欧盟能源供给安全【英文】

合集下载

热点60 煤炭资源等与能源安全(解析版)中考英语考前时事热点话题阅读

世界各国能源政策比较

世界各国能源政策比较能源政策作为各国经济与社会发展的重要组成部分，直接关系到国家的可持续发展和安全。

随着全球对于气候变化及环境保护的关注加剧，各国在能源领域的政策也日渐丰富和多样。

本文将从不同国家和地区的能源政策出发，比较其特点、做法及效果，分析其背后的原因与影响。

一、美国的能源政策美国是全球最大的能源消费国和二氧化碳排放国，其能源政策面临多重挑战，如减少温室气体排放、促进能源独立及确保能源供应安全等。

能源独立美国政府通过提升国内油气开采和可再生能源生产，实现了部分的能源独立。

近年来，页岩气革命使美国的天然气产量暴增，大幅度降低了对外依赖。

与此同时，美国还增加了对可再生能源如风能、太阳能的投资，以推动绿色转型。

清洁能源计划尽管美国在特朗普总统任内退出了巴黎协定，但拜登政府重回国际气候舞台，提出了“清洁能源计划”，旨在2035年前实现电力行业的零排放。

这一计划强调要大幅度降低煤炭的使用，并支持风能与太阳能的发展。

补贴与激励措施美国各州纷纷推出补贴政策以鼓励使用清洁能源。

例如，联邦税收抵免（ITC）和生产税抵免（PTC）对可再生电源和存储技术提供长达十年的优惠。

这一政策有效刺激了可再生能源的发展。

二、中国的能源政策中国作为世界上最大的发展中国家，在快速工业化进程中面临着巨大的能源需求与环境污染问题，因此实施了一系列综合性的能源政策。

五年规划中国定期发布五年规划，将清洁生产、节能降耗作为重要目标。

在“十四五”规划中，提出到2025年非化石能源占一次性能源消费比重达到20%以上，这体现了中国向绿色发展转型的决心。

发展可再生能源中国大力推广风能、太阳能等可再生能源的发展，是全球最大的太阳能光伏发电和风力发电市场。

此外，中国还提出加强电网建设，以实现可再生资源的大规模接入，提高整体供电效率。

减排目标中国承诺在2030年前达到碳排放峰值，并争取2060年实现碳中和。

这一目标引导着国家在运输、建筑及工业等领域加速转型，推动清洁低碳技术的发展。

欧盟能源供给安全_现状分析和前景展望_祝佳

第23卷第4期VOL.23 NO.4广东外语外贸大学学报JOURNAL OF GUANGDONG UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN STUDIES2012年7月Jul. 2012收稿日期：2012-02-28　*基金项目：本文系广东省科技计划项目“广东省能源可持续发展战略研究：基于欧盟能源政策比较视野”(2011B080701044)；广东省科技厅科技计划项目《广东”双转移”战略下产业结构优化与区域金融服务支持》（2010B080701029）的研究成果。

作者简介：祝佳（1981—），女，汉族，江西樟树人，经济学博士，广东金融学院讲师；研究方向：区域产业经济、国际经济。

汪前元（1963—），男，湖北洪湖人，经济学博士，广东金融学院教授；研究方向：产业集聚研究。

唐松（1980—），男，汉族，云南大理人，经济学博士，广东金融学院副教授；研究方向：区域产业经济。

欧盟能源供给安全：现状分析和前景展望祝　佳　汪前元　唐　松（广东金融学院·广州·510521）内容提要：作为世界能源消费大国，欧盟十分重视其能源供给安全。

本文对欧盟能源供给当前存在的问题进行了分析，发现欧盟当前能源对外依存度很高且呈上升趋势、进口来源集中在少数国家。

造成欧盟能源对外依存度很高的原因在于欧盟本土化石能源枯竭以及本土非化石能源开发力度不足。

因此，欧盟在未来很长一段时间内仍然要保持较高的能源对外依存度，但欧盟采取的能源供给来源多样化、完善的能源战略储备等措施可以使欧盟在一定程度上减轻能源供给受制于人的局面，进一步提高能源供给安全。

关键词：欧盟；能源；供给安全中图分类号：F206 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-0962(2012)04-0027-05作为世界能源消费大国，欧盟经济社会受到世界能源形势的影响很大。

