印度Madhya Pradesh的Ujjain摘要：随着时间发展，⾼速铁路（HSR）要求可靠的，安全的列车运⾏和乘客通信。
为了实现这个⽬标，HSR的系统需要更⾼的带宽和更短的响应时间，⽽且HSR的旧技术需要进⾏发展，开发新技术，改进现有的架构和控制成本。
为了满⾜这⼀要求，HSR采⽤了GSM的演进GSM-R技术，但它并不能满⾜客户的需求。
因此采⽤了新技术LTE-R，它提供了更⾼的带宽，并且在⾼速下提供了更⾼的客户满意度。
本⽂介绍了LTE-R，给出GSM-R与LTE-R之间的⽐较结果，并描述了在⾼速下哪种铁路移动通信系统更好。
关键词：⾼速铁路，LTE，GSM，通信和信令系统⼀介绍⾼速铁路需要提⾼对移动通信系统的要求。
随着这种改进，其⽹络架构和硬件设备必须适应⾼达500公⾥/⼩时的列车速度。
HSR还需要快速切换功能。
因此，为了解决这些问题，HSR 需要⼀种名为LTE-R的新技术，基于LTE-R的HSR提供⾼数据传输速率，更⾼带宽和低延迟。
LTE-R能够处理⽇益增长的业务量，确保乘客安全并提供实时多媒体信息。
随着列车速度的不断提⾼，可靠的宽带通信系统对于⾼铁移动通信⾄关重要。
HSR的应⽤服务质量（QOS）测量，包括如数据速率，误码率（BER）和传输延迟。
为了实现HSR的运营需求，需要⼀个能够与 LTE保持⼀致的能⼒的新系统，提供新的业务，但仍能够与GSM-R长时间共存。
HSR系统选择合适的⽆线通信系统时，需要考虑性能，服务，属性，频段和⼯业⽀持等问题。
4G LTE系统与第三代（3G）系统相⽐，它具有简单的扁平架构，⾼数据速率和低延迟。
在LTE的性能和成熟度⽔平上，LTE- railway（LTE-R）将可能成为下⼀代HSR通信系统。
⼆ LTE-R系统描述考虑LTE-R的频率和频谱使⽤，对为⾼速铁路（HSR）通信提供更⾼效的数据传输⾮常重要。
文献翻译(中文)
翻译发达国家的环保政策在过去几十年有了显着进步。
早期的污染控制方案包括指挥和控制方法。
之后国家的相关政策中经常包括排污收费，排污权交易等市场基础的手段。
最近，“第三次环境政策的浪潮”已出现，强调环境信息披露是作为风险缓解战略的重要组成部分。
在这里，（更多的）政府的监管是为了取代或推定协助更多有效成本的私营市场和法律的力量公开提供的资料补充。
常见的例子包括有毒物质释放库存，含铅油漆解散关闭，饮用水水质告示，以及生态标签。
这种方案按照经验来看非常有效，但是，还有很大程度上的不确定性。
本文考察了著名的大型电力公用事业公司的燃料混合比例强制披露方案的影响。
强制性信息披露政策不仅仅限于环境领域。
例如，经合组织国家的股市通常需要企业财务信息的披露。
在许多国家，农业产品需要原籍国和其他健康标签。
餐厅的增加，需要卫生显示卡。
国内高校的法律规定，告知犯罪统计资料，公平和未来的学生当前数据和能力指标。
即使重大医疗差错，现在必须向社会公布。
有一些政策提出了信息披露的潜在优势，相关理论也表明披露程序，可以有效地实现企业的目标。
希利和佩普（2001）提供了在资本市场的证据调查。
Brouhle和卡纳（2007年）表明，提供信息可以提高产品质量。
在环境方面，肯尼迪埃塔尔。
（1994年），阿罗拉和Gangopadhyay（1999），麦克斯韦埃塔尔。
（2000年），柯彻夫（2000年）和卡纳（2001）表明，对污染信息提供可能纠正市场失灵，提高性能，并改善社会福利。
尽管有许多关于信息披露的相关文献的理论研究结果，披露方案的经验影响仍然没有起到很好的效果。
证券监管的早期研究发现不同的结果。
见斯蒂格勒（1964年），罗宾斯和Werner（1964），和斯顿（1973年）。
更加近期的文献表明，在金融市场披露程序可以实现其预期的效果;拉波塔等。
（2006）和绿宝石等。
（2006年）发现，市场规模和市场回报具有正面的强制披露方案的影响。
三相电度表中英文对照外文翻译文献(精)
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)always adopts mechanical tinplate to measure. There are some shortcomings that the measurement precision falls with machine abrasion, single time period setting and strong manpower [2]. In this paper, we propose a novel multi-rate three-phase watt-hour meter based on AT89LV52. This multi-rate three-phase watt-hour meter adoptsAD7752 for measurement. It has the characteristics which are time-sharing measurement, accurate measurement, LCD display, automatic meter reading, flexible time period setting, timely emendation, low cost and novel design. II. STRUCTURE AND WORKING PRINCIPLEThe novel multi-rate three-phase watt-hour meter proposed in this paper is based upon AT89LV52 singlechip [3]. AT89LV52 has the flash memorizer with 8k bytes, cryptographical program memorizer with third class, RAM with 256 bytes, 32 programmable I/O lines, three time/ counter with 16 bits and a two class halt with six vectors. The interface circuit adopts I2C bus unit which is a 8 bits singlechipwith good performance and suitable price. The system structure diagram is shown in figure 1.Figure 1. System structure diagramThe principle of this multi-rate watt-hour meter is reading in themulti-rate time segments using RS485 bus and noting in X25045 then take over correctional clock with RS485 bus and write in clock CMOS chip S3530A. Thethree-phase AC voltage and electric current pass through potentiometer and mutual inductance instrument respectively so as to produce small signal which is sent toAD7752 to complete measurement. The clock CMOS chip S3530A gives clockinformation per second in the course of automatic move and analyze this clock belongs to which period of time according to advance periods of time set in X25045 then save the electrical energy in RAM memorizeraccording to corresponding period of time. We write it to corresponding address ofX25045 when the electrical energy achieves one degree in order to make the multi-rate measurement come true. This watt-hour meter hasfunctions of clear LCD display, missing phase detection, burthen control, halt electricity check and storage, automatic meter reading and so on.III. THE DESIGH OF HARDWARE CIRCUITA． Electrical energy measurementThe three-phase electrical energy measurement is realized by the low consume CMOS chip AD7752 of ADI company. The inside of AD7752 adopts digital circuit besides ADC, filter and multiplication circuit which can eliminate noises effectively. The sampling course of voltage and electric current in three-phase AC power supply loop is shown in figure 2 in which IA stands for voltage sampling of A phase. The sampling circuits of B phase and C phase are similar to A phase. The power after integral is transformed to electrical pulse for output. The pulse of fan-out CF enters into interregnum INT0 of AT89LV52 through photoelectricity insulation 4N25. CPU measures the electrical energy [4]. We adjust the pulse number of CF by combining the state of S1 and S2. The connection of electrical energy and pulse is W = M C . In which, W is the electrical energy with the unit of kilowatt-hour, M is the total pulse number,C is the pulse number of ammeter. We choose C equals to 3000 that is to say every kilowatt-hour is 3000pulses.Figure 2. Circuit schematic diagramof watt-hour meterB． LCD displayThe LCD display [6] adopts HT1621 CMOS chip of HOLTEK Company toachieve twelve bits digital display. HT1621 is the LCD drivers with 128 segments (32×4) inner memorizer. The interior of HT1621 consists ofcontrol and time circuits, RAM, LCD drive and watch timer. It hasthe merits of small volume and low cost so that it is suit to watt-hour meter. We use serial interface which only has four lines between HT1621 and AT89LV52. The detailed connection is shown in figure 3. P20, P21, P22 and P23 of AT89LV52 connect to CS, RD, WR and DATA respectively with the use to refurbish the display of RAM. HT1621 drive CMOS chip has 48 nodes in which COM0, COM1, COM2, COM3 connect to the communal end and drive output of LCD and SG0, SG1, SG2, SG3 connect to drive output of every segment respectively. In addition, an adjustable resistance of 20kΩ is put between VDD and VLCD to adjust the display contrast of LCD. Experiment shows that the contrast is better with VDD=5V and VLCD=4V. C． Serial memorizerSerial memorizer adopts low power consumption chip X25045 of XICORcompany .It has three functions which are watchdog timer WTD, voltage supervision and serial memorizer E2PROM with 512 bytes. WTD can be set 200ms, 600ms and 1400ms time intervals. The software program is read into X25045. During the normal running of program, WTD receives the trigger signal in time intervals in order to ensure the normal running of program. X25045 will output a high potential through RESET line if WTD does not receive trigger signal in time intervals. The trigger watt-hour meter reset in order to prevent program flying away. As the serial memorizer chip, 512 bytes of X25045 are used to storage the watt-hour meter code, multi-rate periods of time, the apex electricity, smooth electricity, vale electricity and total electricity of last month and this month. Storage can be divided into two same areas. One is used as data storage. The other is used for backup. The number of storagecan be revised 100,000 times. Data can be stored for 100 years. It is connected withAT89LV52 by SPI agreement bus. The connection is shown in figure 3.D． Clock circuitThe clock circuit is completed by S3530A chip. It is a low powerconsumption clock chip that supports I2C Bus. It sets the clock and calendar according to the data received by CUP communicating with RS485. At the same time, it continues to walk time by its own oscillation. The crystaloscillator of 32.768 kHz is put between Xin and Xout of S3530A which is connected with CPU through latching. SDA foot and SCL foot connect to P1.6 and P1.7 ofAT89LV52 respectively. There are two interrupt alarming foots can be set as second output or minute output synchronizing pulse which supply interrupt signal toAT89LV52 with one second period. Single-chip system will readout the current time through I2C communication interface according to this signal and calculate the period of time that this moment belongs to so as to realize the electrical energy measurement in different periods of time [5]. This clock circuit has spare lithium battery. The powersupply VCC supply power in normal wiring and electrified for lithium battery of 3.6V. When there is power off, the system will automatically convert lithium battery to clock circuit for power supply. The clock will still running accurately even the power is off.Figure 3. Partial circuit figure of watt-hour meterE． RS485 CommunicationMAX485 chip can implement RS485 communication control ofmulti-rate watt-hour meter. MAX485 chip has RS485 communication protocol. It can take 128 hypogenous computers. Its transmission distance is greater than 1km and its transfer rate is up to 250kb per second. The watt-hour meter connects with the unit controller through the RS485 bus. Each unit has a cell controller can manage 128 multi-rate watt-hour meter. The cell controller connects to power management computer.Each