Abstract Writing 英语摘要写作
Abstract_writing__英文摘要写作方法
3.1. Topic Sentence
The
first sentence in an abstract is usually called the “topic sentence”. By answering the question of “what”, the topic sentence always goes straightforwardly to the subject or the problem and indicate the primary objectives of the paper.
"A
well-prepared abstract enables readers to identify the basic content of a document quickly and accurately, to determine its relevance to their interests, and thus to decide whether they need to read the document in its entirety" (American National Standards Institute, 1979b).
3.1. Examples (4)
The experiment being made by our research group is aimed at obtaining the result of… The main objective of our investigation has been to obtain some knowledge of… Experiments on… were made in order to measure the amount of… The emphasis of this study lies in…
英语命题作文与摘要作文
英语命题作文与摘要作文Abstract Writing。
Abstract writing is an important skill that every student should learn. It is a concise summary of a research paper, article, or thesis. Abstracts are usually written after the paper is completed. They are used to help readers quickly understand the main points of the paper. There are two types of abstracts: descriptive and informative. Descriptive abstracts are short and provide a general overview of the paper. Informative abstracts are longer and provide more detailed information about the paper.When writing an abstract, it is important to keep in mind the purpose of the paper and the intended audience. The abstract should be written in a clear and concise manner, using language that is easy to understand. It should include the main points of the paper, such as the research question, methods used, results, and conclusions. The abstract should also be well-organized and follow alogical structure.One of the most important things to remember when writing an abstract is to be accurate. The abstract should reflect the content of the paper accurately and should not include any information that is not in the paper. It is also important to avoid using jargon or technical termsthat may be difficult for readers to understand.Overall, abstract writing is an important skill that can help students communicate their research effectively. By following these guidelines, students can write clear and concise abstracts that will help readers quickly understand the main points of their papers.Essay Writing。
WritingAbstractSCI摘要写作要点英文版
Language
➢ Functions
• For busy readers to understand the research contents quickly and attracting them to read the whole paper .
• For database searching services
✓ Informative-indicative abstract: Summarizing the highest valuable informations in forms of informative abstract expression, while showing the rest in forms of indicative abstract expression. text.About 100~200words.
controlled in 5%~10% of the full text.
Introduction
Announcements: • No common senses and comments in abstract,don’t
mention the contents that should be written in Introduction.
✓ Indicative abstract：Normally summarizing the theme of the paper, with just two or three sentences and without any arguments and conclusions,which is commonly for reviews and meeting reports. This abstract can be used to help readers to decide whether to read the full text or not.About 100 words.
英语摘要写作文
英语摘要写作文English:Abstract writing is a critical skill that requires a concise and clear representation of a research or academic paper. The abstract provides a brief overview of the paper to help the reader determineif they should continue reading the entire document. A well-written abstract includes the main focus of the paper, the methods used, the results obtained, and the conclusion. One way to ensure that your abstract is effective is to use active voice, concise language, and avoid unnecessary jargon. Additionally, it should be written in a way that is easy to understand while still conveying the important information in the paper. Overall, abstract writing is an essential element of academic writing, and it is essential for researchers to master this skill.Translated content:摘要写作是一种关键的技能，需要对研究或学术论文进行简明清晰的呈现。
论文写作中的英文摘要范例
论文写作中的英文摘要范例英文摘要(Abstract)是论文写作中必不可少的一部分，其作用是概括出论文的主要内容和结论，帮助读者迅速了解论文的核心观点。
本文将提供一篇关于论文写作中英文摘要的范例，以供参考。
AbstractWith the increasing globalization of academic research, it has become essential for scholars to effectively communicate their work to a wider audience. One crucial element in this process is the abstract, which summarizes the main points and findings of a research paper. In this article, we will provide an example of an English abstract for a research paper, demonstrating key elements and tips for writing an effective abstract.IntroductionThe abstract serves as a brief overview of a research paper, allowing readers to quickly grasp the purpose, methodology, and outcomes of the study. It should be concise yet informative, providing enough information to engage the reader while remaining within a specified word limit.Main BodyI. Purpose and BackgroundThe first element of an abstract is a clear statement of the research paper's purpose and its background. It should outline the rationale for the study, highlighting any research gaps or unanswered questions in the field. For example:This research aims to investigate the effects of climate change on coastal ecosystems, with a focus on marine biodiversity and coral reef health. Given the increasing threats to these ecosystems, understanding the potential impacts of climate change is crucial for effective conservation strategies.II. MethodologyThe abstract should briefly describe the methodology employed in the research. This can include the study design, data collection methods, and analytical approaches. However, detailed technical information should be avoided. For example:A combination of field surveys, laboratory experiments, and statistical analyses were conducted to assess the long-term effects of temperature increase and ocean acidification on coral reefs. Data on species diversity, abundance, and health were collected from various reefs in the Caribbean region.III. ResultsThe abstract should highlight the key findings of the research. It should summarize the outcomes and conclusions derived from the data analysis. However, specific data or numerical results should be avoided, focusing instead on general trends and significant discoveries. For example:Our study revealed a significant decline in coral species diversity and overall health in response to increased water temperatures and ocean acidification. Furthermore, we found a decrease in the abundance of commercially important fish species, indicating potential impacts on local communities dependent on coral reef resources.IV. Implications and ConclusionThe abstract should conclude with a discussion of the broader implications of the research and its significance. It should provide a concise statement summarizing the main contributions of the study to the field and any recommendations for future research or policy implications. For example:These findings highlight the urgent need for immediate actions to mitigate the effects of climate change on coastal ecosystems. Implementing measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and establishing marine protected areas can help safeguard marine biodiversity and protect the livelihoods of communities dependent on coral reef resources.ConclusionIn conclusion, writing an effective English abstract is crucial for communicating the key points and contributions of a research paper. By providing a clear purpose, concise methodology, major findings, and broader implications, the abstract serves as a concise summary of the research work, enticing readers to delve deeper into the full paper. By following the guidelines and structure provided in this example abstract, researchers can enhance their chances of effectively conveying their research to a global audience.。
英语考博作文摘要写作
英语考博作文摘要写作Writing abstracts is an essential skill for graduate students, as it allows them to summarize and communicate the key points of their research in a concise and clear manner. In this essay, I will discuss the importance of abstract writing and provide tips for writing high-quality abstracts.Firstly, abstracts serve as a brief summary of a research paper, dissertation, or thesis. They are often the first point of contact between the reader and the research, and can be used to determine whether the reader wants to read the entire paper. Therefore, it is important to write a clear and concise abstract that accurately reflects the content of the research.Secondly, abstracts are used by researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience. This is particularly important in academic conferences, where researchers may not have the time to present their entireresearch paper. A well-written abstract can capture the key findings of the research and generate interest among the audience.When writing an abstract, it is important to keep in mind the following tips:1. Start with a clear and concise statement of the research question or problem.2. Provide a brief overview of the research methods and techniques used to collect and analyze data.3. Summarize the key findings of the research,including any significant results or conclusions.4. Use clear and concise language, avoiding technical jargon and unnecessary details.5. Keep the abstract within the specified word limit, usually between 150-250 words.In conclusion, abstract writing is an important skill for graduate students, as it allows them to communicate their research findings to a wider audience. By following the tips outlined in this essay, students can write high-quality abstracts that accurately summarize their research and generate interest among readers.。
英语作文的摘要要怎么写