“如何在全球能源需求和能源价格迅速增长的时代确保能源供给安全？”成为欧盟所重视的问题。

有鉴于此，本文对欧盟能源供给安全进行了分析，首先指出欧盟能源供给所存在的问题，并深入分析这些问题所造成的原因，进而对欧盟能源供给安全的前景进行展望。

欧盟的电力市场与能源互联互通政策

欧盟的电力市场与能源互联互通政策欧盟一直致力于建立统一、高效且可持续的电力市场，以满足不断增长的能源需求，并推动经济发展。

为了实现电力市场的互联互通，欧盟制定了一系列政策措施，旨在促进能源间的交流与合作。

本文将探讨欧盟的电力市场和能源互联互通政策，并分析其对欧洲能源格局和国际能源合作的影响。

一、欧盟电力市场的发展欧盟成员国之间的电力市场一直存在不同程度的障碍和壁垒。

为了消除这些障碍，欧盟制定了一系列政策目标和法规，推动电力市场的发展与整合。

其中最重要的是《欧洲电力市场法规》（EU Power Market Regulation），该法规于2019年生效，旨在促进电力市场的统一和互联互通。

根据该法规，欧盟成员国需要建立透明、开放和非歧视性的电力市场。

这意味着所有的电力供应商和购买者都能够平等地进入市场，并享受公平的竞争环境。

此外，欧盟还鼓励成员国之间建立跨境电力交易机制，以便更好地利用各国之间的电力资源。

这将有助于提高能源供应的安全性，并降低能源成本，从而为欧洲的消费者带来更多好处。

二、能源互联互通政策的实施为了进一步推动电力市场的互联互通，欧盟采取了一系列政策措施。

首先是促进跨境电力输电线路的建设。

欧盟鼓励成员国之间建设更多的跨境输电线路，以便实现电力之间的互联互通。

这将有助于提高能源供应的可靠性和稳定性，并促进欧洲能源市场的一体化。

其次是通过政策和法规的制定，推动可再生能源的发展。

欧盟设定了雄心勃勃的可再生能源目标，要求各成员国增加可再生能源的比例。

为了实现这一目标，欧盟通过为可再生能源项目提供资金支持和激励措施，吸引更多的投资和技术创新。

这将有助于减少对传统化石燃料的依赖，并促进低碳经济的发展。

三、欧盟政策对能源格局和合作的影响欧盟的电力市场和能源互联互通政策对欧洲的能源格局和国际能源合作产生了积极影响。

首先，欧盟的电力市场整合促进了各国之间的能源交流和合作。

成员国可以通过跨境输电线路，将多余的电力出售给其他国家，从而提高能源利用效率，并增加收入来源。

欧盟北极能源开发政策【英文】

Kamrul Hossain Northern Institute for Enviraw Arctic Centre, University of Lapland
Contents Why the EU is interested in the Arctic High North? EU Policy towards High North Arctic Energy Resources and Environmental Challenges EU Energy Policy Governance Conclusion
EU has incorporated 20% of greenhouse gas reduction commitment into law. Emission reduction commitment of 80-95% by 2050 Promotion of high standard in international climate regulations.
Investment in Arctic research on environmental and climate change agenda
Stewardship: Arctic Inhabitants/ Indigenous Peoples
Involvement of Arctic population Indigenous peoples and protection of their rights Sustainable use of natural resources
The map shows the most promising areas for finding undiscovered, or yet-tofind (YTF), conventional hydrocarbon resources. The height of each column represents the volume of YTF resources (red for gas and green for oil) in billions of barrels of oil equivalent. The base of each column is plotted approximately at the basin location.

欧盟EuP指令中文版

欧洲议会和欧盟理事会第2005/32/EC 号指令2005 年7 月6 日为规定耗能产品的生态设计要求建立框架并修订第92/42/EEC 号和第96/57/EC 号理事会指令与欧洲议会和欧盟理事会第2000/55/EC 号指令欧洲议会和欧盟理事会注意到《建立欧洲欧共体条约》，尤其是其中第95 条，注意到欧盟委员会的提议，注意到欧洲经济与社会委员会的意见1执行《条约》第251条规定的程序2，鉴于：注：1OJ C 112, 30.4.2004, 第25 页。

2.欧洲议会2004 年4 月20 日意见(OJ C 104 E, 30.4.2004,第319 页)，理事会2004 年11 月29 日共同立场(OJ C 38E, 15.2.2005, 第45 页)，欧洲议会2005 年4 月13 日立场和理事会2005 年5 月23 日决定。

(1) 各成员国实施的与耗能产品生态设计相关的法律或行政措施不一致会产生贸易壁垒并扭曲共同体内的竞争，或许因而对内部市场的建立及其作用产生直接影响。

各国法律的协调一致是防止此类贸易壁垒和不公平竞争的唯一途径。

(2) 耗能产品(EuPs)在共同体自然资源和能源消耗中占有很大比例。

它们对环境也有其他许多重要的影响。

就共同体市场可获得的大部分种类产品而言，尽管它们功能相似，但可以发现其对环境的影响程度截然不同。

为了可持续发展，应鼓励主要通过对环境负面影响主要来源的确定和避免污染转移的方式，持续改善那些产品对环境的总体影响，只要这种改善不会产生过多的费用。

(3) 产品的生态设计是共同体一体化产品政策战略的一个至关重要的因素。

作为一种预防性的措施，它在保持产品功能质量的同时，通过设计使产品环境性能最大化，为制造商、消费者和社会整体提供了真正的全新机会。

(4) 能效的提高—连同供选方案之一，使电力的最终用途更为有效—被认为对共同体达到控制温室气体排放目标做出了实质性贡献。

电力需求是发展最快的一种能源最终用途，计划在未来20－30 年得到不断发展，如果没有任何政策行为来抑制这种趋势的话。

有关能源的国际组织

【石油输出国组织】英文简称OPEC(Organization ofthe Petroleum Exporting Countries)，1959年和1960年两度出现的石油价格大幅度下跌，迫使石油输出国家采取统一行动，共同对付西方石油公司。1960年9月，由伊拉克、科威特、沙特阿拉伯、委内瑞拉和伊朗5国发起成立石油输出国组织。
【世界能源会议】英文简称WEC(World Energy Con-ference)。创建于1924年，为非政府组织，原名世界动力会议(World Power Conference)，1986年改现名，总部设在伦敦。世界能源会议的行政机构是国际执行委员会，1985年我国成为执委会委员。世界能源会议的宗旨是促进能源资源的开发与利用，包括；探讨能源资源的开发、生产、输送、转换和利用方法；研究能源消费与经济增长的关系；收集和发表上述有关数据。
【政府间气候变化专业委员会】英文简称IPCC(Inter-governmemtal Panel on Climate Change)，鉴于燃烧化石燃料等原因产生的“温室效应”导致全球变暖的问题已引起全世界的普遍关注。1988年11月，世界气象组织和联合国环境规划署共同组建了这一国际性监督组织。1988年12月6日，第43届联大通过决议确认该委员会为讨论全球气候变化的国际组织。它设有科学评价、影响评价和对策建议三个组。该组织的活动已成为面向21世纪的能源政策和环境政策的指南。
【国际原子能机构】英文简称IAEA(International Atomic Eneogy Agency)。根据1954年第9届联合国大会决议，于1957年成立的专门致力于和平利用原子能的国际机构。总部设在维也纳，现有113个成员国。主要活动有：向成员国提供技术援助；与有关国家和国际组织订立“保障协定”，确定技术援助项目不被用于任何军事目的；研究制定核能利用的安全条例；并向世界各国推荐采用；与成员国或专门机构共同进行科学研究；召开科技会议，建立信息网络，出版书刊。1984年1月1日，我国成为该机构的正式成员国。