watt-hour meter has one and only meter number with eight bits of hex. The electrician should write the user’s information and meter number and then import to the power management computer for initial installation so ad to complete the connection of user and management computer. Management computer sends setting of period of time and clock information with the manner of broadcast communication without address information. PC uploads information by the way of calling address. F． Lack Phase detection and relay controlIt can achieve relay control [7] with P27 of AT89LV52. P27 cancontrol relays using 4N25 photoelectricity isolator so as to complete powersupply and power control. Lack Phase detection gets the signal from fan-out of the relay and connects to 1 foot of photoelectricity isolator after passing a 75K resistance, the diode half-wave rectifier and capacitive filtering respectively. We detect the 4 foot of isolator to determine whether there is the lack of phase. If there is lack of phase, we detect again after 2 seconds overtime. We break off the power immediately if there is lack of power after the twice confirmation. In power protection circuit, it uses the INT1 interrupt foot of AT89LV52 to detect signal.When there is a sudden power off, INT1 jumps into a low voltage and the INT1 interrupt enters to the power protection program relying on the energy storage capacitor to save data. In the system, pulse output of AD7752, relay control port and the inputs of lack phase detection all use photoelectric isolator 4N25. It sends electrical signal by light coupling which can enhance the ability of anti-jamming. IV. THE DESIGN OF SOFTWAREA．The distribution of resourceThe software program includes main program, X25045 read and write program, RS485 serial communication program, interrupt serve program, timer handling program,HT1621 display control program, electrical energy measurement in different period of time and power down protection program, and system self-checking andanti-interference handling program. Interrupt resource distribution of system is: INT0 interrupt is used as AD7752 pulse measurement, INT1 as synchronization detecting, timer T0 as 100 ms timing, T1 as 1ms timing, and T2 as baud rate generator for serial communication program. RS485 asynchronous communication is set to receive interrupt and check information for sending.B． Module desighThe flow chart of main program is shown in figure 4. The watt-hourmeter should be able to initialize at each power up time. The initializing program includes setting working mode of timers, serial stomata and interrupts for AT89LV52,writing control word into X25045, S3530A and HT1621. This system sets three periods of time. The singlechip reads clock value from S3530A per second then analyze this clock belongs to which period of time according to advance periods of time set inX25045 then save the electrical energy in RAM memorizer according to corresponding period of time. We write it to corresponding address of X25045 when the electrical energy achieves one degree. The LCD display with 16 bits shows period of time and electrical energy information in turn. Figure 4. Flow chart of main program V. TESTING RESULTError measurement and running test have been made in Zibo Billion Electron Co., Ltd. The epigenous computer completes the setting of time management. There arethree-rate period of time. The first period of time is vale electricity from 00 point 00 minute to 06 point 30 minutes. The second period of time is apex electricity from 06 point 30 minutes to 22 point 30 minutes. The third period of time is smooth electricity from 22 point 30 minutes to 24 point 00 minute. The setting of rate period of time is sent to computer management system by electric power company according to national policy and saved in X25045. The apex electricity, smooth electricity, vale electricity and total electricity per month read saved in electrical energy meter and sent to epigenous computer through cell controller. The communication baud rate is 9600 bits per second. The checkout platform of 0.1 grade standard electronic power meter is used as standard meter and the multi-rate watt-hour meter is the tested meter. Billion Electron Company has carried out testing according to different load running. The measured data is shown in table 1 with the burthen of 30kW.TABLE I. COMPARE OF NORMAL METER AND TESTING METERThe testing result indicates that the error of this multi-ratewatt-hour meter is less than 1%, belongs to 1.0 grade. The return reading of electrical energy is precision and the emendation of time is timely and right. By testing, the method of decreasing errors for electricity metering can be obtained. Firstly, adjust the sampling resistance of AD7752 to accurate value. Secondly, the value of this resistance is needed less varying with temperature. Thirdly, during electricity metering progress, when mantissa portion of electricity is less than0.01, the remaining pulse should be accessed together, thus cumulative error caused by lack of 0.01degree energy loss could be avoided.VI. CONCLUSION AND EXPECTATIONThe multi-rate watt-hour meter achieves electrical energycomputation in different time according to different time setting. It adopts RS485 for serial communication and realizes automatic meter reading and real-time emendation. The results of production in Billion Electron Company showthat the multi-rate three-phase watt-hour meter proposed in this paper has the characteristics of novel design technique, accurate measurement, and flexible time period setting. Various technical indexes achieve the technique standard for national intelligent card watt-hour meter. Therefore, it has wide application. REFERENCES [1] Bu Zhengl iang, Yin Xianggen, Tu Guangyu. “Development of HV Watt-hour meter.” Automation of Electric Power Systems, 2006, 30(19): 89-93.[2] Kosukegawa M., Sakumoto Y. “Traceability system of electric energy standard and tendency in static watthour meter developmen t in Japan.” Sixth International Conference on Metering Apparatus and Tariffs for Electricity Supply, 1990,4: 259-263.[3] Xuehai Li. Applied tutorial of singlechip. Electronic industry publishing company, 2003.[4] Al-Khateeb Tarik, Blundel Martin. “An el ectronic meter for measuring the saving in electrical power.” The Ninth Arab International Conference on Solar Energy (AICSE-9), Kingdom of Bahrain, 2007,4 (209):328-333.[5] Liu Ying, Liu Qingyu. “Development of a self-calibration precision electricalmea suring meter.” Proceedings of the 1998 Conference Precision Electromagnetic Measurements, 1998,7:276.。
英文文献pdf翻译成中文
英文文献pdf翻译成中文
对于将英文文献PDF翻译成中文，有几种常见的方法可以实现。
首先，你可以使用在线翻译工具，如Google翻译或百度翻译，直接
上传PDF文件并选择需要翻译的语言。
这些工具可以快速将整个文
档翻译成中文，但需要注意的是，由于自动翻译的限制，可能会出
现一些翻译不准确或不通顺的情况，特别是对于专业术语或复杂句子。
其次，你也可以雇佣专业的翻译人员或翻译公司来完成这项任务。
他们可以提供更准确、流畅的翻译，尤其是对于专业领域的文献，这种方式会更可靠。
然而，这需要一定的成本和时间，因为翻
译人员需要逐字逐句地进行翻译，并且可能需要进行专业术语的翻
译和校对。
另外，如果你自己对英文和中文都比较熟悉，也可以考虑自行
翻译。
这种方式可以确保翻译的准确性和流畅性，但需要花费较多
的时间和精力。
无论采用哪种方式，翻译文献需要保证准确性和完整性，尤其
是对于学术文献或专业领域的文献。
希望这些信息能够帮助你找到合适的方法来将英文文献PDF翻译成中文。
建筑防火中英文对照外文翻译文献
- 1 -中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文文献外文文献: :Designing Against Fire Of BulidingABSTRACT:This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electricalsystems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are consideredin the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed.1 INTRODUCTIONOther papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the case of fire. Rather, it is building regulations such as the Building Code of Australia (BCA) that directly specify most of the requirements for fire safety of buildings with reference being made to Standards such as AS3600 or AS4100 for methods for determining the fire resistance of structural elements.The purpose of this paper is to consider the design of buildings for fire safety from an engineering perspective (as is currently done for other loads such as wind or earthquakes), whilst at the same time,putting such approaches in the context of the current regulatory requirements.At the outset,it needs to be noted that designing a building for fire safety is far more than simply considering the building structure and whether it has sufficient structural adequacy.This is because fires can have a direct influence on occupants via smoke and heat and can grow in size and severity unlike other effects imposed on the building. Notwithstanding these comments, the focus of this paper will be largely on design issues associated with the building structure.Two situations associated with a building are used for the purpose of discussion. The multi-storey office building shown in Figure 1 is supported by a transfer structure that spans over a set of railway tracks. It is assumed that a wide range of rail traffic utilises these tracks including freight and diesel locomotives. The first