英语作文的摘要要怎么写Writing an abstract for an English essay requires condensing the main points of the essay into a concise summary. Here's how you can do it:An abstract is a brief summary of a longer essay, typically around 150-250 words. Its purpose is to provide readers with a quick overview of the essay's main arguments, findings, and conclusions. When writing an abstract for an English essay, it's important to capture the essence of the essay without giving away specific details or revealing the essay prompt.First, briefly introduce the topic of your essay and provide some context. Next, summarize the main arguments or points that you make in the body paragraphs of your essay. Focus on the key ideas and evidence that support yourthesis statement. Avoid including unnecessary details or examples.Then, highlight any significant findings or conclusions that you draw in your essay. What insights or perspectives do you offer on the topic? What implications might your findings have? Finally, end the abstract with a concluding statement that reinforces the significance of your essay's topic and emphasizes its relevance or importance.Overall, your abstract should give readers a clear understanding of what your essay is about and what they can expect to learn from it. Keep it concise, focused, and informative, and avoid including any information that is not directly relevant to the main content of your essay.。
英语摘要如何写范文
英语摘要如何写范文英文回答：An abstract is a concise summary of a research paper, thesis, or other academic work. It provides a brief overview of the work's purpose, methods, results, and conclusions. The abstract is typically the first part of a research paper, and it is often used by readers to decide whether or not to read the full paper.There are many different styles of abstracts, but they all typically include the following information:Purpose: The purpose of the research paper is stated in the abstract. For example, the purpose of the study might be to investigate the effects of a new drug or to test a new theory.Methods: The methods used in the research paper are described in the abstract. For example, the methods mightinclude a survey, an experiment, or a literature review.Results: The results of the research paper are presented in the abstract. For example, the results might show that a new drug is effective or that a new theory is supported.Conclusions: The conclusions of the research paper are stated in the abstract. For example, the conclusion might be that a new drug should be approved for use or that a new theory should be accepted.The abstract is a very important part of a research paper, and it should be written carefully. The abstract should be clear, concise, and informative. It should also be accurate and objective.中文回答：摘要是研究论文、论文或其他学术作品的简短总结。
Abstract_Writing
An example: This paper presents an analysis of the principles of magnetic refrigeration with application to air conditioning. A comparison with conventional evaporation-condensation gas cycle device is presented. Conclusions concerning the applicability of magnetic refrigeration to air conditioning are made. 由上述可见，指示性摘要的优点是文字短小，言简 意赅，容易写作，但突出的缺点是信息量较少。一 般研究性论文很少使用指示性摘要。综述性论文、 图书介绍尤其是艺术评论等多用指示性摘要。
VI. Writing of abstract 1．首句的撰写 首句的撰写 摘要的首句应该简单陈述研究目的。若标题已清晰表 达出研究目的，首句则不要重复或解释标题的内容。 此时摘要可以直接从方法部分开始写。 Suggested opening statements: The paper explores / looks at / deals with … The purpose of this paper is to … The paper reports a study of … A study was made of …
An example: This paper explores the history of one company and its bid for survival in the rapidly changing world of today. It examines the plastics industry in America and the position of the company within it, detailing the growth of the company over the past 50 years and the expansion of the product range and facilities to the present time. The philosophy of management is explained and related to other industrialized countries. Consideration is given to possible future trends and the direction the company should now take in the light of world and local developments.
Abstract writing∶摘要的写法
Types of abstracts
Descriptive abstract
Descriptive abstracts may tell what subjects are in the paper, but they tell nothing about the details, much less the conclusions, of your paper. They tease, rather than inform. Consider, for example, this excerpt from a hypothetical abstract: __ Saturable(可饱和的) dyes（染料） for laser Q switches are found to degrade (退色)with time. The cause of this degradation is discussed and a possible solution is proposed. This example gives me no useful information and requires me to read the paper.
Four basicjectives of the research paper(论文所研 究的具体对象 ) Methodology you used in the research(运 用的具体方法 ) The findings from the research(得出的具体 结果 ) Conclusions induced from the finding or experiments(结果进行剖析而得出的具有创 新性的结论 )
Summary
Size: brief, not as brief as that of abstract Purpose: presents the most important information contained in the reports, for a story, it covers the serial events occurred in it. Similar with abstract, it is an independent part.
摘要抽象英语作文
摘要抽象英语作文Abstract。
Abstract writing is an important skill that is required in many academic and professional settings. It involves summarizing the main points of a document or presentationin a concise and clear manner. This skill is particularly important in scientific research, where abstracts are often the first point of contact between researchers and their audience.In this article, we will discuss the key elements of a good abstract and provide some tips on how to write an effective one.Introduction。
The introduction of an abstract should provide some context for the research or presentation that is being summarized. This may include a brief overview of the topic,the research question, and the methods used to answer it.Methods。
The methods section of an abstract should provide a concise summary of the research methods used in the study. This may include the sample size, the type of data collected, and the statistical analyses used to analyze the data.Results。
AbstractWriting论文摘要写作精简版
Writing: AbstractWHAT IS AN ABSTRACT1. The Definition of an Abstract1 ) the objectives and scope of investigation;2) the methods used;3) the most important results;4) conclusion or recommendation.2. Features of AbstractsBrevity Accuracy Specificity Objectivity Informativeness IndependencyCLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACTS1.Indicative Abstractsrmative Abstractsrmative-indicative Abstracts4.Other Types of Abstracts 1) Critical Abstracts 2) Mini-abstractsFUNCTIONS OF ABSTRACTSA Screening Device of Documents: An abstract gives readers the idea of what the article is about.A Self-contained Text: We’ll know the information it contains, without seeing the article .A Helpful Preview: It "frames" the article and prepares the reader for the main points to come.To Facilitate Indexing: It will improve the chances of having it read by the right people.STYLISTIC FEATURES OF ABSTRACTS1. The Length of Abstracts1) In general, there is a 100-300 word limit to the number of words in an abstract.2) Do not confuse an abstract with a review. There should be no comment or evaluation.3) Give information only once.4) Do not repeat the information given in the title.5) Do not include any facts or ideas that are not in the text.6) For informative abstracts, include enough data to support the conclusions.7) If reference to procedure is essential, try to restrict it to identification of method or process.8) State results, conclusions, or findings in clear concise fashion.9) Organize the information in the way that is most useful to the reader. (a thesis-first abstract)2. Verbs and Tenses Used in Abstracts1) Active verbs: use active verbs rather than passive verbs.2) Present tense: background information, existing facts, what is in the paper and conclusion.3) Past tense /present perfect tense: completed research, methodology or major activities results.3. Words Used in Abstracts1) Avoid use of highly specialized words or abbreviations. Define unfamiliar words.2) Synthesize or rephrase the information into clear, concise statements.3) Avoid using jargon.4. Sentence Structures of Abstracts1) Use third person sentences.2) Use short sentences, but vary sentence structure.3) Use complete sentences.4) The first sentence should present the subject and scope of the report. The thesis or the writer's focus should be presented in the second sentence. The balance of the article is a summary of the important points of each section, including methods, procedures, results and conclusions.5) Good abstracts are sure to include a variety of pat phrases:a. Background Information (Research has shown... It has been proposed... Another proposed property... The search is on for... One of the promising new...)b. Statement of the Problem (The objective of the research is to prove / verify... The experiment was designed to determine...)e. Statement of Procedure (To investigate this .... A group of 10 specimens / subjects ... Measurements were taken after... A second group was...)d. Conclusions (It was found that .... Results imply... This data suggests... In the experimental group... In the control group...)e. Relates the Experiment to the Words (This kind of research encourages the belief that... Similar to ...) HOW TO WRITE AN ABSTRACT (An abstract must be written last as it sums up the results)l) Locate the thesis statement, identify the main divisions of the document, find the main terms (key words) and statements in each section;2) Decide the degree of detail to include;3) Prepare a single paragraph including the crucial information gathered;4) Edit the draft, eliminate unnecessary background information, and reduce wordy phrases;5) Finally, revise the opening statement to emphasize the new information contained in the paper.Start out the abstract by telling exactly what you did and how you did it. Focus on the rationale and ideas of the study and why it is important in the first two sentences. In the next few lines, focus on the materials and methods, and the data generated from the study. Tell the reader how the data were collected, compiled, and state statistical significance(s). Mention any new tools developed.Avoid using bibliographic references in the abstract. However, if your article follows directly from a published work and is a major advance on that specific piece of work, do cite the paper in the abstract.The end of the abstract is just as important as the beginning. The concluding lines of the abstract should lead into the first paragraph of the introduction without repeating what has been said. State the implications of your studies to the field of scholarship in which you are working.1. How to Write Informative Abstracts1) An informative abstract should