热点60 煤炭资源等与能源安全(原卷版)中考英语考前时事热点话题阅读

备战2022年中考英语考前时事热点话题阅读+题型专练热点60 煤炭资源等与能源安全一、阅读理解1Right now, the biggest source of energy(能源) in the world is fossil fuel(矿物燃料). Fossil fuels are oil, gas, and coal (煤). More than 80 percent of the world’s energy comes from fossil fuel. There are many problems with fossil fuel. One problem is that when fossil fuel is burned, it pollutes the air. Also, when we take fossil fuel from the Earth, we often cause a lot of harm. Another problem is that we’re running out of it.A big source of energy for many countries is nuclear power(核能).Thirty-one countries use nuclear power. A lot of ships also use it.Nuclear power has some advantages(优点). First of all, we can’t run out of nuclear power. Nuclear power does not make the air dirty. Also, if a country has nuc lear power, it doesn’t need to buy as much oil from other countries.However, there are also a lot of problems that come with nuclear power. For example, nuclear accidents are very serious. In 1986, there was a nuclear accident in Russia. In the next 20 years, about 4,000 people got sick and died. In 2011 there was another very serious nuclear accident in Japan. That was several years ago, but Japan is still trying to clean up the nuclear waste from the accident.Many people don’t want nuclear power in thei r countries. They say that it’s not safe. A lot of people in the United States, Russia, France, Japan, India, and many other countries want their countries to use safer and cleaner ways to get electricity(电力). Sometimes they get together to show their strong disagreement with nuclear energy.Many people hate nuclear energy, but more and more countries are using it. One reason for this is that the world is using more and more energy. We just don’t have enough fossil fuel. However, if we use nuclear power, then we may have more serious problems in the future.1. In the second sentence of the fifth paragraph, what does the underlined word “it” mean?A. The country.B. Nuclear power.C. A person.D. The electricity.2. What can we learn from the passage?A. Nuclear power is a kind of fossil fuels.B. There were no nuclear accidents in 1986.C. Nuclear power is easy enough to make.D. People may run out of fossil fuel one day.3. The following sentence would best be placed at the end of ________.“That’s why we nee d new sources of energy.”A. Paragraph 1 B. Paragraph 3 C. Paragraph 4 D. Paragraph 54. What would be the best title for the passage?A. A Safe Source of Energy?B. The Best Energy Source in the World!C. Everyone Loves Nuclear Power .D. We Should Only Use Fossil Fuels.2Thousands of years ago, people didn’t know that the Earth moved. They thought the sun really did move across the sky. The Greek God Helios was said to drive the sun across the sky with his chariot. But now, the way people think has chang ed. Nowadays, it is the sun that drives a “chariot” around the sky.What do I mean by this? Well, quite simply, there is now a plane (or “chariot”) that is powered by the sun. It has special parts on its wings. These parts absorb power from the sun. They get so much power that the plane can still fly even at night. In Greek mythology, Helios had to take a break at night. It seems we’re finally even more powerful than the gods themselves.This plane is called Solar Impulse. It will fly across the US next month. This is very important for the future of the world.Why is solar energy important? Well, other kinds of energy are known to cause problems. If you live in China, you’ve probably noticed the pollution. This is caused by burning coal and gas to make ener gy. The heat and chemicals created by burning these things give us power. But if we use power from the sun, we don’t have to burn anything and there will not be any pollution.Solar energy is not ready yet. It needs to be improved. But the best thing about it is that, unlike coal and gas, it doesn’t run out. The Solar Impulse plane could pretty much keep flying forever. Of course, the sun’s light will finally run out too one day, but not for another 5 billion years. That’s a pretty long flight.5. The Solar Impulse ________.A. has to take a break at nightB. is powered by chemicalsC. has already flown across the USD. is a special kind of plane6. What can we learn about solar energy in this passage?A. People can use solar energy forever.B. Solar energy is the most popular energy.C. Using solar energy makes the Earth cleaner.D. Creating solar energy is hard but important.7. What does the underlined word “absorb” in Paragraph 2 probably mean?A. look forB. take inC. give awayD. make up8. What’s the p assage mainly about?A. The special plane of solar energy.B. The ways of making use of energy.C. The story of the Greek God Helios.D. The uses and advantages of solar energy.3There is not enough oil in the world now. As time goes by, it becomes less and less, so what are we going to do when it runs out? Perhaps we will go back to use horses, carriages and bicycles.In the Second World War, some people didn’t use gas made from petroleum（石油）in their cars. They made gas from wood and plants instead. The c ar didn’t go fast, but they ran, so this was better than nothing. However, in the future, we can’t cut down all our trees to make gas; we need our trees for other things, too.Besides different types of gas, we can also use electricity（电）to run our cars, but first we must make electricity! Some countries have coal and they make electricity with that, but we might not always have coal, either. Other countries have big, strong rivers, and they can use the power of water to turn turbines（涡轮机）and make electricity more easily and cheaply. We are also able to get power from the ocean tides（海潮）. We put turbines into the mouth of the river. Then the tide comes in, the water turns the turbines and then it goes out, it turns them again.Which of these ways will be used to run our cars in the future?9. When might people have to go back to use horses and carriages?A. When they are poor.B. When they run out of oil.C. When they need more exercise.D. When there aren’t any big trees in the world.10. What did some people use to make gas in the Second World War?A. Water.B. Coal.C. Wood and plants.D. Tides.11. How many ways are suggested to make electricity in the passage?A. 2.B. 5.C. 4.D. 3.12. According to the passage, which of the following statements is TRUE?A. There is more petroleum than we can use now.B. Trees are needed for some other things besides making gas.C. We got electricity from ocean tides in the old days.D. Gas wasn’t used to run cars in the Second World War.13. The passage is mainly about ________.A. how to run our carsB. what to do when oil runs outC. different types of gasD. the ways to make electricity4According to the Xinhua News Agency, on August 28, 2003. The Tibet Autonomous Region which enjoys over 3000 hours of sunlight every year has become the most important place in the country in terms of solar energy development and use. Thanks to the development of solar energy, electricity has become available to 200,000 people in Tibet. Solar energy is also used for heating and cooking. Using solar energy can save Tibet 135,000 tons of coal every year. Do you know what solar energy is? What is solar cooking?Solar energy is often used to heat houses directly (the sun enters through the windows, and makes the rooms warm). Solar energy is also often used to heat water (a solar collector is put in direct sunlight, and heats the water in the water tank).Solar cookers use no electricity or gas, need no firewood, and produce no air pollution. The simplest type of solar cooker is a box cooker: an insulted box painted black on the inside and covered with glass or plastic. Sunlight enters the box and heats the food inside. A simple cooker can be made out of cardboard, and can reach temperatures over 250F. A higher-quality cooker can reach temperatures up to 425 F.Besides cooking food, solar cookers can also be used to purify drinking water, and heat water for laundry. Solar energy can make people’s lives much better.14. From the first paragraph, we know that Tibet_________.A. has plenty of sunlight.B. has 200,000 citizens.C. Produces 135,000 tons of coal every year.D. is the first to use solar energy in the world.15. In the passage, we are told that solar energy can do all of the following EXCEPT_________.A. save coalB. heat the houseC. produce electricityD. purify water16. A high-quality solar cooker_________.A. is a box painted black outsideB. is made of plastic or glassC. produces no air pollutionD. reaches temperatures up to 250F.5The meeting focused on the use and safety of hydrogen. In the meeting, experts discussed the direction of developing the hydrogen industry in China, the basic research of hydrogen, the development of hydrogen fuel cell technology, the new way to develop hydrogen and fuel cells in Shenzhen and so on.Hyd rogen is secondly energy. And it’s produced by primary energy (一次能源). For example, if we use some energy to produce electricity, then we can use the electricity to produce hydrogen. Hydrogen fuel cells have a few advantages. Firstly, they take only a few m inutes to recharge. Secondly, they aren’t affected by temperature. Thirdly, hydrogen is very safe, safer than gasoline. At present, because of climate change, the world is developing this energy. It doesn’t contain carbon. Many countries have made a plan f or hydrogen. Japan, Germany and the US are the leading ones. China has used different policies (政策) to encourage the development of hydrogen since 2016. It will become a kind of very important energy like electricity in the future.Yu Yiping, chairman of t he board of directors at Scientific Valley Group, said, “In order to prepare the summit, we’ve done lots of work. We went to other countries, such as Germany, France and the US, to learn experience. We also went to California, the US to learn about the hydrogen production, storage and transportation, and the construction of hydrogen refueling stations.” Du Zheng, vice director of the Nanshan District Science, Technology and Innovation Bureau, said, “We are pushing forward the development of hydrogen in thre e ways: the planning of the hydrogen industry, the policy guidance and the building of some basic facilities, such as hydrogen refueling stations.”17. What does Paragraph 2 mainly show us?A. Who attended the meeting.B. How long the meeting lasted.C. The topics discussed in the meeting.D. The decisions made in the meeting.18. Why is hydrogen secondary energy?A. Because it is very safe.B. Because it is clean energy.C. Because it was developed not long ago.D. Because it can be made from primary energy.19. How many advantages of hydrogen fuel cells are mentioned in Paragraph 3?A. Two.B. Three.C. Four.D. Five.20. Which of the following is TRUE?A. Hydrogen has been widely used in people’s life in China.B. The members of Scientific Valley Group once went to England for study.C. The development of hydrogen will be pushed in four ways.D. The Chinese government strongly supports the development of hydrogen.6Have you ever heard of “a ball of energy”? People often use it to describe a very active chi ld. But today we tell about an invention called the sOccket that is a real soccer ball of energy. Julia Silverman explains that in fact the sOccket is a portable generator (便携式发电机).Julia Silverman and Jessica Matthews developed the sOccket as part of a group project for an engineering class at Harvard University, the USA. There are mechanisms (装置) in a sOccket. When you kick, hit or throw it, energy is then kept in it by these mechanisms instead of disappearing into the environment. Then the user can put something directly into the ball, like a lamp, or a mobile phone charger (充电器) so that they can get energy from it. For every fifteen minutes of the game play, the sOccket can provide enough electricity for an LED lamp for three hours. The ball can store u p to 24 hours’ electricity.It was reported that nearly one and a half billion people in the world had no electricity to use last year. And most of them live in sub-Saharan Africa and in India and other countries in Asia.Julia and Jessica both had experiences in developing countries before they began the project. They knew that power shortages are a serious problem in many areas. There is an energy crisis (危机) in the world. And besides that, there are a lot of health problems because what people use instead of the electricity are harmful choices like kerosene (煤油) lamps. They produce a lot of smoke.Julia says the sOccket ball is one small solution to a big problem. They hope their sOccket ball will shine more light on the problem of power shortages. It off ers people a chance to put their energy into the world’s most popular sport and get some energy in return.21. What does “a ball of energy” refer to in this passage?A. A very active child. B. A normal soccer ball. C. A soccer ball generator.22. How can the sOccket get energy?A. By getting recharged.B. By being kicked, hit or thrown.C. By getting energy from the environment.23. From the passage we can infer people in _______ are less short of energy or electricity.A. Asian countries like IndiaB. sub-Saharan AfricaC. developed countries24. Which of the following statements is NOT right?A. The world has a serious problem of power shortage at present.B. Julia Silverman and Jessica Matthews are famous American inventors.C. Both Julia Silverman and Jessica Matthews have been to developing countries.25. What can we know from the last two paragraphs?A. The sOccket not only can produce electricity but also is good for health.B. The sOccket has fully helped people to solve the problem of power shortages.C. The sOccket makes it possible for people to get energy by doing different sports.二、短文首字母填空根据短文内容及首字母提示，填写所缺单词，使短文意思完整。