situation to be considered from a fire safety perspective is the transfer structure.This is termed Situation 1 and the key questions are: what level of fire resistance is required for this transfer structure and how can this be determined? This situation has been chosen since it clearly falls outside the normal regulatory scope of most build-ing regulations. An engineering solution, rather than a prescriptive one is required. The second fire situation (termed Situation 2) corresponds to a fire within the office levels of the building and is covered by building regulations. This situation is chosen because it will enable a discussion of engineering approaches and how these interface with the building regulations regulations––since both engineering and prescriptive solutions are possible.2 UNIQUENESS OF FIRE2.1 Introduction Wind and earthquakes can be considered to b Wind and earthquakes can be considered to be “natural” phenomena o e “natural” phenomena o e “natural” phenomena over which designers ver which designers have no control except perhaps to choose the location of buildings more carefully on the basis of historical records and to design building to resist sufficiently high loads or accelerations for the particular location. Dead and live loads in buildings are the result of gravity. All of these loads are variable and it is possible (although generally unlikely) that the loads may exceed the resistance of the critical structural members resulting in structural failure.The nature and influence of fires in buildings are quite different to those associated with other“loads” to which a building may be subjected to. The essential differences are described in the following sections.2.2 Origin of FireIn most situations (ignoring bush fires), fire originates from human activities within the building or the malfunction of equipment placed within the building to provide a serviceable environment. It follows therefore that it is possible to influence the rate of fire starts by influencing human behaviour, limiting and monitoring human behaviour and improving the design of equipment and its maintenance. This is not the case for the usual loads applied to a building.2.3 Ability to InfluenceSince wind and earthquake are directly functions of nature, it is not possible to influence such events to any extent. One has to anticipate them and design accordingly. It may be possibleto influence the level of live load in a building by conducting audits and placing restrictions on contents. However, in the case of a fire start, there are many factors that can be brought to bear to influence the ultimate size of the fire and its effect within the building. It is known that occupants within a building will often detect a fire and deal with it before it reaches a sig- nificant size. It is estimated that less than one fire in five (Favre, 1996) results in a call to the fire brigade and for fires reported to the fire brigade, the majority will be limited to the room of fire origin. Inoc- cupied spaces, olfactory cues (smell) provide powerful evidence of the presence of even a small fire. The addition of a functional smoke detection system will further improve the likelihood of detection and of action being taken by the occupants.Fire fighting equipment, such as extinguishers and hose reels, is generally provided within buildings for the use of occupants and many organisations provide training for staff in respect ofthe use of such equipment.The growth of a fire can also be limited by automatic extinguishing systems such as sprinklers, which can be designed to have high levels of effectiveness.Fires can also be limited by the fire brigade depending on the size and location of the fire at the time of arrival.2.4 Effects of FireThe structural elements in the vicinity of the fire will experience the effects of heat. The temperatures within the structural elements will increase with time of exposure to the fire, the rate of temperature rise being dictated by the thermal resistance of the structural element and the severity of the fire. The increase in temperatures within a member will result in both thermal expansion and,eventually,a reduction in the structural resistance of the member. Differential thermal expansion will lead to bowing of a member. Significant axial expansion willbe accommodated in steel members by either overall or local buckling or yielding of local- ised regions. These effects will be detrimental for columns but for beams forming part of a floorsystem may assist in the development of other load resisting mechanisms (see Section 4.3.5).With the exception of the development of forces due to restraint of thermal expansion, fire does not impose loads on the structure but rather reduces stiffness and strength. Such effects are not instantaneous but are a function of time and this is different to the effects of loads such as earthquake and wind that are more or less instantaneous.Heating effects associated with a fire will not be significant or the rate of loss of capacity will be slowed if:(a) the fire is extinguished (e.g. an effective sprinkler system)(b) the fire is of insufficient severity –– insufficient fuel, and/or(b) the fire is of insufficient severity(c)the structural elements have sufficient thermal mass and/or insulation to slow the rise in internal temperatureFire protection measures such as providing sufficient axis distance and dimensions for concrete elements, and sufficient insulation thickness for steel elements are examples of (c). These are illustrated in Figure 2.The two situations described in the introduction are now considered.3 FIRE WITHIN BUILDINGS3.1 Fire Safety ConsiderationsThe implications of fire within the occupied parts of the office building (Figure 1) (Situation 2) are now considered. Fire statistics for office buildings show that about one fatality is expected in an office building for every 1000 fires reported to the fire brigade. This is an orderof magnitude less than the fatality rate associated with apartment buildings. More than two thirdsof fires occur during occupied hours and this is due to the greater human activity and the greater use of services within the building. It is twice as likely that a fire that commences out of normal working hours will extend beyond the enclosure of fire origin.A relatively small fire can generate large quantities of smoke within the floor of fire origin.If the floor is of open-plan construction with few partitions, the presence of a fire during normal occupied hours is almost certain to be detected through the observation of smoke on the floor. The presence of full height partitions across the floor will slow the spread of smoke and possibly also the speed at which the occupants detect the fire. Any measures aimed at improving housekeeping, fire awareness and fire response will be beneficial in reducing the likelihood of major fires during occupied hours.For multi-storey buildings, smoke detection systems and alarms are often provided to give “automatic” detection and warning to the occupants. An alarm signal is also transm itted to the fire brigade.Should the fire not be able to be controlled by the occupants on the fire floor, they will need to leave the floor of fire origin via the stairs. Stair enclosures may be designed to be fire-resistant but this may not be sufficient to keep the smoke out of the stairs. Many buildings incorporate stair pressurisation systems whereby positive airflow is introduced into the stairs upon detection of smoke within the building. However, this increases the forces required to open the stair doors and makes it increasingly difficult to access the stairs. It is quite likely that excessive door opening forces will exist(Fazio et al,2006)From a fire perspective, it is common to consider that a building consists of enclosures formed by the presence of walls and floors.An enclosure that has sufficiently fire-resistant boundaries (i.e. walls and floors) is considered to constitute a fire compartment and to be capableof limiting the spread of fire to an adjacent compartment. However, the ability of such boundariesto restrict the spread of fire can be severely limited by the need to provide natural lighting (windows)and access openings between the adjacent compartments (doors and stairs). Fire spread via the external openings (windows) is a distinct possibility given a fully developed fire. Limit- ing the window sizes and geometry can reduce but not eliminate the possibility of vertical fire spread.By far the most effective measure in limiting fire spread, other than the presence of occupants, is an effective sprinkler system that delivers water to a growing fire rapidly reducing the heat being generated and virtually extinguishing it.3.2 Estimating Fire SeverityIn the absence of measures to extinguish developing fires, or should such