be orderly, succinct, and concrete, with the length of no mere than 10% of the essay.2) Plan to write an abstract that is in the first draft, note key facts, statistics, etc. on the organisms, materials and locations used.3) Do not include a statement of scope or a sentence like "this paper will look at .... ".4) Write selected details of the experimental methods, including the duration of the study, the treatments, methods and equipment used.5) Be sure to omit or condense lengthy examples, tables, and other supporting detail.6) Do not hedge or equivocate.7) Give the key results, with a description of them and some of the main figures and their statistical significance.8) Use active verbs such as "report", "propos ", and "analyze" rather than static verbs such as "is", "are" and "appears to be".9) Revise the draft into smooth, stand-alone prose; the abstract itself should be a mini-essay.10) Edit the revision. Be sure that the abstract is complete and accurate, with a brief note on the significance of the results.11) Double check that the abstract is written in the same voice as is the paper.2. How to Write Indicative Abstracts1) List the title of the research report after "Abstract of..." at the top of your page.2) Summarize the major thesis and supporting main ideas of the report without omitting any important ideas.3) Avoid wordiness and repetition.4) Condense source material in your own words, being careful not to directly borrow text. You should not use direct quotations in abstracts.5) Use good sentence structure, grammar, mechanics, and spelling.6) Adhere to the 100-word limit. (No fewer than 90, nor more than 110)3. How to write Abstracts for Engineering InformationBackground: A simple opening sentence or two ;Aims: One or two sentences giving the purpose, the development, the survey as well as the assignment and the scope of the research;Method(s): One or two sentences explaining what was done and what the principles, the theory, the condition, the objective, the techniques, the framework, the means, the equipment and the procedure, etc. used in the research are;Results: One or two sentences indicating the main findings, the result, the data, the relationship, the effect and the performance of the experiment and research;Conclusions: One sentence giving the most important consequence of the work, the results of the analysis, the research, the evaluation and the application, and the issues that are raised as well.4. How to Write Abstracts for DissertationsThere are two purposes in dissertation abstract writing: to inform your reader, and to market your product. Aside from the guidelines mentioned above, there are some others:1) a dissertation abstract should have three elements, and three elements alone:a. a section on the problem you examined;b. a section showing your method;c. a section showing your findings.2) you need not give the history of the problem, why you chose to study it, your philosophy, or your self-congratulatory but humble remarks about how your dissertation will change the world.3) be sure to use some key words for easy referencing, an accurate and specific summary of your findings, and as active a voice as you can muster.5. How to Write Abstracts for ConferencesIt is a competitive process, but one to be undertaken seriously.1) Look for "Call for Papers" notices.2) Title: The title should be informative and focused, indicating the problem, kind of data and your general approach.3) Make your abstract as brief as possible, within the word limit set by the "Call for Papers".4) Make sure to describe the general topic clearly.5) Try to make your abstract appeal to the concept for the conference as it is defined in the "Call for Papers".6) Describe your treatment of the topic, and how it relates to previous work on the same topic.7) Explain how you will justify your treatment, and quote crucial evidence.8) Consider your audience carefully. You are essentially writing a speech. Your sentence structures, use of specialized language and theories, etc., should take this into account. Also, in oral discourse, you might want to summarize and / or repeat ideas more often.6. How to Write Research Abstracts1)The purpose of a research abstract can be boiled down to providing the answers to the following questions:a. Why did you start?b. What did you do?c. What did you find?d. What does it mean?2) Title: Ideally about 10-12 words long, the title should include the scope of the investigation, the study design, and the goal. In general it is preferable to make the title a description of what was investigated. The title should be easy for the reader to understand and should not include jargon or 3) Introduction or Background: this should provide a brief context or explanation for doing the study, and state the aim of the study, and ideally should include a concise statement of the study' s hypothesis. A scientific study is "to find out whether it is true."4) Methods: In an abstract the description of the methods has to be concise, and much of the details of what was done must be omitted. However, in a few short sentences the reader can be given a good idea of the design of the study, the context in which it was done, and the types of patients or measurements that were included.5) Results: space is limited. Still, it is important to give the main results of the study not just in subjective terms but also in the form of the most important data. Do not include a table or figure unless it is necessary to convey your results.6) Conclusions: Keep your conclusions reasonable and supportable by the findings of your study.7) Follow the instructions7. Some Don'ts in Abstract Writing1) Do not commence with "this paper...", "this report..." or similar. It is better to write about the research. Similarly, do not explain the sections or parts of the paper.2) Avoid sentences that end in "... is described", "... is reported", "... is analyzed" or similar. These are simply too vague to be informative.3) Do not begin sentences with "it is suggested that...", "it is believed that... ", "it is felt that..." or similar, for the words can be omitted without damaging the essential message.4) Do not write in the first person. Not only should you avoid I, but also we , the author , the writer, etc., because the abstract should be about the research, not about the act of writing.5) Do not submit an abstract with the length exceeding the limit offered.6) Do not submit your abstract later than the given date.7) Do not write an imprecise abstract.SAMPLESSample 1:Microscopic characterization of a TiB2-carbon material composite:Raw materials and composite characterizationAbstract: Titanium diboride (TiB2) is a very attractive material for the aluminum industry, because it is readily wetted by molten aluminum and combines good physical properties (electrical conductivity), chemical (fairly resistant to dissolution by molten aluminum), and mechanical (wear resistance) properties.// In this article, both raw materials(anthracite, pitch, and TiB2powder) and TiB2-carbon composites (TCC) were characterized.//Inclusions of aluminosilicate and iron oxide types were found in the anthracity aggregates. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis allowed differentiation between two types of aggregates: stratified (L C=44 nm) and nonstratified (L C=15 nm). The principal impurity found in the TiB2 powder was TiCN and surface analysis of the particles revealed the presence of a contaminant layer composed of C, N, O, and Ti; the thickness of this layer varied from 5 to 15 nm.// Characterization of the TiB2particles in the composite showed important surface modifications compared to their initial state. Evidence seen on the particles’ surfaces showed that a TiC-(O traces) formed preferentially on the side of particles rather than on top surface. The thickness of this TiC-(O traces) layer was evaluated to 30 nm.TiB2碳基复合材料的微观特征:原材料和复合物特征硼化钛(TiB2)在制铝业中是一种很受欢迎的材料,由于它易于被熔融的铝润湿,而且具有好的物理性能(导电率),化学性能(很好地抵御被熔融的铝分解)和机械性能(耐磨性).在这篇文章中,讨论了原材料(无烟煤,沥青和TiB2粉末)及TiB2碳基复合材料(TCC)的特征.在无沿煤聚合体中发现了铝矽酸盐和铁的氧化物.由X 射线衍射分析(XRD)可得两种聚合物的区别:层积的(L C=44 nm)和未层积的(L C=15 nm). TiB2粉末中发现的主要杂质是TiCN,另外颗粒表面分析可见由C, N, O, 和Ti组成的污染层;这个污染层从长远来5直15 nm 不等.符合物中TiB2颗粒的特征表明了与初始状态相比而言很重要的表面修正.颗粒表面所见的迹象显示TiC-(O traces)优先在颗粒的边缘而不是顶表面形成.这个TiC-(O traces)层厚度据估计有30 nm.Sample 2:Establishing a knowledge management programme for competitive advantage in an enterprise Abstract: This article is concerned with the establishment of a knowledge management programme that will ensure sustainable competitive advantage within an enterprise//. The main problem under investigation is to assess the importance of knowledge management within an enterprise and to ascertain how it can ensure sustained competitive advantage in an enterprise.// An empirical survey was conducted in the Eskom Transmission Group, Johannesburg, South Africa to investigate understanding of the knowledge management concept amongst business leader, determine enablers and barriers to implement a knowledge management programme and to determine whether knowledge is seen as a source for competitive advantage.// It is suggested that enterprises should adopt a holistic and integrated approach when establishing such a programme. Broad recommendations for establishing a knowledge management programme that will be source of sustainable competitive advantage are proposed. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.为实现企业的竞争优势建立知识管理的程序这是一篇关于为确保企业持续性竞争优势建立知识管理程序的文章.调查的主要问题是评价企业中知识管理的重要性和确定知识管理怎样保证企业的持续性竞争优势.为了调查知识管理概念在商业领导者中的理解程度,确定实施知识经济管理程序的有利和不利因素以及确定是否知识被看作竞争优势的源泉,南美约翰内斯堡的埃斯克姆传播小组进行了一次实验性研究.文章建议在建立知识管理程序的时候,企业应该采用完整综合的方法.文章在作为持续性竞争优势源泉的知识管理程序的建立方面提出了狠多的建议.。
Abstract Writing 英语摘要写作
• E.g. Model Study of Anchored Pavement • 1. Roadways constructed of conventional pavement are subject to deformations after prolonged use. 2. The objective of the lab model study of an anchored pavement was to investigate construction problems and to develop specifications for a full-scale test. 3. the study compared 1/20-scale anchored pavement and conventional slabs of similar dimensions. 4.The model test results were compared with results from finite-element analysis. ….5. These findings indicate that an anchored slab offers distinct advantages over a conventional slab.