国家能源安全竞争力评价——基于IMD数据

■现代管理科学■2017年第2期一、引言和文献综述1973年,阿拉伯石油禁运引起全球石油价格飞涨,经济大动荡。

以此事件为触发点,以“区域和帝国”为基础的能源安全观称为主流,能源供给安全(Security of Ener⁃gy Supply)成为世界各国维护经济稳定、保障人民生活水平的重大战略问题。

随着全球一体化和市场经济的繁荣,许多学者持有以“市场与制度”为基础的能源安全,乐观地认为能源安全已经不再是一个问题,因为一个国家可以通过全球市场和自由贸易获取满足自身需求的各种类型能源。

但是,从历史的角度来看,能源安全问题绝对不能过于乐观,需要高度重视。

对于能源安全的基本定义,学术界和政府有着不同的声音。

国际能源署(简称为IEA)认为能源安全是在可承受价格水平下可获得的能源供给对需求的满足程度。

亚太能源研究中心指出能源安全是指一个经济体以不对经济体的经济表现产生负面影响的能源价格水平获取可持续和及时的能源供应的能力。

本研究认为考虑能源安全问题,不能脱离复杂的经济社会系统。

能源安全有着自己的内核和外延,其内核是在可接受的价格范围内保证能源短期和长期供给,外延在于可承受的价格下有着充足的能源供人民生活使用,维持经济社会的可持续发展。

能源安全需要在短期内保证能源供给可靠而且及时,价格保持稳定合理,在长期需要保证能源的充足,能源方面的基础设施完备,保证环境友好性。

确定能源安全的基本内涵之后,需要对一国或地区的能源安全水平进行评价。

能源安全的评价有着众多不同的模型。

能源安全评价模型分为四类:加权构建标准化指数(即多指标综合评价法)、衡量(期望)福利损失、构造多样化指数间接刻画风险及测算中断概率。

采用指标加权构建标准化指数评价能源安全的研究比较有代表性有两个:一是国土资源部咨询研究中心将响能源安全因素分为国内生产供应能力、国内资源保障能力、国家调控和应急保障能力、国际市场获取能力和环境安全控制能力五大类,然后采用专家打分法确定指标合成权重,加权得到能源安全的评价指数;二是Badea等人提出的,使用集体决策理论构建反映决策者风险厌恶程度的分线性权重,选取反映欧盟国家长期能源供给安全的主要指标合成指数。