systems fail; severe fires can develop within buildings.In fire engineering literature, the term “fire load” refers to the quantity of combustibles within an enclosure and not the loads (forces) applied to the structure during a fire. Similarly, fire load density refers to the quantity of fuel per unit area. It is normally expressed in terms of MJ/m2or kg/m 2of wood equivalent. Surveys of combustibles for various occupancies (i.e offices, retail,hospitals, warehouses, etc)have been undertaken and a good summary of the available data is given in FCRC (1999). As would be expected, the fire load density is highly variable. Publications such as the International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005) give fire load data in terms of the mean and 80th percentile.The latter level of fire load density is sometimes taken asthe characteristic fire load density and is sometimes taken as being distributed according to a Gumbel distribution (Schleich et al, 1999).The rate at which heat is released within an enclosure is termed the heat release rate (HRR) and normally expressed in megawatts (MW). The application of sufficient heat to a combustible material results in the generation of gases some of which are combustible. This process is called pyrolisation.Upon coming into contact with sufficient oxygen these gases ignite generating heat. The rate of burning(and therefore of heat generation) is therefore dependent on the flow of air to the gases generated by the pyrolising fuel.This flow is influenced by the shape of the enclosure (aspect ratio), and the position and size of any potential openings. It is found from experiments with single openings in approximately cubic enclosures that the rate of burning is directly proportional to A h where A is the area of the opening and h is the opening height. It is known that for deep enclosures with single openings that burning will occur initially closest to the opening moving back into the enclosure once the fuel closest to the opening is consumed (Thomas et al, 2005). Significant temperature variations throughout such enclosures can be expected.The use of the word ‘opening’ in relation to real building enclosures refers to any openings present around the walls including doors that are left open and any windows containing non fire-resistant glass.It is presumed that such glass breaks in the event of development of a significant fire. If the windows could be prevented from breaking and other sources of air to the enclosure limited, then the fire would be prevented from becoming a severe fire.V arious methods have been developed for determining the potential severity of a fire within an enclosure.These are described in SFPE (2004). The predictions of these methods are variable and are mostly based on estimating a representative heat release rate (HRR) and the proportion of total fuel ς likely to be consumed during the primary burning stage (Figure 4). Further studies of enclosure fires are required to assist with the development of improved models,as the behaviour is very complex.3.3 Role of the Building StructureIf the design objectives are to provide an adequate level of safety for the occupants and protection of adjacent properties from damage, then the structural adequacy of the building in fire need only be sufficient to allow the occupants to exit the building and for the building to ultimately deform in a way that does not lead to damage or fire spread to a building located on an adjacent site.These objectives are those associated with most building regulations including the Building Code of Australia (BCA). There could be other objectives including protection of the building against significant damage. In considering these various objectives, the following should be taken into account when considering the fire resistance of the building structure.3.3.1 Non-Structural ConsequencesSince fire can produce smoke and flame, it is important to ask whether these outcomes will threaten life safety within other parts of the building before the building is compromised by a lossof structural adequacy? Is search and rescue by the fire brigade not feasible given the likely extent of smoke? Will the loss of use of the building due to a severe fire result in major property and income loss? If the answer to these questions is in the affirmative, then it may be necessary to minimise the occurrence of a significant fire rather than simply assuming that the building structure needs to be designed for high levels of fire resistance. A low-rise shopping centre with levels interconnected by large voids is an example of such a situation.3.3.2 Other Fire Safety SystemsThe presence of other systems (e.g. sprinklers) within the building to minimise the occurrence of a serious fire can greatly reduce the need for the structural elements to have high levels of fire resistance. In this regard, the uncertainties of all fire-safety systems need to be considered. Irrespective of whether the fire safety system is the sprinkler system, stair pressurisation, compartmentation or the system giving the structure a fire-resistance level (e.g. concrete cover), there is an uncertainty of performance. Uncertainty data is available for sprinkler systems(because it is relatively easy to collect) but is not readily available for the other fire safety systems. This sometimes results in the designers and building regulators considering that only sprinkler systems are subject to uncertainty. In reality, it would appear that sprinklers systems have a high level of performance and can be designed to have very high levels of reliability.3.3.3 Height of BuildingIt takes longer for a tall building to be evacuated than a short building and therefore the structure of a tall building may need to have a higher level of fire resistance. The implications of collapse of tall buildings on adjacent properties are also greater than for buildings of only several storeys.3.3.4 Limited Extent of BurningIf the likely extent of burning is small in comparison with the plan area of the building, then the fire cannot have a significant impact on the overall stability of the building structure. Examples of situations where this is the case are open-deck carparks and very large area building such as shopping complexes where the fire-effected part is likely to be small in relation to area of the building floor plan.3.3.5 Behaviour of Floor ElementsThe effect of real fires on composite and concrete floors continues to be a subject of much research.Experimental testing at Cardington demonstrated that when parts of a composite floor are subject to heating, large displacement behaviour can develop that greatly assists the load carrying capacity of the floor beyond that which would predicted by considering only the behaviour of the beams and slabs in isolation.These situations have been analysed by both yield line methods that take into account the effects of membrane forces (Bailey, 2004) and finite element techniques. In essence, the methods illustrate that it is not necessary to insulate all structural steel elements in a composite floor to achieve high levels of fire resistance.This work also demonstrated that exposure of a composite floor having unprotected steel beams, to a localised fire, will not result in failure of the floor.A similar real fire test on a multistory reinforced concrete building demonstrated that the real structural behaviour in fire was significantly different to that expected using small displacement theory as for normal tempera- ture design (Bailey, 2002) with the performance being superior than that predicted by considering isolated member behaviour.3.4 Prescriptive Approach to DesignThe building regulations of most countries provide prescriptive requirements for the design of buildings for fire.These requirements are generally not subject to interpretation and compliance with them makes for simpler design approvalapproval––although not necessarily the most cost-effective designs.These provisions are often termed deemed-to-satisfy (DTS) provisions. Allcovered––the provision of emergency exits, aspects of designing buildings for fire safety are coveredspacings between buildings, occupant fire fighting measures, detection and alarms, measures for automatic fire suppression, air and smoke handling requirements and last, but not least, requirements for compartmentation and fire resistance levels for structural members. However, there is little evidence that the requirements have been developed from a systematic evaluation of fire safety. Rather it would appear that many of the requirements have been added one to anotherto deal with another fire incident or to incorporate a new form of technology. There does not appear to have been any real attempt to determine which provision have the most significant influence on fire safety