5
英文摘要的类型
Use of Rank Order Distributions for
Estimation of Probabilities of Rare Events
Abstract: Rank order distributions and the
corresponding estimation problem are discussed. Their
怎么写英语作文摘要格式
怎么写英语作文摘要格式Abstract Writing Format。
Abstract writing is a skill that is essential for students, researchers, and professionals alike. It involves summarizing a piece of writing or research in a concise and informative manner. The format for writing an abstract typically includes the following elements:1. Introduction: This should provide a brief overview of the topic being discussed and the purpose of the research or writing.2. Methods: This section should outline the methods used to conduct the research or write the piece.3. Results: This section should summarize the main findings or results of the research or writing.4. Conclusion: This section should provide a summary ofthe main points discussed and the implications of the research or writing.5. Recommendations: This section should provide recommendations for future research or action.Abstract writing is an important skill to master as it allows you to quickly and effectively communicate the main points of your research or writing to others. By following the format outlined above, you can create an informative and concise abstract that will be useful to readers.My Experience with Abstract Writing。
Abstract Writing (论文摘要写作精简版)
Writing: AbstractWHAT IS AN ABSTRACT1. The Definition of an Abstract1 ) the objectives and scope of investigation;2) the methods used;3) the most important results;4) conclusion or recommendation.2. Features of AbstractsBrevity Accuracy Specificity Objectivity Informativeness IndependencyCLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACTS1.Indicative Abstractsrmative Abstractsrmative-indicative Abstracts4.Other Types of Abstracts 1) Critical Abstracts 2) Mini-abstractsFUNCTIONS OF ABSTRACTSA Screening Device of Documents: An abstract gives readers the idea of what the article is about.A Self-contained Text: We’ll know the information it contains, without seeing the article .A Helpful Preview: It "frames" the article and prepares the reader for the main points to come.To Facilitate Indexing: It will improve the chances of having it read by the right people.STYLISTIC FEATURES OF ABSTRACTS1. The Length of Abstracts1) In general, there is a 100-300 word limit to the number of words in an abstract.2) Do not confuse an abstract with a review. There should be no comment or evaluation.3) Give information only once.4) Do not repeat the information given in the title.5) Do not include any facts or ideas that are not in the text.6) For informative abstracts, include enough data to support the conclusions.7) If reference to procedure is essential, try to restrict it to identification of method or process.8) State results, conclusions, or findings in clear concise fashion.9) Organize the information in the way that is most useful to the reader. (a thesis-first abstract)2. Verbs and Tenses Used in Abstracts1) Active verbs: use active verbs rather than passive verbs.2) Present tense: background information, existing facts, what is in the paper and conclusion.3) Past tense /present perfect tense: completed research, methodology or major activities results.3. Words Used in Abstracts1) Avoid use of highly specialized words or abbreviations. Define unfamiliar words.2) Synthesize or rephrase the information into clear, concise statements.3) Avoid using jargon.4. Sentence Structures of Abstracts1) Use third person sentences.2) Use short sentences, but vary sentence structure.3) Use complete sentences.4) The first sentence should present the subject and scope of the report. The thesis or the writer's focus should be presented in the second sentence. The balance of the article is a summary of the important points of each section, including methods, procedures, results and conclusions.5) Good abstracts are sure to include a variety of pat phrases:a. Background Information (Research has shown... It has been proposed... Another proposed property... The search is on for... One of the promising new...)b. Statement of the Problem (The objective of the research is to prove / verify... The experiment was designed to determine...)e. Statement of Procedure (To investigate this .... A group of 10 specimens / subjects ... Measurementswere taken after... A second group was...)d. Conclusions (It was found that .... Results imply... This data suggests... In the experimental group... In the control group...)e. Relates the Experiment to the Words (This kind of research encourages the belief that... Similar to ...) HOW TO WRITE AN ABSTRACT (An abstract must be written last as it sums up the results)l) Locate the thesis statement, identify the main divisions of the document, find the main terms (key words) and statements in each section;2) Decide the degree of detail to include;3) Prepare a single paragraph including the crucial information gathered;4) Edit the draft, eliminate unnecessary background information, and reduce wordy phrases;5) Finally, revise the opening statement to emphasize the new information contained in the paper.Start out the abstract by telling exactly what you did and how you did it. Focus on the rationale and ideas of the study and why it is important in the first two sentences. In the next few lines, focus on the materials and methods, and the data generated from the study. Tell the reader how the data were collected, compiled, and state statistical significance(s). Mention any new tools developed.Avoid using bibliographic references in the abstract. However, if your article follows directly from a published work and is a major advance on that specific piece of work, do cite the paper in the abstract.The end of the abstract is just as important as the beginning. The concluding lines of the abstract should lead into the first paragraph of the introduction without repeating what has been said. State the implications of your studies to the field of scholarship in which you are working.1. How to Write Informative Abstracts1) An informative abstract should be orderly, succinct, and concrete, with the length of no mere than 10% of the essay.2) Plan to write an abstract that is in the first draft, note key facts, statistics, etc. on the organisms, materials and locations used.3) Do not include a statement of scope or a sentence like "this paper will look at .... ".4) Write selected details of the experimental methods, including the duration of the study, the treatments, methods and equipment used.5) Be sure to omit or condense lengthy examples, tables, and other supporting detail.6) Do not hedge or equivocate.7) Give the key results, with a description of them and some of the main figures and their statistical significance.8) Use active verbs such as "report", "propos ", and "analyze" rather than static verbs such as "is", "are" and "appears to be".9) Revise the draft into smooth, stand-alone prose; the abstract itself should be a mini-essay.10) Edit the revision. Be sure that the abstract is complete and accurate, with a brief note on the significance of the results.11) Double check that the abstract is written in the same voice as is the paper.2. How to Write Indicative Abstracts1) List the title of the research report after "Abstract of..." at the top of your page.2) Summarize the major thesis and supporting main ideas of the report without omitting any important ideas.3) Avoid wordiness and repetition.4) Condense source material in your own words, being careful not to directly borrow text. You should not use direct quotations in abstracts.5) Use good sentence structure, grammar, mechanics, and spelling.6) Adhere to the 100-word limit. (No fewer than 90, nor more than 110)3. How to write Abstracts for Engineering InformationBackground: A simple opening sentence or two ;Aims: One or two sentences giving the purpose, the development, the survey as well as the assignment and the scope of the research;Method(s): One or two sentences explaining what was done and what the principles, the theory, the condition, the objective, the techniques, the framework, the means, the equipment and the procedure, etc. used in the research are;Results: One or two sentences indicating the main findings, the result, the data, the relationship, the effect and the performance of the experiment and research;Conclusions: One sentence giving the most important consequence of the work, the results of the analysis, the research, the evaluation and the application, and the issues that are raised as well.4. How to Write Abstracts for DissertationsThere are two purposes in dissertation abstract writing: to inform your reader, and to market your product. Aside from the guidelines mentioned above, there are some others:1) a dissertation abstract should have three elements, and three elements alone:a. a section on the problem you examined;b. a section showing your method;c. a section showing your findings.2) you need not give the history of the problem, why you chose to study it, your philosophy, or your self-congratulatory but humble remarks about how your dissertation will change the world.3) be sure to use some key words for easy referencing, an accurate