乌克兰危机分析-精品PPT

反对派通过街头抗议活动夺取政权阶段
2013 年11 月21 日—2014 年2 月22 日
2014年2月18日上午数以千计的示威者从市中心的独立广场出发，向议会大楼方向前进，要求议会恢复2004年宪法。当天，乌克兰示威者与警方发生激烈冲突。乌克兰卫生部2014年 2月19日说，截至2014年2月18日6时，冲突已造成至少25人死亡，300多人受伤。法新社评论称，这是乌克兰国内示威活动持续近3个月来最血腥的一天。
乌出口形势恶化。进口：石油和天然气等能源产品为主。俄罗斯（占消费总量58%）和土库曼斯坦是主要的供应方，两大国对石油和天然气出口的垄断，成为乌经常账户逆差的重要来源。 • 外汇奇缺、外债偿付危机
• 受经常账户持续逆差的影响，乌外汇储备不断减少。不能满足进口所需，面临外债偿付危机。2013年乌克兰外债总额占GDP的近80%，市场普遍预期乌克兰将出现债务违约。
1991年12月1日，乌克兰全民公决决定乌克兰独立。
政治背景
国内行政划分
全国共27个一级行政区： 1个自治共和国：克里米亚自治共和国（2014年3月18日加入俄罗斯） 2个直辖市：基辅（首都）、塞瓦斯托波尔（2014年3月18日加入俄罗斯） 24个州：包括基辅州、敖德萨州、哈尔科夫州、卢甘斯克州（2014年5月12日宣布独立，但并未获得任何国家或地区承认）、顿涅茨克州（2014年5月12日宣布独立，但并未获得任何国家或地区承认）等。
2013年排名 GDP:世界55，欧盟1，美国2，中国3，俄罗斯8。人均GDP：世界106，美国9，欧盟26，俄罗斯49，中国81 。欧洲51，俄罗斯37 （欧洲共60个国家和属地）。
排名来自：国际货币基金组织《世界经济展望》 2014年1月

欧盟(European Union)英文介绍

Thank you!
Simplifying the trade procedures and reducing transaction risks are good to the strengthening of technical cooperation . It can help to open up the diversification of foreign trade.
简化贸易手续,降低交易风险,有利于加强技术合作 ,有利于开拓对外贸易多元化
World
Negative
Euro increases the instability of world financial markets , and European banks pose a threat to foreign banks. 欧元加剧了世界金融市场的动荡，欧洲银行对外国银行构成了威胁。
1967 — The institutions of the three European communities are merged, creating a single commission, a single council of ministers and a European parliament.
2005 — The move to ratify the constitution suffers setbacks when France and the Netherlands reject the document.
2007 — Bulgaria and Romania join the EU, expanding the union to 27 member states.
Robert Schuman (1886－1963)

欧盟关于电池相关指令汇集——中英文

1991年3月18日委员会《关于电池和蓄电池含某些危险物质的指令（91/157/EEC）》
THE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES,
欧洲联盟理事会
Having regard to the Treaty establishing theEuropean Economic Community, and in particular Article100athereof,
Official Journal L 078 ,26/03/1991P. 0038 – 0041官方刊物：L078，26/03/1991 P. 0038 – 0041
Finnish special edition: Chapter 15 Volume 10 P. 0072芬兰专刊版本：第15章第10卷P. 0072
鉴于器具含有不可移动的电池和Whereas programmes should be set up in the Member States to achieve the various objectives set out above；
鉴于在各成员国为完成上述宣布的目标提出的程序。
注意到建立欧洲共同体的条约，在其中的特殊条款100 a
Having regard to the proposal from the Commission (1), In cooperation with the European Parliament (2),
注意到委员会的提议，在欧盟议会上的合作。
鉴于为完成这些目标，在市场上销售的某些电池和蓄电池将被禁止，他们遏制在危险物质含量的意见。
Whereas, to ensure that spent batteries and accumulators are recovered and disposed of in a controlled manner, Member States must take measures to ensure that they are marked and collected separately;

从北流天然气管道分析俄罗斯与欧盟的能源安全关系

２０１３．８国际石油经许
．５７
能源安全
ＥＮＥＲＧＹＳＥＣＵＲｌＴＹ
表１欧盟天然气需求
类别２００４焦２０１５篮２０３０正
味着北流天然气管道是保证欧洲能源安全和稳定供应的重大项目，并得到了欧盟成员国的支持。
公司加入进来。
起初，北流管道有多种设计方案，但只有穿过波罗的海的方案被投资方接受。１９９７年和１９９９年对其他几种替代路线的可行性研究表明，通过因为俄
同时影响了对西欧的能源供应，因为俄罗斯８０％波罗的海的管道方案在技术上最可行。
计￣］１２０２０年可再生能源占能源总消耗量的２０％，【］
０１５年和２０３０年可能会分别减少３８０亿北流天然气管道预计在未来５０年将每年从俄罗斯这使欧盟在２００亿立方米的天然气需求（见表１）。但是，２０１１向德国、丹麦、英国、荷兰、比利时、法国和捷和９
数据来源：ＩＥＡ．Ｇｒｅｅｎｐａｐｅｒｏｎｅｎｅｒｇｙ，ＡＥｕｒｏｐｅａｎｓｔｒａｔｅｇｙｆｏｒ
ｓｕｓｔａｉｎａｂｌｅ，ｃｏｍｐｅｔｉｔｉｖｅａｎｄｓｅｃｕｒｅｅｎｅｒｇｙ［Ｃ］２００６
３．北流天然气管道的方案选择
需求量，亿立方米受加大可再生能源使用力度等政策影响需求量，亿立方米
差量，亿立方米
５０８０

欧盟气候变化政策及其经济影响

欧盟气候变化政策及其经济影响周剑/何建坤【英文标题】EU Climate Change Policy and Its Economic Influence【作者简介】周剑，清华大学能源环境经济研究所博士后；何建坤，清华大学能源环境经济研究所研究员、博导。