and whether some of the former provisions could be modified.The FRL requirements specified in the DTS provisions are traditionally considered to result in member resistances that will only rarely experience failure in the event of a fire.This is why it is acceptable to use the above arbitrary point in time load combination for assessing members in fire. There have been attempts to evaluate the various deemed-to-satisfy provisions (particularly the fire- resistance requirements)from a fire-engineering perspective taking into account the possible variations in enclosure geometry, opening sizes and fire load (see FCRC, 1999).One of the outcomes of this evaluation was the recognition that deemed-to- satisfy provisions necessarily cover the broad range of buildings and thus must, on average, be quite onerous because of the magnitude of the above variations.It should be noted that the DTS provisions assume that compartmentation works and that fire is limited to a single compartment. This means that fire is normally only considered to exist at one level. Thus floors are assumed to be heated from below and columns only over one storey height.3.5 Performance-Based DesignAn approach that offers substantial benefits for individual buildings is the move towards performance-based regulations. This is permitted by regulations such as the BCA which state thata designer must demonstrate that the particular building will achieve the relevant performance requirements. The prescriptive provisions (i.e. the DTS provisions) are presumed to achieve these requirements. It is necessary to show that any building that does not conform to the DTS provisions will achieve the performance requirements.But what are the performance requirements? Most often the specified performance is simplya set of performance statements (such as with the Building Code of Australia)with no quantitative level given. Therefore, although these statements remind the designer of the key elements of design, they do not, in themselves, provide any measure against which to determine whether the design is adequately safe.Possible acceptance criteria are now considered.3.5.1 Acceptance CriteriaSome guidance as to the basis for acceptable designs is given in regulations such as the BCA. These and other possible bases are now considered in principle.(i)compare the levels of safety (with respect to achieving each of the design objectives) of the proposed alternative solution with those asso- ciated with a corresponding DTS solution for the building.This comparison may be done on either a qualitative or qualitative risk basis or perhaps a combination. In this case, the basis for comparison is an acceptable DTS solution. Such an approach requires a “holistic” approach to safety whereby all aspects relevant to safety, including the structure, are considered. This is, by far, the most common basis for acceptance.(ii)undertake a probabilistic risk assessment and show that the risk associated with the proposed design is less than that associated with common societal activities such as using pub lic transport. Undertaking a full probabilistic risk assessment can be very difficult for all but the simplest situations.Assuming that such an assessment is undertaken it will be necessary for the stakeholders to accept the nominated level of acceptable risk. Again, this requires a “holistic” approach to fire safety.(iii) a design is presented where it is demonstrated that all reasonable measures have been adopted to manage the risks and that any possible measures that have not been adopted will have negligible effect on the risk of not achieving the design objectives.(iv) as far as the building structure is concerned,benchmark the acceptable probability of failure in fire against that for normal temperature design. This is similar to the approach used when considering Building Situation 1 but only considers the building structure and not the effects of flame or smoke spread. It is not a holistic approach to fire safety.Finally, the questions of arson and terrorism must be considered. Deliberate acts of fire initiation range from relatively minor incidents to acts of mass destruction.Acts of arson are well within the accepted range of fire events experienced by build- ings(e.g. 8% of fire starts in offices are deemed "suspicious"). The simplest act is to use a small heat source to start a fire. The resulting fire will develop slowly in one location within the building and will most probably be controlled by the various fire- safety systems within the building. The outcome is likely to be the same even if an accelerant is used to assist fire spread.An important illustration of this occurred during the race riots in Los Angeles in 1992 (Hart 1992) when fires were started in many buildings often at multiple locations. In the case of buildings with sprinkler systems,the damage was limited and the fires significantly controlled.Although the intent was to destroy the buildings,the fire-safety systems were able to limit the resulting fires. Security measures are provided with systems such as sprinkler systems and include:- locking of valves- anti-tamper monitoring- location of valves in secure locationsFurthermore, access to significant buildings is often restricted by security measures.The very fact that the above steps have been taken demonstrates that acts of destruction within buildings are considered although most acts of arson do not involve any attempt to disable the fire-safety systems.At the one end of the spectrum is "simple" arson and at the other end, extremely rare acts where attempts are made to destroy the fire-safety systems along with substantial parts of thebuilding.This can be only achieved through massive impact or the use of explosives. The latter may be achieved through explosives being introduced into the building or from outside by missile attack.The former could result from missile attack or from the collision of a large aircraft. The greater the destructiveness of the act,the greater the means and knowledge required. Conversely, the more extreme the act, the less confidence there can be in designing against such an act. This is because the more extreme the event, the harder it is to predict precisely and the less understood will be its effects. The important point to recognise is that if sufficient means can be assembled, then it will always be possible to overcome a particular building design.Thus these acts are completely different to the other loadings to which a building is subjected such as wind,earthquake and gravity loading. This is because such acts of destruction are the work of intelligent beings and take into account the characteristics of the target.Should high-rise buildings be designed for given terrorist activities,then terrorists will simply use greater means to achieve the end result.For example, if buildings were designed to resist the impact effects from a certain size aircraft, then the use of a larger aircraft or more than one aircraft could still achieve destruction of the building. An appropriate strategy is therefore to minimise the likelihood of means of mass destruction getting into the hands of persons intent on such acts. This is not an engineering solution associated with the building structure.It should not be assumed that structural solutions are always the most appropriate, or indeed, possible.In the same way, aircrafts are not designed to survive a major fire or a crash landing but steps are taken to minimise the likelihood of either occurrence.The mobilization of large quantities of fire load (the normal combustibles on the floors) simultaneously on numerous levels throughout a building is well outside fire situations envisaged by current fire test standards and prescriptive regulations. Risk management measures to avoid such a possibility must be considered.4 CONCLUSIONSificantly from other “loads” such as wind, live load and earthquakes in significantlyFire differs signrespect of its origin and its effects.Due to the fact that fire originates from human activities or equipment installed within buildings, it is possible to directly influence the potential effects on the building by reducing the rate of fire starts and providing measures to directly limit fire severity.The design of buildings for fire safety is mostly achieved by following the prescriptive requirements of building codes such as the BCA. For situations that fall outside of the scope of such regulations, or where proposed designs are not in accordance with the prescriptive requirements, it is possible to undertake performance-based fire engineering designs.However,。
中英文文献以及翻译(化工类)