and specific summary of your findings, and as active a voice as you can muster.5. How to Write Abstracts for ConferencesIt is a competitive process, but one to be undertaken seriously.1) Look for "Call for Papers" notices.2) Title: The title should be informative and focused, indicating the problem, kind of data and your general approach.3) Make your abstract as brief as possible, within the word limit set by the "Call for Papers".4) Make sure to describe the general topic clearly.5) Try to make your abstract appeal to the concept for the conference as it is defined in the "Call for Papers".6) Describe your treatment of the topic, and how it relates to previous work on the same topic.7) Explain how you will justify your treatment, and quote crucial evidence.8) Consider your audience carefully. You are essentially writing a speech. Your sentence structures, use of specialized language and theories, etc., should take this into account. Also, in oral discourse, you might want to summarize and / or repeat ideas more often.6. How to Write Research Abstracts1)The purpose of a research abstract can be boiled down to providing the answers to the following questions:a. Why did you start?b. What did you do?c. What did you find?d. What does it mean?2) Title: Ideally about 10-12 words long, the title should include the scope of the investigation, the study design, and the goal. In general it is preferable to make the title a description of what was investigated. The title should be easy for the reader to understand and should not include jargon or 3) Introduction or Background: this should provide a brief context or explanation for doing the study, and state the aim of the study, and ideally should include a concise statement of the study' s hypothesis. A scientific study is "to find out whether it is true."4) Methods: In an abstract the description of the methods has to be concise, and much of the details of what was done must be omitted. However, in a few short sentences the reader can be given a good idea of the design of the study, the context in which it was done, and the types of patients or measurements that were included.5) Results: space is limited. Still, it is important to give the main results of the study not just in subjective terms but also in the form of the most important data. Do not include a table or figure unless it is necessary to convey your results.6) Conclusions: Keep your conclusions reasonable and supportable by the findings of your study.7) Follow the instructions7. Some Don'ts in Abstract Writing1) Do not commence with "this paper...", "this report..." or similar. It is better to write about the research. Similarly, do not explain the sections or parts of the paper.2) Avoid sentences that end in "... is described", "... is reported", "... is analyzed" or similar. These are simply too vague to be informative.3) Do not begin sentences with "it is suggested that...", "it is believed that... ", "it is felt that..." or similar, for the words can be omitted without damaging the essential message.4) Do not write in the first person. Not only should you avoid I, but also we , the author , the writer, etc., because the abstract should be about the research, not about the act of writing.5) Do not submit an abstract with the length exceeding the limit offered.6) Do not submit your abstract later than the given date.7) Do not write an imprecise abstract.SAMPLESSample 1:Microscopic characterization of a TiB2-carbon material composite:Raw materials and composite characterizationAbstract: Titanium diboride (TiB2) is a very attractive material for the aluminum industry, because it is readily wetted by molten aluminum and combines good physical properties (electrical conductivity), chemical (fairly resistant to dissolution by molten aluminum), and mechanical (wear resistance) properties.// In this article, both raw materials(anthracite, pitch, and TiB2powder) and TiB2-carbon composites (TCC) were characterized.//Inclusions of aluminosilicate and iron oxide types were found in the anthracity aggregates. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis allowed differentiation between two types of aggregates: stratified (L C=44 nm) and nonstratified (L C=15 nm). The principal impurity found in the TiB2 powder was TiCN and surface analysis of the particles revealed the presence of a contaminant layer composed of C, N, O, and Ti; the thickness of this layer varied from 5 to 15 nm.// Characterization of the TiB2particles in the composite showed important surface modifications compared to their initial state. Evidence seen on the particles’ surfaces showed that a TiC-(O traces) formed preferentially on the side of particles rather than on top surface. The thickness of this TiC-(O traces) layer was evaluated to 30 nm.TiB2碳基复合材料的微观特征:原材料和复合物特征硼化钛(TiB2)在制铝业中是一种很受欢迎的材料,由于它易于被熔融的铝润湿,而且具有好的物理性能(导电率),化学性能(很好地抵御被熔融的铝分解)和机械性能(耐磨性).在这篇文章中,讨论了原材料(无烟煤,沥青和TiB2粉末)及TiB2碳基复合材料(TCC)的特征.在无沿煤聚合体中发现了铝矽酸盐和铁的氧化物.由X 射线衍射分析(XRD)可得两种聚合物的区别:层积的(L C=44 nm)和未层积的(L C=15 nm). TiB2粉末中发现的主要杂质是TiCN,另外颗粒表面分析可见由C, N, O, 和Ti组成的污染层;这个污染层从长远来5直15 nm 不等.符合物中TiB2颗粒的特征表明了与初始状态相比而言很重要的表面修正.颗粒表面所见的迹象显示TiC-(O traces)优先在颗粒的边缘而不是顶表面形成.这个TiC-(O traces)层厚度据估计有30 nm.Sample 2:Establishing a knowledge management programme for competitive advantage in an enterprise Abstract: This article is concerned with the establishment of a knowledge management programme that will ensure sustainable competitive advantage within an enterprise//. The main problem under investigation is to assess the importance of knowledge management within an enterprise and to ascertain how it can ensure sustained competitive advantage in an enterprise.// An empirical survey was conducted in the Eskom Transmission Group, Johannesburg, South Africa to investigate understanding of the knowledge management concept amongst business leader, determine enablers and barriers to implement a knowledge management programme and to determine whether knowledge is seen as a source for competitive advantage.// It is suggested that enterprises should adopt a holistic and integrated approach when establishing such a programme. Broad recommendations for establishing a knowledge management programme that will be source of sustainable competitive advantage are proposed. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.为实现企业的竞争优势建立知识管理的程序这是一篇关于为确保企业持续性竞争优势建立知识管理程序的文章.调查的主要问题是评价企业中知识管理的重要性和确定知识管理怎样保证企业的持续性竞争优势.为了调查知识管理概念在商业领导者中的理解程度,确定实施知识经济管理程序的有利和不利因素以及确定是否知识被看作竞争优势的源泉,南美约翰内斯堡的埃斯克姆传播小组进行了一次实验性研究.文章建议在建立知识管理程序的时候,企业应该采用完整综合的方法.文章在作为持续性竞争优势源泉的知识管理程序的建立方面提出了狠多的建议.。
论文写作中的英文摘要范例
论文写作中的英文摘要范例AbstractThe abstract is a crucial component of academic writing, providing readers with a concise summary of the research paper. This article aims to demonstrate a sample format for writing an English abstract in academic papers.1. IntroductionIn academic writing, the abstract serves as a brief overview of the research topic, the methodology used, the main findings, and the overall conclusion. It is typically placed at the beginning of the paper, after the title and author information.2. Length and StructureThe length of an abstract can vary depending on the specific guidelines provided by the journal or conference. However, it is generally recommended to keep the abstract within 150 to 300 words. This ensures that the abstract remains concise and informative.3. ContentThe abstract should contain the following elements:- Research Problem: Clearly state the research problem or objective.- Approach/Methodology: Describe the methodology or approach used in the study.- Results: Summarize the main findings and outcomes of the research.- Conclusion: Present the key conclusions or implications of the study.4. Language and Style- Clear and Concise: Use clear and concise language to convey the main points of the research.- Avoid Abbreviations and Jargon: Use full terms instead of abbreviations, unless they are widely recognized.- Past Tense: Write the abstract in the past tense since the research has already been conducted.- Third Person: Write the abstract in the third person, using objective language.5. Example[The following is a fictional example of an abstract for a research paper on climate change.]Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity in Tropical RainforestsAbstract:This research aims to investigate the impact of climate change on the biodiversity of tropical rainforests. The study utilized a combination of field surveys, satellite imagery analysis, and statistical modeling to assess changes in species diversity, habitat loss, and ecosystem stability. The results indicated a significant decline in species richness, increased habitat fragmentation, and heightened vulnerability of endemic species to climate-related events. These findings have important implications for conservationstrategies and the management of biodiversity hotspots in the face of climate change. By understanding the effects of climate change on tropical rainforests, policymakers can develop more targeted approaches to mitigate its impact and ensure the long-term survival of these vital ecosystems.6. ConclusionIn conclusion, writing an effective English abstract is crucial for an academic paper as it provides readers with a concise overview of the research. Following the recommended format and guidelines can help researchers communicate their findings accurately and succinctly. By adhering to the suggested structure and style, authors can ensure their abstracts are informative and engaging for readers.。
