认知心理学问题解决..

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working memory and prefrontal cortex one of the major prerequisites to developing complex goal structures is the ability to maintain these goal structures in working memory Rowe et al. (2 JUNE 2000 VOL 288 SCIENCE pp.1656-1660)

human cognition is always

purposeful; directed to achieving goals and to removing obstacles to those goals
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语义记忆(semantic memory)

被组织起来的一般知识,它包括相当稳定的 知识结构,包括关于词的知识,也包括许多 不容易用词来表达的我们所知道的东西 关于如何做某事或关于刺激和反应之间联系 的知识 技能学习过程中,为什么一定要亲手操作


Understanding and representing problem Approaches of problem solving


means-ends analysis analogy

Factors affecting problem solving
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Procedural Knowledge and Problem Solving
从右向左,移动两个魔鬼;
从左向右,移动一个魔鬼;
从右向左,移动两个魔鬼
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Greeno, 1974

在解决问题的过程中,人们会停下来计 划下几步移动的策略,而不是以一个固 定的步速移动小人和魔鬼 特别是第一步移动之前和另外两步关键 的移动之前,人们要花费很长的时间

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Computer Simulation
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Goal Structures and Prefrontal Cortex

It has been speculated (Anderson, 1993) that the process of handling complex subgoals is performed by the prefrontal cortex
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维持空间位置信息
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Goal Structures and Prefrontal Cortex

The performance of frontal patients in the Tower of Hanoi task


many were veterans of Vietnam War suffered severe damage to their prefrontal

研究者使用计算机模拟,来说明人类利用手段目 的 分 析 解 决 问 题 的 方 式 ( Baron, 1994; Stillings等人, 1995)

Newell 和 Simon 发展了一个理论,该理论为子
目标以及减小初始状态与目标状态之间的差异,
赋予了一些重要特征( Newell 和 Simon, 1972;

operator

an action that will transform the problem state into another problem state
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Procedural Knowledge and Problem Solving

Imagine


The original difficult episodes while learning to play tennis problem solving One day you became a skillful player no longer appear to be problem solving but rather simply executing a learned procedure
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Goal Structures and Prefrontal Cortex


It was just at these points where the patients had to move “backward” that they had their problems It is only by maintaining a set of goals that one can see that a backward move is necessary for a solution

In the Stroop task, frontal patients have a difficulty in keeping in mind that their goal is to say the color and not the word
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Goal Structures and Prefrontal Cortex
cortex

despite normal IQ, they showed much worse performance than normal subjects on the Tower of Hanoi task
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The Three-Disk Version of the Tower of Hanoi Problem
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Procedural Knowledge and Problem Solving


All procedural knowledge has its origins in problem solving Procedural knowledge originates in problem-solving activity in which a goal is decomposed into subgoals for which the problem solver possesses operators
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Goal Structures and Prefrontal Cortex


It is necessary to make moves that deviate from the prescriptions of hill climbing One might have a disk at the correct position but have to move the disk away to enable another disk to be moved to that position
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程序性记忆(procedural memory)


Problem Solving

当人们想要达到一个特定的目标,但又 不能立即找到达到该目标的合适的路径 时,人们所从事的活动
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Essential Features of Problems

初始状态(initial state)

问题开始时的情境 当问题得到解决时,人们所达到的状态


三个小人和三个魔鬼到了河边,它们都想过到 河的另一边。幸运的是,有一条小船 然而,小船一次只能乘坐两个生物 此外,魔鬼是邪恶的动物。在河的任何一边, 一旦魔鬼的数目超过小人的数目,魔鬼将立即 攻击小人并把它们吃光。因此,在河的任何一 边,都不能让魔鬼的数目超过小人的数目 如何解决这个问题?
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Simon, 1995)
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计算机模拟用于问题解决时的一般特征

当研究者使用计算机模拟时,他们需要写一个计算 机程序,该程序象人类一样完成某种任务。这个程
序应该象人一样,在开始时犯一些错误。研究者让 这个程序解决一个问题,看它所采用的步骤,是否 同人在解决这个问题时所采用的步骤匹配,在此基 础上来检验这个程序

手段-目的分析(means-ends analysis)
类推(analogy)
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手段-目的策略 (Means-Ends Heuristic)

首先,人们把问题分解成许多亚问题 (subproblems)或较小的问题 然后,针对每个亚问题,人们努力缩小 初始状态和目标状态之间的差异

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小人与魔鬼问题 (Hobbits-and-Orcs Problem)
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要求被试大声思维,即把自己解决问题 的过程大声报告出来。不仅记录被试所 报告的内容,也记录每个句子被试重复 阅读的遍数 被试重复阅读遍数最多的是(3)、(4) 和(5), 对其它3个句子,被试很少读第二遍 被试注意的是与任务有关的信息
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Approaches of Problem Solving

There is increased blood flow in the prefrontal cortex in many tasks that involved organizing novel and complex behavior (Gazzaniga et al., 1998)

prefrontal lobe activation is high in a novel problem-solving task but decreases as students master the problem
认知心理学
Cognitive Psychology
问题解决
Problem Solving
张亚旭
yxzhang@pku.edu.cn
1
Structure of the Lecture

Background

Baidu Nhomakorabea
procedural knowledge and problem solving the essential features of problem and problem solving


假设一开始三个小人和三个魔鬼都在河的右边。 正确的解决步骤如下:

从右向左,移动两个魔鬼;
从左向右,移动一个魔鬼; 从右向左,移动两个魔鬼; 从左向右,移动一个魔鬼; 从右向左,移动两个小人;
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从左向右,移动一个魔鬼,一个小人; 从右向左,移动两个小人;


从左向右,移动一个魔鬼;
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五手妖怪问题 Simon & Hayes, 1976

(1)三个地球外的五手妖怪,拿着三个水晶


(2)因为量子机械特性,无论是妖怪,还是
球,大小都只有三种,即小、中、大 (3)中等大小的妖怪拿着大球;小妖怪拿着 中等大小的球;大妖怪拿着小球

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( 4 )因为这种情形违反了对称感,它们需要 把球从一个妖怪传递给另一个妖怪,使得每一 个妖怪都有一个和它自身大小成比例的球 ( 5 )妖怪的礼节使得这个问题的解决变得复 杂起来:一次只能传递一个球;如果一个妖怪 拿着两个球,只能传递两个球中较大的那一个; 不能把一个球传递给正拿着更大的球的妖怪 ( 6 )妖怪可能用什么样的传递顺序解决这个 问题?
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Problem Solving


假设你是一名公共汽车司机。在第一站上来 6 个男人和 2个女人。在第二站 2个男人下车,1 个女人上车。在第三站 1个男人下车,2个女人 上车。在第四站 3个男人上车,3个女人下车。 在第五站, 2 个男人下车, 3 个男人上车, 1 个 女人下车,2个女人上车 请问,公共汽车司机叫什么名字?

目标状态(goal state)


障碍(obstacles)最关心,用什么策略克 服障碍

从初始状态到目标状态的一些限制
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Essential Features of Problem Solving

Goal directedness Subgoal decomposition Operator (算子) application

Declarative knowledge

knowledge about facts and things

Procedural knowledge


knowledge about how to perform various cognitive activities all cognitive activities are fundamentally problem solving in nature
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