Foreign material：Chemical Industry1.Origins of the Chemical IndustryAlthough the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin’s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939).Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the development and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.The chemical industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of different chemicals whichthe general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have the required properties which make them suitable for some particular application, e.g. a non-stick coating for pans or a weedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.2. Definition of the Chemical IndustryAt the turn of the century there would have been little difficulty in defining what constituted the chemical industry since only a very limited range of products was manufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric acid. At present, however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oil through (in some cases) many intermediates to products which may be used directly as consumer goods, or readily converted into them. The difficulty cones in deciding at which point in this sequence the particular operation ceases to be part of the chemical industry’s sphere of activities. To consider a specific example to illustrate this dilemma, emulsion paints may contain poly (vinyl chloride) / poly (vinyl acetate). Clearly, synthesis of vinyl chloride (or acetate) and its polymerization are chemical activities. However, if formulation and mixing of the paint, including the polymer, is carried out by a branch of the multinational chemical company which manufactured the ingredients, is this still part of the chemical industry of does it mow belong in the decorating industry?It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and close links in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition of the chemical industry. Instead each official body which collects and publishes statistics on manufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified as the chemical industry. It is important to bear this in mind when comparing statistical information which is derived from several sources.3. The Need for Chemical IndustryThe chemical industry is concerned with converting raw materials, such as crude oil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of other chemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our livesmore comfortable or, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintain our well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added to the produce and provided this added exceeds the raw material plus processing costs then a profit will be made on the operation. It is the aim of chemical industry to achieve this.It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question “do we need a chemical industry?” However trying to answer this question will provide(ⅰ) an indication of the range of the chemical industry’s activities, (ⅱ) its influence on our lives in everyday terms, and (ⅲ) how great is society’s need for a chemical industry. Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the industry’s co ntribution to meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink) and health are paramount. Other which we shall consider in their turn are clothing and (briefly) shelter, leisure and transport.(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production in at least three ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizers which are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops during modern intensive farming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, which markedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, by producing veterinary products which protect livestock from disease or cure their infections.(2)Health. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceutical sector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterial infections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g. ß–blockers to lower blood pressure.(3)Clothing. The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over the traditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarkable. Thus shirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides like Nylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron. They are also cheaper than natural materials.Parallel developments in the discovery of modern synthetic dyes and the technology to “bond” th em to the fiber has resulted in a tremendous increase in the variety of colors available to the fashion designer. Indeed they now span almost every color and hue of the visible spectrum. Indeed if a suitable shade is not available, structural modification of an existing dye to achieve this canreadily be carried out, provided there is a satisfactory market for the product.Other major advances in this sphere have been in color-fastness, i.e., resistance to the dye being washed out when the garment is cleaned.(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution of modern synthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditional building materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-free (i.e. they are resistant to weathering and do not need painting). Other polymers, e.g. urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducing heat losses and hence reducing energy usage.Plastics and polymers have made a considerable impact on leisure activities with applications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks, football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf balls and footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.Like wise the chemical industry’s contribution to transport over the years has led to major improvements. Thus development of improved additives like anti-oxidants and viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals to increase from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has also resulted in improved lubricating oils and greases, and better brake fluids. Yet again the contribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proportion of the total automobile derived from these materials—dashboard, steering wheel, seat padding and covering etc.—now exceeding 40%.So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemical industry’s contribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very different without the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a country’s development may be judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (R&D) in Chemical IndustriesOne of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world has been its great commitment to, and investment in research and development (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income, i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff salaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leading to many useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examplesinclude synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides. Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declined significantly in recent years, and in times of recession the research department is usually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the commitment to R&D remains at a very high level.The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory.Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.The major chemical companies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with companies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over companies which are already operating there.化学工业1.化学工业的起源尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。
外文参考文献(带中文翻译)
外文资料原文涂敏之会计学 8051208076Title:Future of SME finance（c）Background – the environment for SME finance has changedFuture economic recovery will depend on the possibility of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to exploit their potential for growth and employment creation.SMEs make a major contribution to growth and employment in the EU and are at the heart of the Lisbon Strategy, whose main objective is to turn Europe into the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world. However, the ability of SMEs to grow depends highly on their potential to invest in restructuring, innovation and qualification. All of these investments need capital and therefore access to finance.Against this background the consistently repeated complaint of SMEs about their problems regarding access to finance is a highly relevant constraint that endangers the economic recovery of Europe.Changes in the finance sector influence the behavior of credit institutes towards Crafts, Trades and SMEs. Recent and ongoing developments in the banking sector add to the concerns of SMEs and will further endanger their access to finance. The main changes in the banking sector which influence SME finance are:•Globalization and internationalization have increased the competition and the profit orientation in the sector;•worsening of the