【内容提要】欧盟气候变化政策随着《京都议定书》的不同发展阶段而不断向前推进。

在这一进程中，它对欧盟经济结构和能源结构构成了挑战，但也为产业结构调整和低碳经济的发展带来了机遇。

现阶段，欧盟低碳经济在国际上已处于领先地位，具体表征是低碳转型的产业结构、不断完善的碳交易体系、多层次与多渠道的碳金融服务体系。

欧盟在低碳领域的快速发展及其对外推广低碳理念及规则标准的强烈意识，将对世界经济产生深远影响。

【关键词】欧盟/气候变化政策/低碳经济/碳交易/碳金融近些年来，气候变化问题在欧洲越来越受到重视，已从环保组织关心的问题演变为一个重要的公共政治议题。

在国际舞台，欧盟还将气候变化问题列为主要外交议程。

欧盟在应对全球变暖的行动中一直以“领导者”自居，并在理论研究、政策设计、产业推广等方面起着积极作用。

随着欧盟气候变化政策的不断推进，其内外经济效应逐步显现，将对世界经济产生深远影响。

一、欧盟气候变化政策的演进欧盟自1993年成立起就对全球气候变化问题给予了特别关注，各成员国纷纷提出了本国的应对政策，欧盟层面也开始协调成员国政策，统一行动。

从20世纪末开始，欧盟气候变化政策围绕《京都议定书》的不同发展阶段不断向前推进，在全球和欧盟两个层面同时展开，其进程大致可分为三个阶段。

第一阶段，从20世纪90年代末到2004年，欧盟积极推动《京都议定书》生效。

《京都议定书》是《联合国气候变化框架公约》的“实施细则”，其目的是控制二氧化碳等温室气体排放量，抑制全球气候变暖。

欧盟对该《议定书》一贯持积极立场，并极力主张全部发达国家都加入这一全球性的制度承诺，希望以此约束各国基于高碳化石燃料的生产方式和生产力，从而扭转全球气候变暖趋势。

能源安全-详解

能源安全-详解能源安全(Energy Security)目录• 1 能源安全的概述• 2 能源安全的四重含义• 3 能源安全的分类• 4 能源安全的基本特性• 5 能源安全观的演变• 6 新形势下我国能源安全面临的新挑战•7 中国能源安全的路径选择能源安全的概述能源安全是指以合理的价格提供足够的燃料和电能,支持国家经济的可持续发展,保障人民生活,并保卫本国领土.为了保证能源安全,能源短缺的国家要谋求石油进口渠道,这就形成了全球性的“能源争夺战”。

如果能源安全的定义是在任何时候都能获得价格合理的能源,那么,这样定义的能源安全就取决于生产国能否采取措施促使市场稳定，石油生产国旨在市场稳定和抑制价格波动的各种政策措施企是有利于缓解石油等能源安全担忧的。

能源安全是指一个国家或地区以石油天然气为代表的能源储量、能源生产和能源供应安全。

人们往往将能源安全与石油安全混合使用,在大多数情况下,能源安全一般是指石油安全，探讨石油安全概念及其演变,分析西方主要石油消费国的石油安全战略,对于目前日益倚重海外石油的中国来说,是十分必要的。