英文摘要书写技巧
英文摘要书写技巧Abstract Writing Tips (1500 words)Writing an abstract is a crucial skill for researchers and academics as it helps them communicate the essence of their work in a concise and accessible manner. An abstract is a summary of a research paper, report, or article that provides an overview of the main points and findings. This article provides some useful tips for writing effective and compelling abstracts.1. Understand the Purpose of an Abstract: Before starting to write the abstract, it is important to understand its purpose. An abstract serves as a snapshot of the entire work and allows readers to quickly determine if the study is relevant to their interests. It should provide enough information to help readers decide whether to read the full paper or not.2. Follow the Structure: Abstracts generally follow a specific structure that includes the background, objective, methods, results, and conclusions of the study. However, this structure may vary depending on the requirements of the journal or conference you are submitting to. It is essential to follow the prescribed structure to ensure that all the necessary information is included.3. Be Concise: Abstracts should be concise and to the point. Since they have word limits, it is important to prioritize the most essential information and avoid unnecessary details. A good abstract should be between 150-250 words, depending on the guidelines provided by the target journal or conference.4. Use Clear and Straightforward Language: Abstracts should be written using clear and straightforward language. Avoid unnecessary jargon or technical terms that may confuse the readers. Instead, use terminology that is easily understandable to a broad audience. Remember that the purpose of an abstract is to present your work to a wider audience, including non-specialists.5. Highlight Key Points: Since abstracts serve as a summary, it is important to highlight the key points of your work. These are usually the main objectives, methods, major findings, and significant conclusions. By emphasizing these key elements, readers can get a clear idea of your research without going through the entire paper.6. Be Accurate and Objective: When writing an abstract, it is crucial to be accurate and objective. Avoid making exaggerated claims or overgeneralizations about your findings. Stick to the facts and provide a fair representation of your research. This will help establish credibility and trust among the readers.7. Avoid Citations and References: Abstracts should not include citations or references to other papers or sources. It is not the place to provide a detailed literature review. Instead, focus on summarizing your own work without external references.8. Proofread and Edit: Like any other piece of writing, abstracts should be proofread and edited to ensure clarity and correctness. Pay attention to grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. Ensure that the abstract reads smoothly and provides a coherent summary of your study.9. Revise for Different Platforms: If you plan to submit your work to multiple journals or conferences, it is important to revise your abstract accordingly. Each target platform may have different requirements, such as word limits or specific sections to include. Tailor your abstract to meet these requirements, ensuring that it optimally represents your research for each platform.10. Seek feedback: Lastly, it is always beneficial to seek feedback from colleagues, mentors, or writing professionals. They can provide valuable insights and suggestions for improving your abstract. Incorporate their feedback to enhance the quality and impact of your abstract.In conclusion, writing an abstract requires careful consideration and attention to detail. By following these tips, you can effectively summarize your research and engage readers, ultimately increasing the visibility and impact of your work.11. Customize for Different Disciplines: It is important to keep in mind that abstracts may vary across different disciplines. Depending on the field of study, different aspects may be prioritized. For example, in scientific research, the methods and results sections may be more emphasized, while in humanities research, the theoretical framework and analysis may be more prominent. Therefore, it is crucial to tailor your abstract to the specific requirements and conventions of your discipline.12. State the Problem or Research Question: Start your abstract by clearly stating the problem or research question your study addresses. This helps readers understand the purpose and relevanceof your work. Be brief but specific in describing the issue you are investigating.13. Provide Context: In addition to stating the problem, it is important to provide some context for your study. This can include a brief background or literature review to explain the significance of the research. However, be cautious not to make the abstract too lengthy or to include excessive details. Focus on the key aspects that are directly relevant to your study.14. Summarize the Methodology: Briefly describe the methodology or approach used in your study. This includes the research design, data collection methods, and any analytical techniques employed. Highlight the key steps or procedures that are crucial for understanding your findings.15. Summarize the Results: Outline the main findings or results of your study. Be concise and specific, avoiding ambiguous or vague statements. If possible, use quantitative or qualitative data to support your conclusions. It is important to convey the most significant findings in a clear and understandable manner.16. Emphasize Novelty or Contribution: If your study has a unique or innovative aspect, make sure to highlight it in the abstract. This could be a novel methodology, a new theoretical framework, or a significant contribution to the existing literature. By emphasizing the novelty of your work, you can attract the attention of readers and make your abstract stand out.17. State the Implications and Conclusions: Conclude your abstractby summarizing the implications and conclusions of your study. Explain how your findings contribute to the existing knowledge, theory, or practice in your field. If applicable, mention any limitations or caveats of your study. By providing a clear and realistic assessment of your work, you can demonstrate its importance and practical implications.18. Include Keywords: Many journals and conferences require authors to include a list of keywords in their abstracts. Keywords are specific terms or phrases that represent the main topics or themes of your research. They help search engines and researchers find your work more easily. Choose keywords that accurately reflect the content and scope of your study.19. Pay Attention to Formatting and Style: When writing an abstract, it is important to adhere to the specific formatting and style guidelines of your target journal or conference. This includes font size, word limits, and citation styles, among others. Ensure that your abstract is properly formatted and meets all the requirements to avoid potential rejection or issues during the submission process.20. Keep Revising and Improving: Abstract writing is an iterative process. It is rare to have a perfect abstract in the first draft. Continuously revise and refine your abstract to make it more compelling and impactful. Seek feedback from colleagues, mentors, or experts in your field. Incorporate their suggestions and polish your abstract to enhance its quality and effectiveness.Writing an abstract is a skill that improves with practice. Byfollowing these tips and continually honing your abstract writing abilities, you can effectively communicate the essence of your research and increase its visibility and impact in your field. Keep in mind that abstracts play a crucial role in attracting readers' attention, so invest time and effort into crafting a clear, concise, and engaging abstract that accurately represents your work.。
摘要writing(原文及范文)