economic situations in some institutes (burst of the ITC bubble, insolvencies) strengthen the focus on profitability further;•Mergers and restructuring created larger structures and many local branches, which had direct and personalized contacts with small enterprises, were closed;•up-coming implementation of new capital adequacy rules (Basel II) will also change SME business of the credit sector and will increase its administrative costs;•Stricter interpretation of State-Aide Rules by the European Commission eliminates the support of banks by public guarantees; many of the effected banks are very active in SME finance.All these changes result in a higher sensitivity for risks and profits in the financesector.The changes in the finance sector affect the accessibility of SMEs to finance.Higher risk awareness in the credit sector, a stronger focus on profitability and the ongoing restructuring in the finance sector change the framework for SME finance and influence the accessibility of SMEs to finance. The most important changes are: •In order to make the higher risk awareness operational, the credit sector introduces new rating systems and instruments for credit scoring;•Risk assessment of SMEs by banks will force the enterprises to present more and better quality information on their businesses;•Banks will try to pass through their additional costs for implementing and running the new capital regulations (Basel II) to their business clients;•due to the increase of competition on interest rates, the bank sector demands more and higher fees for its services (administration of accounts, payments systems, etc.), which are not only additional costs for SMEs but also limit their liquidity;•Small enterprises will lose their personal relationship with decision-makers in local branches –the credit application process will become more formal and anonymous and will probably lose longer;•the credit sector will lose more and more i ts “public function” to provide access to finance for a wide range of economic actors, which it has in a number of countries, in order to support and facilitate economic growth; the profitability of lending becomes the main focus of private credit institutions.All of these developments will make access to finance for SMEs even more difficult and / or will increase the cost of external finance. Business start-ups and SMEs, which want to enter new markets, may especially suffer from shortages regarding finance. A European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs would have allowed at least more transparency in the relations between Banks and SMEs and UEAPME regrets that the bank sector was not able to agree on such a commitment.Towards an encompassing policy approach to improve the access of Crafts, Trades and SMEs to financeAll analyses show that credits and loans will stay the main source of finance for the SME sector in Europe. Access to finance was always a main concern for SMEs, but the recent developments in the finance sector worsen the situation even more.Shortage of finance is already a relevant factor, which hinders economic recovery in Europe. Many SMEs are not able to finance their needs for investment.Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to strengthen their efforts to improve the framework conditions for SME finance. Europe’s Crafts, Trades and SMEs ask for an encompassing policy approach, which includes not only the conditions for SMEs’ access to l ending, but will also strengthen their capacity for internal finance and their access to external risk capital.From UEAPME’s point of view such an encompassing approach should be based on three guiding principles:•Risk-sharing between private investors, financial institutes, SMEs and public sector;•Increase of transparency of SMEs towards their external investors and lenders;•improving the regulatory environment for SME finance.Based on these principles and against the background of the changing environment for SME finance, UEAPME proposes policy measures in the following areas:1. New Capital Requirement Directive: SME friendly implementation of Basel IIDue to intensive lobbying activities, UEAPME, together with other Business Associations in Europe, has achieved some improvements in favour of SMEs regarding the new Basel Agreement on regulatory capital (Basel II). The final agreement from the Basel Committee contains a much more realistic approach toward the real risk situation of SME lending for the finance market and will allow the necessary room for adaptations, which respect the different regional traditions and institutional structures.However, the new regulatory system will influence the relations between Banks and SMEs and it will depend very much on the way it will be implemented into European law, whether Basel II becomes burdensome for SMEs and if it will reduce access to finance for them.The new Capital Accord form the Basel Committee gives the financial market authorities and herewith the European Institutions, a lot of flexibility. In about 70 areas they have room to adapt the Accord to their specific needs when implementing itinto EU law. Some of them will have important effects on the costs and the accessibility of finance for SMEs.UEAPME expects therefore from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament:•The implementation of the new Capital Requirement Directive will be costly for the Finance Sector (up to 30 Billion Euro till 2006) and its clients will have to pay for it. Therefore, the implementation – especially for smaller banks, which are often very active in SME finance –has to be carried out with as little administrative burdensome as possible (reporting obligations, statistics, etc.).•The European Regulators must recognize traditional instruments for collaterals (guarantees, etc.) as far as possible.•The European Commission and later the Member States should take over the recommendations from the European Parliament with regard to granularity, access to retail portfolio, maturity, partial use, adaptation of thresholds, etc., which will ease the burden on SME finance.2. SMEs need transparent rating proceduresDue to higher risk awareness of the finance sector and the needs of Basel II, many SMEs will be confronted for the first time with internal rating procedures or credit scoring systems by their banks. The bank will require more and better quality information from their clients and will assess them in a new way. Both up-coming developments are already causing increasing uncertainty amongst SMEs.In order to reduce this uncertainty and to allow SMEs to understand the principles of the new risk assessment, UEAPME demands transparent rating procedures –rating procedures may not become a “Black Box” for SMEs: •The bank should communicate the relevant criteria affecting the rating of SMEs.•The bank should inform SMEs about its assessment in order to allow SMEs to improve.The negotiations on a European Code of Conduct between Banks and SMEs , which would have included a self-commitment for transparent rating procedures by Banks, failed. Therefore, UEAPME expects from the new European Commission and the new European Parliament support for:•binding rules in the framework of the new Capital Adequacy Directive,which ensure the transparency of rating procedures and credit scoring systems for SMEs;•Elaboration of national Codes of Conduct in order to improve the relations between Banks and SMEs and to support the adaptation of SMEs to the new financial environment.3. SMEs need an extension of credit guarantee systems with a special focus on Micro-LendingBusiness start-ups, the transfer of businesses and innovative fast growth SMEs also depended in the past very often on public support to get access to finance. Increasing risk awareness by banks and the stricter interpretation of State Aid Rules will further increase the need for public support.Already now, there are credit guarantee schemes in many countries on the limit of their capacity and too many investment projects cannot be realized by SMEs.Experiences show that Public money, spent for supporting credit guarantees systems, is a very efficient instrument and has a much higher multiplying effect than other instruments. One Euro form the European Investment Funds can stimulate 30 Euro investments in SMEs (for venture capital funds the relation is only 1:2).Therefore, UEAPME expects the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to support:•The extension of funds for national credit guarantees schemes in the framework of the new Multi-Annual Programmed for Enterprises;•The development of new instruments for securitizations of SME portfolios;•The recognition of existing and well functioning credit guarantees schemes as collateral;•More flexibility within the European Instruments, because of national differences in the situation of SME finance;•The development of credit guarantees schemes in the new Member States;•The development of an SBIC-like scheme in the Member States to close the equity gap (0.2 – 2.5 Mio Euro, according to the expert meeting on PACE on April 27 in Luxemburg).