能源安全是指我们的经济、社会制度和生活方式能够以可以接受的成本依赖充足的能源供应。

对能源进口的外部依赖决定了能源安全需要重视两个方面：一是外部能源资源的可用性，二是外部能源资源的可受性。

油战略家丹尼尔·耶金指出，“能源安全的目标是指以不危及国家价值观和目标的方式，以合理的价格确保充足可靠的能源供应。

”能源安全的四重含义在相当长时期内，中国能源安全至少包括四个方面的含义：第一，是能源的供给安全。

从资源上看，我国的煤炭储量在世界排第三，次于俄罗斯和美国，产量也多年稳居全球首位。

以此为基础，中国事实上也成为世界上绝无仅有的以煤炭为主的能源消费大国。

与之类似，我国的石油生产量也位居世界第五、六的位置。

能源安全的第二重含义，是能源的价格安全。

从本质上说，能源不是一种单纯的商品，不仅任何一个地缘政治冲突都可能对能源的价格产生重要的影响，而且小到一场飓风的暴发都可能对能源的价格产生重要影响。

《欧洲能源战略》绿皮书

COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIESBrussels, 8.3.2006COM(2006) 105 finalGREEN PAPERA European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy{SEC(2006) 317}CONTENTS1. An energy strategy for Europe: balancing sustainable development, competitivenessand security of supply (3)areas (5)2. Sixpriority2.1. Energy for growth and jobs in Europe: completing the internal European electricityand gas markets (5)2.2. An Internal Energy Market that guarantees security of supply: solidarity betweenMember States (8)2.3. Tackling security and competitiveness of energy supply: towards a more sustainable, efficient and diverse energy mix (9)2.4. An integrated approach to tackling climate change (10)2.5. Encouraging innovation: a strategic European energy technology plan (13)2.6. Towards a coherent external energy policy (14)3. Conclusions (17)GREEN PAPERA European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy(Text with EEA relevance)1. A N ENERGY STRATEGY FOR E UROPE: BALANCING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT,COMPETITIVENESS AND SECURITY OF SUPPLYEurope has entered into a new energy era.•There is an urgent need for investment. In Europe alone, to meet expected energy demand and to replace ageing infrastructure, investments of around one trillion euros will be needed over the next 20 years.•Our import dependency is rising. Unless we can make domestic energy more competitive, in the next 20 to 30 years around 70 % of the Union’s energy requirements, compared to 50% today, will be met by imported products – some from regions threatened by insecurity. •Reserves are concentrated in a few countries. Today, roughly half of the EU’s gas consumption comes from only three countries (Russia, Norway, Algeria). On current trends, gas imports would increase to 80 % over the next 25 years.•Global demand for energy is increasing. World energy demand – and CO2 emissions – is expected to rise by some 60% by 2030. Global oil consumption has increased by 20% since 1994, and global oil demand is projected to grow by 1.6% per year.•Oil and gas prices are rising. They have nearly doubled in the EU over the past two years, with electricity prices following. This is difficult for consumers. With increasing global demand for fossil fuels, stretched supply chains and increasing dependence on imports, high prices for oil and gas are probably here to stay. They may, however, trigger greater energy efficiency and innovation.•Our climate is getting warmer. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), greenhouse gas emissions have already made the world 0.6 degrees warmer. If no action is taken there will be an increase of between 1.4 and 5.8 degrees by the end of the century. All regions in the world – including the EU – will face serious consequences for their economies and ecosystems.•Europe has not yet developed fully competitive internal energy markets. Only when such markets exist will EU citizens and businesses enjoy all the benefits of security of supply and lower prices. To achieve this aim, interconnections should be developed, effective legislative and regulatory frameworks must be in place and be fully applied in practice, and Community competition rules need to be rigorously enforced. Furthermore, the consolidation of the energy sector should be market driven if Europe is to respond successfully to the many challenges it faces and to invest properly for the future.This is the new energy landscape of the 21st century. It is one in which the world’s economic regions are dependent on each other for ensuring energy security and stable economic conditions, and for ensuring effective action against climate change.The effects of this landscape are felt directly by everyone. Access to energy is fundamental to the daily lives of every European. Our citizens are affected by higher prices, threats to the security of energy supply and changes to Europe’s climate. Sustainable, competitive and secure energy is one of the basic pillars of our daily life.This landscape requires a common European response. Heads of State and Government, at their summits in October and December 2005, recognised this and asked the Commission to take this forward. Recent events have underlined that this challenge must be met. An approach based solely on 25 individual energy policies is not enough.The EU has the tools to help. It is the world’s second largest energy market, with over 450 million consumers. Acting together, it has the weight to protect and assert its interests. The EU has not just the scale but also the policy range to tackle the new energy landscape. The EU leads the world in demand management, in promoting new and renewable forms of energy, and in the development of low carbon technologies. If the EU backs up a new common policy with a common voice on energy questions, Europe can lead the global search for energy solutions.Europe must act urgently: it takes many years to bring innovation on stream in the energy sector. It must also continue to promote diversity – of energy type, country of origin and transit. In this way it will create the conditions for growth, jobs, greater security and a better environment. Work has been progressing on these issues since the Commission’s 2000 Green Paper on Security of Energy Supply, but given recent developments on energy markets, a new European impetus is needed.This Green Paper puts forward suggestions and options that could form the basis for a new comprehensive European energy policy. The Spring European Council and the European Parliament are invited to react to this Paper, which should also spark a wide-ranging public debate. The Commission will then table concrete proposals for action.This Green Paper identifies six key areas where action is necessary to address the challenges we face. The most fundamental question is whether there is agreement on the need to develop a new, common European strategy for energy, and whether sustainability, competitiveness and security should be the core principles to underpin the strategy.From that flow the following questions:1. Competitiveness and the internal energy market. Is there agreement on thefundamental importance of a genuine single market to support a common Europeanstrategy for energy? How can barriers to implementing existing measures be removed? What new measures should be taken to achieve this goal? How can the EUstimulate the substantial investments necessary in the energy sector? How to ensurethat all Europeans enjoy access to energy at reasonable prices, and that the internalenergy market contributes to maintaining employment levels?2. Diversification of the energy mix. What should the EU do to ensure that Europe,taken as a whole, promotes the climate-friendly diversification of energy supplies?3. Solidarity. Which measures need to be taken at Community level to prevent energysupply crises developing, and to manage them if they do occur?development. How can a common European energy strategy best address 4. Sustainableclimate change, balancing the objectives of environmental protection, competitiveness and security of supply? What further action is required atCommunity level to achieve existing targets? Are further targets appropriate? Howshould we provide a longer term secure and predictable investment framework forthe further development of clean and renewable energy sources in the EU?technology: What action should be taken at both Community and and5. Innovationnational level to ensure that Europe remains a world leader in energy technologies?What instruments can best achieve this?policy. Should there be a common external policy on energy, to enable the 6. ExternalEU to speak with a common voice? How can the Community and Member Statespromote diversity of supply, especially for gas? Should the EU develop newpartnerships with its neighbours, including Russia, and with the other main producerand consumer nations of the world?Developing a European energy policy will be a long term challenge. This needs a clear but flexible framework: clear in that it represents a common approach endorsed at the highest level, flexible in that it needs periodic updating. As a foundation for this process the Commission therefore proposes that a Strategic EU Energy Review be presented to the Council and Parliament on a regular basis, covering the issues identified in this Green Paper. This would constitute a stocktaking and action plan for the Spring European Council, monitoring progress and identifying new challenges and responses on all aspects of energy policy.2. S IX PRIORITY AREAS2.1. Energy for growth and jobs in Europe: completing the internal Europeanelectricity and gas marketsSustainable, competitive and secure energy will not be achieved without open and competitive energy markets, based on competition between companies looking to become European-wide competitors rather than dominant national players. Open markets, not protectionism, will strenghten Europe and allow it to tackle its problems. A truly competitive single European electricity and gas market would bring down prices, improve security of supply1 and boost competitiveness. It would also help the environment, as companies react to competition by closing energy inefficient plant.In July 2007, with very few exceptions, every EU consumer will have the legal right to purchase electricity and gas from any supplier in the EU. This offers a major opportunity for Europe. But whilst much has been done to create a competitive market, work is not yet complete. Many markets remain largely national, and dominated by a few companies. Many differences remain between Member States’ approaches to market opening, preventing the development of a truly competitive European market – including powers of regulators, level1“Lessons from liberalised electricity markets”. IEA, 2005.of independence of network operators from competitive activities, grid rules, balancing and gas storage regimes.By the end of 2006, the second electricity and gas Directives will have been implemented by all Member States and the Commission will have completed its competition inquiry into the functioning of the European gas and electricity markets. A final decision, based on a full impact assessment, will then be made on any additional legislative measures needed: in particular to ensure non-discriminatory network access, adequate available network capacity, liquidity on gas and electricity markets and effective regulation. However, it is already clear that five core areas need particular attention:(i) A European gridConsumers need a single European grid for a real European electricity and gas market to develop. This can be done by ensuring common rules and standards on issues that affect cross-border trade. Progress is being made on these issues, but it is too slow.A European grid code could encourage harmonised, or at least equivalent, grid access conditions. This would take the form of common rules on regulatory issues that affect cross-border trade. Experts are