WritingDirections: For this part, you are to write a summary of either of two articles that are presented to you in the following. Your summary should be 150-200 words. Remember to write neatly.Science and HumanityThe twentieth century saw more momentous change than any previous century: change for better, change for worse; change that brought enormous benefits to human beings, change that threatens the very existence of the human species. Many factors contributed to this change but—in my opinion—the most important factor was the progress in science.Academic research in the physical and biological sciences has vastly broadened our horizons; it has given us a deep insight into the structure of matter and of the universe; it has brought better understanding of the nature of life and of its continuous evolution. Technology—the application of science—has made fantastic advances that have affected us beneficially in nearly every aspect of life: better health, more wealth, less drudgery (单调沉闷的工作), greater access to information.Sadly, however, there is another side to the picture. The creativity of science has been employed to the detriment(损害) of mankind. The application of science and technology to the development and manufacture of weapons of mass destruction has created a real threat to the continued existence of the human race on this planet. We have seen this happen in the case of nuclear weapons. Although their actual use in combat has so far occurred only in 1945—when two Japanese cities were destroyed—during the four decades of the Cold War, obscenely huge arsenals(武器库) of nuclear weapons were accumulated and made ready for use. The arsenals were so large that if the weapons had actually been detonated (爆炸) the result could have been the complete extinction of the human species, as well as of many animal species.William Shakespeare said: "The web of our life is of a mingled (混合的) yarn, good and ill together. " The above brief review of the application of only one strand of human activities—science—seems to bear out this adage (格言). But does it have to be so? Must ill always accompany good deeds? Are we biologically programmed for aggression and war?I am not an authority in genetics, but from my readings and life-long observation I do not see any evidence that we are genetically condemned to commit evil. On the contrary, on very general grounds I would say that genetically we are destined to do things that are of benefit to the human species, and that the negative aspects are mistakes, transient errors in the process of evolution. In other words, I believe in the inherent goodness of Man.We are thus faced with a daunting (威吓，使胆怯) dilemma. As a process of natural evolution, science should be allowed to develop freely, without restrictions. But can we afford the luxury of uninhibited research in the natural sciences, with its awesome (可怕的) potential of total destruction, in a world in which war is still a recognized social institution?The preservation of the human species and its continuing enhancement demand that we learn to live with one another in peace and harmony. But this learning process has been slow and arduous (费力的), and is not yet complete. Due to the harsh conditions under which primitive man lived, he often had to fight with other human beings for survival. Individual killing and, later, collective killing—war—thus began to be seen as a natural phenomenon.We are still not organized for a war-free world. But in the meantime, the human species may be brought to an end by the use of the tools of destruction, themselves the product of science and technology.In my opinion, the problem has to a large extent arisen from the uneven rate of advance in the different areas of human activities, in particular, between the progress in the naturalsciences—which include the physical and biological disciplines, and the various social sciences—economics, sociology, politics (with psychology perhaps at the interface between the two major groups). Undoubtedly, there has been much faster progress in the natural sciences than in the social ones.Why have the natural sciences, especially the physical sciences, advanced so much faster than the social sciences? It is not because physicists are wiser or cleverer than, say, economists. The explanation is simply that physics is easier to master than economics. Although the material world is a highly complex system, for practical purposes it can be described by a few general laws. The laws of physics are immutable (不可改变的). They apply everywhere, on this planet as well as everywhere else in the universe, and are not affected by human reactions and emotions, as the social sciences are.How can we tackle this unevenness in the rate of progress of different.areas of science? Two ways come to mind:one, by accelerating the rate of progress in the social sciences; two, by slowing down the rate of advancement of the natural sciences in some areas, for example, by the imposition of ethical codes of conduct.Clearly, the former is by far the preferable way. What we would like to see is faster progress in the social sciences, leading to the establishment of a social system which would make war not only unnecessary but unthinkable; a system in which the existence of old, or the invention of new, weapons of mass destruction, would not matter, because nobody would dream of using them; a system in which people will be able to say: “nuclear weapons: who cares?”Responsibility for one's actions is, of course, a basic requirement of every citizen, not just of scientists. Each of us must be accountable for our deeds. But the need for such responsibility is particularly imperative for scientists, if only because scientists understand the technical problems better than the average citizen or politician. And knowledge brings responsibility.In any case, scientists do not have a completely free hand. The general public, through elected governments, have the means to control science, either by withholding (抑制) the purse, or by imposing restrictive regulations harmful to science. Clearly it is far better that any control should be exercised by the scientists themselves, through a self-imposed code of conduct. The establishment of an ethical code of conduct for scientists is an idea whose time has come.Summary：Science and HumanityThe twentieth century has made greater change to the world, which was brought by the progress in science, than any previous century. Unfortunately, not all these changes did good to the human society. Some of them have done serious damage to mankind and have been even predicted to destroy the whole world someday if out of control. In fact, mankind is not biologically programmed for violent behaviors like war. People are faced with a dilemma in which we would like to see science develop freely, but cannot afford the result of that. It is a basic instinct that man tends to protect oneself by fighting with others. The progress in the nautral sciences is much faster than that in social sciences because laws in natural sciences are immutable and apply everywhere and are not affected by human reactions and emotions. For even developmemt and for a better future of mankind, imposition of ethical codes is necessary. Everyone should be responsible for his behavior, especially the scientists. (166 words)China Sees Opportunities in Climate ChangeUNLIKE America’s leaders, China’s bosses are not much troubled by recalcitrant（顽强的）legislatures. The government has therefore had no difficulty in executing a smart volte face（完全改变）on climate change. Around three years ago its fierce resistance to the notion of any limit on its greenhouse-gas emissions started to soften. It now seems to be making serious efforts to control them.One reason for this change is the country’s growing awareness of its vulnerability to a warming world. The monsoon（季风）seems to be weakening, travelling less far inland and dumping its rainfall on the coasts. As a result China is seeing floods in the south-east and droughts in the north-west. At the same time the country’s leaders are deeply concerned about the melting of the glaciers on the Tibetan plateau, which feed not just the Ganges, the Indus, the Brahmaputra and the Mekong but also the Yangzi and Yellow rivers .A second reason is China’s growing sense of global responsibility. The country is not only the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases; it now regards itself, and is regarded, as one of the w orld’s leading powers, and therefore expects to work with the other big powers to tackle global problems such as the economic crisis, nuclear proliferation（核扩散）and climate change.A third reason is energy security. Although China has large coal reserves, it is also a big importer. Concerns about excessive dependence on foreign fossil fuels sharpened when China’s oil imports rocketed and, in 2005, the attempt by CNOOC（China National Offshore Oil Corporation), China’s largest offshore oil and gas company, to buy America’s Unocal was rebuffed. China’s push into nuclear and renewable energy has been driven by its need to diversify its energy sources.The fourth reason is economic. The Kyoto protocol has given China an incentive to clean up its act. China has received $2 billion through the CDM（Clean Development Mechanism) for cleaning up its industrial processes and building clean-energy capacity—half the money that has flowed through the CDM. That is expected to rise to $8 billion by 2012.But a longer-term economic motive springs from a shift in the way China thinks about growth. In the past, its all-out drive for growth has led it to rebuff pressure to cut emissions. Attempts to control pollution foundered on the performance-assessment system for officials at all levels of government, which prioritises growth. But that has been adjusted to encourage energy efficiency, and at the same time the leadership has started to argue that growth and greenery are compatible.Since Wen Jiabao took over as prime minister, the leadership has tried to define economic growth as something broader and longer-term than GDP