•the development of a financial support scheme to encourage the internalizations of SMEs (currently there is no scheme available at EU level: termination of JOP, fading out of JEV).4. SMEs need company and income taxation systems, whichstrengthen their capacity for self-financingMany EU Member States have company and income taxation systems with negative incentives to build-up capital within the company by re-investing their profits. This is especially true for companies, which have to pay income taxes. Already in the past tax-regimes was one of the reasons for the higher dependence of Europe’s SMEs on bank lending. In future, the result of rating w ill also depend on the amount of capital in the company; the high dependence on lending will influence the access to lending. This is a vicious cycle, which has to be broken.Even though company and income taxation falls under the competence of Member States, UEAPME asks the new European Commission and the new European Parliament to publicly support tax-reforms, which will strengthen the capacity of Crafts, Trades and SME for self-financing. Thereby, a special focus on non-corporate companies is needed.5. Risk Capital – equity financingExternal equity financing does not have a real tradition in the SME sector. On the one hand, small enterprises and family business in general have traditionally not been very open towards external equity financing and are not used to informing transparently about their business.On the other hand, many investors of venture capital and similar forms of equity finance are very reluctant regarding investing their funds in smaller companies, which is more costly than investing bigger amounts in larger companies. Furthermore it is much more difficult to set out of such investments in smaller companies.Even though equity financing will never become the main source of financing for SMEs, it is an important instrument for highly innovative start-ups and fast growing companies and it has therefore to be further developed. UEAPME sees three pillars for such an approach where policy support is needed:Availability of venture capital•The Member States should review their taxation systems in order to create incentives to invest private money in all forms of venture capital.•Guarantee instruments for equity financing should be further developed.Improve the conditions for investing venture capital into SMEs•The development of secondary markets for venture capital investments in SMEs should be supported.•Accounting Standards for SMEs should be revised in order to easetransparent exchange of information between investor and owner-manager.Owner-managers must become more aware about the need for transparency towards investors•SME owners will have to realise that in future access to external finance (venture capital or lending) will depend much more on a transparent and open exchange of information about the situation and the perspectives of their companies.•In order to fulfil the new needs for transparency, SMEs will have to use new information instruments (business plans, financial reporting, etc.) and new management instruments (risk-management, financial management, etc.).外文资料翻译涂敏之会计学 8051208076题目：未来的中小企业融资背景：中小企业融资已经改变未来的经济复苏将取决于能否工艺品，贸易和中小企业利用其潜在的增长和创造就业。
医用英语医学文献翻译4（缺5,9整理版）
医⽤英语医学⽂献翻译4（缺5,9整理版）UNIT 1 TEXT B刷⽛，使⽤⽛线，以及每年2次的⽛齿检查是⼝腔卫⽣保健标准，但是保护你珍珠样洁⽩的⽛齿的好处远⽐我们知道的还要多。
在⼀篇评论⽂章中，塔夫茨⼤学⽛科医学院的⼀个教员破除了常见的⽛科神话，并概述了饮⾷和营养如何影响⼉童，青少年，孕妇，成年⼈和⽼年⼈的⼝腔健康。
误区1：⼝腔卫⽣的不良后果是限制嘴巴准妈妈也许不知道她们所吃的⾷物会影响到胎⼉的⽛齿发育。
在怀孕过程中的营养缺乏也许会使未出⽣的孩⼦在今后的⽣活中更容易出现蛀⽛。
“在14周到4个⽉⼤的时候，缺乏钙，维⽣素D，维⽣素A，蛋⽩质和卡路⾥会导致⼝腔软组织缺损，” Carole Palmer说。
Carole Palmer是，教育学博⼠(EdD)，注册营养师(RD)，塔夫茨⼤学教授，公共健康和社会服务系营养和⼝腔健康推进部的负责⼈。
有数据表明缺乏⾜够的维⽣素B6和B12可能是导致患唇裂和阻碍味觉形成的危险因素。
在童年的时候，最普遍的疾病是蛀⽛，⼤约⽐⼉童哮喘⾼五倍。
“如果⼀个⼉童因为蛀⽛⽽嘴巴受伤，他/她在学校会⽐较难集中注意⼒，⽽且会更喜欢吃容易咀嚼的⾷物，这些⾷物含有的营养往往更少些。
甜甜圈和点⼼这样的⾷物⼤多营养品质低下，含糖量⾼于其他需要咀嚼的富含营养的⾷物，⽐如⽔果和蔬菜，” Palmer说。
“⼝腔并发症与不良的饮⾷习惯会造成认知和⽣长发育问题，以及导致肥胖。
”误区2：吃越多糖，越容易蛀⽛这与你吃了多少糖⽆关，⽽是糖和⽛齿接触的时间有多少。
“⾷物，⽐如慢慢溶解的糖果和苏打⽔在嘴巴⾥停留的时间会⽐较久。
这增加了⽛齿暴露在⼝腔细菌由糖产⽣成的酸中的时间，” Palmer说。
有研究表明，⼗⼏岁的青少年⼤约40%的碳⽔化合物是由软饮料中摄取的。
这些源源不断地软饮料增加了⽛齿腐烂的风险。
⽆糖碳酸饮料和酸性饮料，⽐如柠檬⽔，往往被认为⽐含糖饮料对⽛齿更安全，但是经常⾷⽤的话仍会造成⽛齿釉质脱矿。
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在现有的技术下非水溶性马铃薯淀粉废物转化成还原糖文摘：在这种探索性的工作中，研究了利用不同的非现有技术（超声和微波炉射线）将一个复杂的工业淀粉基解聚为还原糖。
之后，还原糖可以转化成为更高的高级醇等提供的化合物。
这个实验研究了三种不同的起始物料,他们分别为“马铃薯粉”、“湿土豆泥”、“干土豆泥”。
在酸性条件下，马铃薯面粉通过微波辐射，一个小时之内的转化率达到了61%。
在低频和高频超声波照射下，120分钟内它的转化率分别是70%和80%。
关键词：生物量基于淀粉的废物微波辐射超声辐照1 介绍在过去的二十年里，世界能源消耗已经猛增了30%。
2010年，石油消耗已经增长了大约4%。
几乎80%的化石燃料成为主要能源消耗，其中58%是由传输部门所消耗。
（尼格和辛格，2011）为了减少化石燃料的消耗，生物量可以考虑成代替能源的一种，因为它是一种丰富和新兴的能源，这种能源可能用作原料。
全球生物燃料的生产达到62亿升，在能源方面，这仅仅是全球运输燃料的1.8%。
几乎80％为乙醇燃料，其余为生物柴油（Scheffran2010，第一章2）。
然而，被选的生物量不应该和粮食有冲突，也不可能解决伦理问题。
废物转化为能源的过程可以成为再生能源，从而不依赖于化石燃料。
因此，我们想向您介绍我们的不可食用的废料转化成高附加值的化合物，然后进行发酵，以提供生物燃料的探索性工作。
我们的过程中所用的原料是一家名为Jepuan Peruna Oy的芬兰公司提供的淀粉基废物、马铃薯皮。
在2010年，这家公司平均每天产生20吨。
马铃薯废物转化为生物燃料的过程可分为两个主要阶段：淀粉基的废物转化（解聚）成还原糖，然后将其转化成高级醇，如丁醇或戊醇。
工作的重点是在催化转化的第一部分。
生物量的生产也必须是可持续的，这就强调了有必要设计一个渐进的、清洁的、可能的过程，逐步放弃化石能源，随后建设成一个更有利于环境友好型的社会。
在绿色化学的十二项原则（阿纳斯塔斯&华纳，1998）指引下，做到这一点是可能的。
起初，水被选择作为最便宜和最环保的替代分子有机溶剂。
但是，淀粉是一种非水溶性的生物聚合物，这就导致较不活泼的媒体异构系统可能不是均匀的。
为了克服这种局限性，我们把自己的目标转到了使用非传统的激活方法。
超声波和微波技术的出现，使得我们可以利用一种快速的、清洁的、安全和适应的方式使得淀粉基材料中的非均匀介质得到快速的解聚。
图1 “马铃薯粉”，“湿马铃薯污泥”和“干马铃薯污泥”的马铃薯原料的粒度分布图超声的声波的频率范围被定义为20kHz至3MHz，声化学是应用超声化学反应的一种反应过程。
电压换能器被用于产生超声。
由于超声辐照，液体介质中的反应性可以提高，根据液体中的入射频率，可以通过气泡的生成、胀大和破解所引起的独特的气穴现象，这就导致会有几个物理或化学影响。
在低频率范围内，冲击波允许有一个有效的搅拌介质和侵蚀的影响，而在高频率区，爆破时间缩短并且形成自由基（梅森＆洛里默，2002）。
自上世纪30年代以来，已对超声波照射下的降解多糖进行了研究（弗洛斯多夫＆钱伯斯，1933）。
还探讨了在高频率（Czechowska主教、罗基塔、卢特菲、乌兰斯基&Rosiak）、低频率（Portenlanger &霍伊辛格，1997）下；在强酸、中性环境下，超声碳水化合物的影响。
然而，大多数的实验中执行的是水溶性碳水化合物、纤维素的基或支链淀粉，很少有用淀粉的。
80年代时，微波加热的影响已得到研究。
（格迪等人，1986；吉格尔，布雷，邓肯& Majetich，1986）微波是波长在1米到1毫米的范围内的电磁辐射，对应频率分别为300 MHz到300 GHz。
微波加热是一种快速加热极性介质设备。
当替代的电场被施加时，极性分子进行分子间摩擦。
这些摩擦挑起极性分子的加热（卢皮，2006）。
1979年，在水中的中性pH值下（汗，约翰逊，&罗宾逊，1979），在稀盐酸（汗，罗宾逊，约翰逊，1980，俞，陈，Suree，Nuansri，&王，1996），和乙氯乙烯系催化剂以提高水解（kunlan等人，2001），微波辐射解聚淀粉已得到证实。
据我们所知，所有这些研究，都探讨了在超声或微波照射下用纯正地道材料来研究退化过程中的生物聚合物的降解过程，但从来没有一个模式是复杂的。
这项工作的目的是，通过使用非传统的方法照射到还原糖上，改变一个不可食用的淀粉的工业废物，但在另一个篇文章中将被视为可进一步的转化为高级醇。
2 实验细节2.1 原料超声波浴是一种5L的工作频率在24 的“克里双阴极充气三极管”。
在500kHz 下，用A100毫升自制的超声波反应器进行实验。
根据标准化量热法，木村等人测定了30W的声功率（1996）。
一个耐热玻璃和20kHz金属超声探头分别用75％的振幅用的金属探头可以产生声功率17和86瓦的声功率。
超声波反应器配有冷却循环的系统以确保有效的温度控制。
微波辐射下的实验进行单声道模式合成微波PROLABO SynthewaveS402（电力600W）。
反应堆玻璃器皿管适合微波与20毫升容量。
为了与非常规激活方法比较，无机械搅拌下的实验（“零”实验）在斯图尔特热板搅拌器SC162油浴中进行。
这个设备的加热器功率为700W。
2.2 实验方法在蒸馏水中性、碱性（1molL−1NaOH）或酸性（3molL−1H2SO4）环境下用三种原料-马铃薯粉，湿土豆污泥和干土豆污泥进行试验。
在超市购买的“土豆粉”是纯粹的马铃薯，仅由淀粉组成，并以它作为参考材料。
“湿马铃薯污泥”是污泥废物产品的工业生产的土豆皮，由芬兰Jepuan Peruna Oy公司提供。
此污泥由三分之二的水（67％）和三分之一的干物质组成（33％）。
后者用一个土豆旋转削皮机除去大约一厘米的所有周围的马铃薯皮。
糖的重量百分比是由总污泥的水解干物质得到，其主要成分的为葡萄糖（80.2％），甘露糖（4.9％）和半乳糖（3.2％）。
超过88％的干物质的“湿马铃薯污泥”可以被考虑作为总糖单位。
使用被称为“干马铃薯污泥的第三原料”，是真空管线下干燥的湿淤渣，在运行之前用研钵和杵碾碎。
图2 扫描电镜图片（a）“土豆粉”（b）“湿土豆污泥”及（c）“干土豆污泥”的原材料。
每个起始原料是加入硫酸（H2SO43molL-1）蒸馏水或（NaOH1molL-1），以得到3 %（重量）溶液。
由于结果不佳或在碱性条件下，难以进行糖化作用，只有少数实验用氢氧化钠进行。
氢氧化钠用于纤维素水解的前处理（西尔弗斯坦，Boyette，陈，真尔马-Shivappa，Boyette&奥斯本，2007）。
机械搅拌和超声辐照过程中照射60分钟，而微波流程照射120分钟。
试验在室温下或60。
C下进行反应，经过7000trmin−1离心分离15分钟得到的混合物。
通过47毫米尼龙0.45米滤膜获得过滤的液相，这样得到明确的解决方案并且大量的糖也得到的了分析。
酸性溶液一分为二，一部分中和钠氢氧化颗粒不多，以达到一个基本的pH值。
用碳酸钡中和分析另一部分总还原糖，在硅藻土上过滤。
另一方面，固相用真空管线或低温烘箱烘干。
在酸性条件下解聚的原料通过真空管线用蒸馏水洗涤3次以便淬灭水解再离心7000trmin−130分钟。
结果是两次测量的平均值。
2.3 分析根据用1％二硝基水杨酸（DNS）的总还原糖（TRS）的方法和米勒技术确定还原糖的量（米勒，1959）。
2毫升基于解聚的淀粉溶液样品加入2毫升1％的DNS试剂溶液中。
将所得的溶液煮沸10分钟。
然后，为了保持着色反应，倒入1毫升的40％的酒石酸钠钾溶液，冷却至室温以便淬灭氧化反应。
该溶液用紫外-可见分光光度计，瓦里安Cary50执行扫描，在575nm处的波长分析。
在各溶液中TRS（总还原糖）的浓度是根据一个标准计算曲线进行核算。
用布鲁克·道尔顿速度（布鲁克·道尔顿公司）、基质辅助激光解吸电离-飞行时间（MALDI-TOF）质谱仪分析了最高还原糖糖率，揭示了组合物和所得到的还原糖的性质。
认为2,5-二羟基苯甲酸（DHB）的浓度为50 mg mL-150毫升1英寸水。
通过激光衍射粒度仪马尔文的Mastersizer2000测定原料颗粒的粒度分布。
涂有金/钯的原料在8kVJEOLJSM-6100型扫描电子、二次电子模式的显微镜下操作并观察。
3 结果与讨论3.1 原材料的表征三个原料的粒度分布示于图1。
图1 “马铃薯粉”、“湿马铃薯污泥”和“干马铃薯污泥”的马铃薯原料的粒度分布图如图1所示，三个起始原料，显示不同的颗粒尺寸分布湿土豆泥的物质显示最高的颗粒尺寸分布的平均直径656米，用双种群平均直径在40到656米。
“马铃薯粉”和“干土豆泥”两种材料显示更小的颗粒粒度分布。
而前者具有平均粒径为42米的单一的群体，“干土豆污泥”人口中位数为53米的双主人口，另一个是450米以上。
从这些结果中我们可以预见，和“干土豆污泥”和“马铃薯淀粉”相比，显示656米平均粒度分布的“湿土豆泥”的物质可能是不太适合异构解聚反应。
而SEM分析和以前的分析相比，“土豆粉”的材料显示，只有单一的淀粉粒（图2a），“湿土豆污泥”和“干土豆泥”的材料显示不仅是单一的，而是也凝集颗粒（分别为图2b和c)。
此外，“湿土豆污泥”材料的聚合率比“干土豆污泥”的聚合率高得多，“湿土豆污泥”也显示了单颗粒。
和别人相比，此聚集似乎首次正确地提出绘制假设的“湿土豆污泥的物质”预期要比别人的预期反应性低。
3.2 没有处理的样品与在相同的实验条件下没有任何搅拌的酸性溶液中3％（重量），3M硫酸溶液，60 ◦C，2小时。
进行“零”样品为了确定还原糖量。
整个反应过程中，在反应器底部除去起始原料。
“土豆粉”、“湿土豆污泥”和干土豆污泥的还原糖的结果分别为2.0％，0.5％和2.5％（±0.1％）。
实验中根据所获得的结果，在中性和碱性条件下或室内温度的情况下被丢弃（参见3.3节）。
3.3 机械搅拌机械搅拌的实验研究首先不仅仅是完成了优化实验条件，也可以用得到的结果与使用超声波和微波激活进行比较。
以避免任何补充的粘度问题，A的选择负载为3％的起始材料，这一问题在两个不同的温度室温和60◦C下，可以隐藏的起始原料的性质效果。
对于所有的三个基质得到的结果都显示于在表1中。
无论pH值为多少，解聚反应都不可能发生在室温下（条目1-9）。
当温度上升到60◦C时，反应没有发生或一个小两中性（条目13-15）和基本型（条目10-12）pH值。
在酸性条件下，三个起始原料得到的还原糖数量不同，“土豆粉”材料获得恢复产量最高。
正如预期的那样，“湿土豆泥”材料显示着一个非常复杂的模式和最大颗粒粒度分布，得到解聚率的最低。