figures imply: the emphasis has been on a “harmonious society” and “scientific development”. Nobody was sure what the latter meant, but Mr Wen has recently been talking about a more “resource-efficient environmentally friendly society” and Hu Jintao, the president, has referred several times to a “low-carbon economy” and a “green economy”.Local pollution may help to explain the shift. Residents are infuriated by filthy air and water that kills people and damages unborn children. Policies to cut carbon-dioxide emissions—through reducing the energy used to produce goods—can help clean up China’s cities at the same time.More interesting is the idea that clean energy might be a source of growth rather than a constraint on it. China, so the argument goes, missed out on the computer revolution. It makes hardware, but American firms own most of the valuable stuff—the intellectual property for the software. “You can’t get rich making socks and toys,” explains Lin Jiang, director of the China Sustainable Energy Programme at the Energy Foundation in San Francisco. “They’re looking for the next growth industry. Clean energy clearly has huge potential. And no country dominates the industry yet. It’s a wide-open field.” Hu Angang, an economist at Tsinghua University, calls this “a huge opportunity for China. The country will become the largest renewable-energy market, bio-energy market, clean-coal market, nuclear-power market, carbon-exchange market, environmental-technology market, low-carbon economy, exporter of low-carbon products and low-carbon-technology innovator.”The government is giving the economy a shove in that direction. In 2006 the five-year plan set a target for a 20% cut in the energy intensity of GDP by the end of 2010. The start was slow, but by the end of last year it had managed 10% and it now looks on track for its target. According to Mr Lin, that would mean a reduction in carbon emissions of 1.5 billion tonnes per year by 2010, more than the Waxman-Markey bill’s caps for domestic industry would take out of America’s economy by 2020. China has relatively tight vehicle fuel-efficiency standards . Electric vehicles are being generously subsidised ($8,800 for a car and $73,500 for a bus) and the government plans to build the capacity to produce half a million a year by 2012.The most visible changes have come in renewable energy. In 2005 the National People’s Congress passed legislation to offer subsidies for renewable energy—around twice the amount for coal. For wind energy, the target was set at 20GW of capacity by 2020. The subsidy generated so much building that China now expects to hit that target by the end of this year and is aiming for 150GW by 2020. “It’s like a gold rush right now,” says Mr Lin. The target for solar energy, similarly, has been raised from 1.8GW to 20GW by 2020.To put this in context, wind currently generates only 0.4% of Chinese electricity. Coal generates 80%. And, although China’s government does not have to jump the legislative hurdles faced by America’s president, it sometimes struggles to get policy implemented on the ground. Yet if China’s many layers of government can be persuaded that green means growth, they will cleave （坚持）to this policy; and the leadership seems keen to make that happen.China, thus, is after the same “green jobs” that Americans have been promised as part of their road to economic recovery. America has huge advantages in terms of technology and capital, but China has a couple of things going for it too: cheaper labour and a leadership unconstrained by the need to get re-elected every four years. China can play a long game, which helps when dealing with climate change.SummaryChina Sees Opportunities in Climate ChangeIn order to help deal with climate change, Chinese government made a smart change and will make serious efforts to control its greenhouse gas emissions. As a big importer of energy resources, with the raising awareness of its vulnerability to a warming world and the growing sense of global responsibility, with the incentive given by the Kyoto Protocol and $2 billion provided by the CDM for cleaning up its industry processes and building clean-energy capacity, this change is justified for China. Since China's leadership realized that growth and greenery are compatible and advocated to have a "low-carbon" and "green" economy, the government set a target of a reduction in carbon emissions of 1.5 billion tons per year by 2010 by tightening vehicle-efficiency standards and diversifying its energy sources, such as wind energy. Actually, the practice of "green jobs" is a great opportunity for China to clean up its cities and build clean-energy capacity. In the long run, China will become the largest renewable energy market in the world. With cheaper labours and a stronger leadership, China can play a long game in dealing with climate change. (187 words)。
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• 摘要：本实验的目的是要确定一台尚不完善的 听写打字机能否用来写信（目的）。实验者口 授信函时，有时一字一字口授，有时是连续话 语口授。他们口授时，听写打字机便做模拟工 作；听写打字机有的能识别有限量词语，有的 则能识别无限量词语。（方法） An aim of the experiment is to determine if an imperfect listening typewriter would be useful for composing letters. Participants dictated, either in isolated words or in consecutive word speech. This was carried out with stimulations of listening typewriter that recognized either a limited vocabulary or an unlimited vocabulary.
英文摘要的风格
• 文体风格（styles）
（1）文摘叙述要简明，逻辑性要强；
（2）句子结构严谨完整，尽量用短句子；
（3）技术术语尽量用工程领域的通用标准； （4）用过去时态叙述作者工作，用现在时态叙述 作者结论； （5）可用动词的情况尽量避免用动词的名词形式； 如：用“Thickness of plastic sheets was measured”
Reduced Abstract
• 1. purpose and method of the study • 2. results • 3. conclusions or/ and recommendations
Guidelines for Informative Abstract
• • • • • Keeping abstracts concise Using a logical order Avoid descriptive expression Avoiding evaluation Avoiding personal and emotional expression
Abstract Writing
• 1. background: introduces the present situation or problems (in present tense) • 2. purpose: (in past tense) • 3. method: (in past tense) • 4. results: (in past tense) • 5. conclusion: give analysis, comparison or application of the results, or raises questions, recommendations or predictions on the basis of the results. (in present tense)
application to the study of rare events is considered.
Examples are given of the application of the simplest of these distributions in predicting the occurrence of rare events.
作为单位形容词（一个形容词）。
17
英文摘要的风格
（8）不使用俚语，外来语表达概念，应用标准英语；
（9）尽量用主动于 “B is exceeded by A”
（10）语言要简练，但不得使用电报语言；
18
英文摘要的风格
（11）文词要纯朴无华，不用多姿多态的文学性
16
英文摘要的风格
（6）注意冠词用法，分清a是泛指，the是专指；如
“Pressure is a function of temperature”不应是
“Pressure is a function of the temperature ”
（7）避免使用长系列形容词或名词来修饰名词，可用
预置短语分开或用连字符（hyphen）断开名词词组，
Abstract Writing
Functions of Abstracts
• To help readers identify articles of interest • To outline the main points of an article • To guide the reading of longer documents • An important measure for retrieving papers and for promoting the international sic-tech exchange
• E.g. Model Study of Anchored Pavement • 1. Roadways constructed of conventional pavement are subject to deformations after prolonged use. 2. The objective of the lab model study of an anchored pavement was to investigate construction problems and to develop specifications for a full-scale test. 3. the study compared 1/20-scale anchored pavement and conventional slabs of similar dimensions. 4.The model test results were compared with results from finite-element analysis. ….5. These findings indicate that an anchored slab offers distinct advantages over a conventional slab.
英文摘要的类型
• 指示性文摘（Indicated Abstracts）
指示型摘要也称为介绍型摘要或陈述型摘要，它
只是简要地介绍论文的论题，仅使读者对论文主要
内容有一些概括了解。一般那不介绍方法、结果、
结论的具体内容，不包含任何数据。它仅指出论文
的综合内容，适用于综述性文献，图书介绍及编辑
加工过的专著等。
5
英文摘要的类型
Use of Rank Order Distributions for
Estimation of Probabilities of Rare Events
Abstract: Rank order distributions and the
corresponding estimation problem are discussed. Their
7
Types of Technical Abstract
• 3. Informative Abstract • To inform, to present the principal facts and conclusions given in the original work. Sic-tech paper abstracts are usually written in this form. • E.g. • Title: Composing Letters With a Simulated listening Typewriter
6
英文摘要的类型
Use of Rank Order Distributions for
Estimation of Probabilities of Rare Events
摘 要：本文讨论了从大到小的分布以及相应
的估值问题，并考虑它们在稀少事件研究中的
应用，提供了一些分布的最简单形式在预测稀 少事件发生方面的应用实例。
Types of Technical Abstract
• 2. Evaluative Abstract (book review) • To analyze the accuracy, completeness, usefulness, appeal, and readability of a piece of writing. • E.g. • The article “Take Charge of Your Life” describes four strategies for turning adversity to advantage. The article is thought provoking, with each strategy described in detail and with examples.
• 信息性文摘（Information Abstracts） （1）目的：主要说明作者写此文章的目的，或说本 文主要要解决的问题。 （2）过程及方法：主要说明作者主要工作过程及所 用的方法，也包括众多的边界条件，使用的主要设 备和仪器。 （3）结果：作者在此工作过程最后得到的结果和结 论，如有可能，尽量提一句作者所得结果和结论的 应用范围和应用情况。
描述手法；
（12）组织好句子，使动词尽量靠近主语；
（13）删繁从简；如用 increase 代替
has been found to increase
19
英文摘要的风格
（14）用重要的事实开头，尽量避免用辅助从句开头；
例如用：“ Power consumption of telephone switching
systems was determined from data obtained experimentally．” 而不用 “ From data obtained experimentally，power consumption of telephone switching systems was determined．”