taking a first step forward on a regional basis, in particular energy regulators through the Council of European Energy Regulators and the European Regulators Group. But further and quicker progress is necessary before all business and private consumers will be able to purchase their electricity and gas from suppliers in other Member States. To this end, the Commission will examine (i) what needs to be done to address the differences between existing equivalent powers and independence for national regulators and (ii) whether existing forms of collaboration between national regulators and national grid operators are adequate, or whether a closer level of collaboration is needed – with for example a European energy regulator to look at cross-border issues. Such a regulator could have decision-making powers for common rules and approaches such as a European grid code and would work together with the network operators. A European Centre for Energy Networks could also bring the network operators together in a formal body to assist work on developing a European Grid Code.interconnection plan(ii) ApriorityAt the Barcelona European Council in 2002, the Heads of State and Government agreed to increase minimum interconnection levels between Member States to 10%. Progress has not been satisfactory. There can be no truly competitive and single European market without additional physical capacity: this is particularly vital for countries such as Ireland and Malta or for the Baltic States, which remain an “energy island”, largely cut off from the rest of the Community. Equally, additional electricity interconnection capacity is necessary between many areas and in particular between France and Spain to permit real competition between these two countries to develop. Similarly there is a need for new investment in infrastructure in gas markets. In many Member States, action needs to be taken to free up capacity reserved for former incumbents under electricity and gas long term contracts. Interconnection is a crucial mechanism for solidarity.Private and public investments in infrastructure need to be stimulated and authorisation procedures accelerated. The greater the interconnection in the European electricity grid, the lower the need for spare capacity and, in time, the lower the costs. This is important at a time when Europe’s previous overcapacity is becoming history. The Commission will by the endof 2006 identify the individual measures that it considers important at the level of Member States. Further actions at Community level will also be identified, such as more effective use of the Trans European Network instruments.Finally, relations with Switzerland are important in this respect, which is a major transit country for electricity.(iii) Investment in generation capacityTo replace ageing electricity generation capacity and to meet demand, the EU will need substantial investment over the next 20 years. This includes capacity to deal with peaks. The necessary reserve must exist in order to prevent disruptions at times of high demand and to serve as back-up for intermittent renewable energy sources. For timely and sustainable investments, a properly functioning market is needed, giving the necessary price signals, incentives, regulatory stability and access to finance.(iv) A level-playing field: the importance of unbundlingSignificant differences persist in the level and effectiveness of unbundling of transmission and distribution from competitive activities. This means that in practice national markets are open to fair and free competition to differing degrees. The provisions of the second electricity and gas Directives on unbundling need to be fully implemented, not just in their letter but also in their spirit. If progress to a level playing field does not result, further measures at Community level should be considered.(v) Boosting the competitiveness of European industryOne of the most important objectives of the internal energy market is to promote the competitiveness of EU industry and thus contribute to growth and jobs. Industrial competitiveness requires a well-designed, stable and predictable regulatory framework, respectful of market mechanisms. Energy policy therefore needs to favour cost-effective options and be based on a thorough economic analysis of different policy options and their impact on energy prices. Secure availability of energy at affordable prices is crucial. Integrated and competitive electricity and gas markets with the minimum of disruption are essential. The new High–Level Group on Energy, Environment and Competitiveness will play an important role in identifying ways to promote the competitiveness of all sectors of affected industry.This requires considering, for example, what is the best way to accommodate the legitimate needs of energy intensive industry whilst, at the same time, respecting competition rules. Conclusions on this issue should be contained in the report on the internal market scheduled for the end of 2006. In addition, consideration needs to be given on how best to ensure effective coordination between the Commission, national energy regulators and national competition authorities.2.2. An Internal Energy Market that guarantees security of supply: solidaritybetween Member States(i) Enhancing security of supply in the internal marketLiberalised and competitive markets help security of supply by sending the right investment signals to industry participants. But for this competition to work effectively, the market needs to be transparent and predictable.The physical security of Europe’s energy infrastructure against risks from natural catastrophe and terrorist threat, as well as security against political risks including interruption of supply is critical to predictability. The development of smart electricity networks, demand management and distributed energy generation could all help at times of sudden shortage. This points to several areas for possible future action:•The establishment of a European Energy Supply Observatory as soon as possible to monitor the demand and supply patterns on EU energy markets, identifying likely shortfalls in infrastructure and supply at an early stage and complementing on an EU level the work of the International Energy Agency.•Improved network security through increased collaboration and exchange of information between transmission system operators in defining and agreeing common European security and reliability standards. A more formal grouping of transmission system operators, reporting to the EU energy regulators and to the Commission, could build on the work already started in the wake of the 2003 blackouts. This could develop into a European Centre for Energy Networks, with powers to collect, analyse and publish relevant information, as well as to implement schemes approved by the relevant regulatory institutions.•With respect to the physical security of infrastructure, two main actions merit further consideration. Firstly, a mechanism could be developed to prepare for and ensure rapid solidarity and possible assistance to a country facing difficulties following damage to its essential infrastructure. Secondly, common standards or measures might be taken to protect infrastructure.(ii) Rethinking the EU’s approach to emergency oil and gas stocks and preventing disruptionsOil is a global market and major supply disruptions, even if local or regional, require a global response. The release of emergency stocks organised by the IEA in response to Hurricane Katrina worked well. Any stronger Community action in this area should therefore be compatible with this global mechanism. This might still point to a more coordinated Community response in the event of an IEA decision to release stocks. In particular, this would be helped by a new Commission legislative proposal ensuring the publication on a more regular and transparent basis the state of Community oil stocks, to contribute improving transparency on oil markets.Furthermore, the existing Directives on gas and electricity security of supply should be re-examined to ensure they can deal with potential supply disruptions. Recent experience has raised important questions, including whether Europe’s gas stocks can meet the challenge ofshorter term supply disruptions. This review should also consider whether the appropriate signals are being given to encourage the necessary investment in Europe’s gas and electricity markets in the years ahead, including investments in security of supply and infrastructure to enable mutual assistance. This could, inter alia, include a new legislative proposal concerning gas stocks to ensure that the EU can react to shorter term emergency gas supply disruptions in a manner that ensures solidarity between Member States, whilst taking account of the different potential for storage in different parts of the EU.2.3. Tackling security and competitiveness of energy supply: towards a more sustainable, efficient and diverse energy mixEach Member State and energy company chooses its own energy mix. However, choices made by one Member State inevitably have an impact on the energy security of its neighbours and of the Community as a whole, as well as on competitiveness and the environment. For example:•decisions to rely largely or wholly on natural gas for power generation in any given Member State have significant effects on the security of supply of its neighbours in the event of a gas shortage;•decisions by Member States relating to nuclear energy can also have very significant consequences on other Member States in terms of the EU’s dependence on imported fossil fuels and CO2 emissions.The Strategic EU Energy Review would offer a clear European framework for national decisions on the energy mix. It should analyse all the advantages and drawbacks of different sources of energy, from indigenous renewable energy sources such as wind, biomass and biofuels, small hydro and energy efficiency to coal and nuclear, and the knock-on effects of these changes for the EU as a whole. This could be based on a standard methodology.Coal and lignite, for example, presently account for around one-third of the EU’s electricity production: climate change means that this is only sustainable if accompanied by commercialised carbon sequestration and clean coal technologies on an EU level.The Review should also allow a transparent and objective debate on the future role of nuclear energy in the EU, for those Member States concerned.Nuclear power, at present, contributes roughly one-third of the EU’s electricity production and, whilst careful attention needs to be given to the issues of nuclear waste and safety, represents at present the largest source of largely carbon free energy in Europe. The EU can play a useful role in ensuring that all costs, advantages and drawbacks of nuclear power are identified for a well-informed, objective and transparent debate.Furthermore, it might be appropriate to agree an overall strategic objective, balancing the goals of sustainable energy use, competitiveness and security of supply. This would need to be developed on the basis of a thorough impact assessment and provide a benchmark on the basis of which the EU’s developing energy mix could be judged and would help the EU to stem the increasing dependence on imports. For example, an objective might be to aim for a minimum level of the overall EU energy mix originating from secure and low-carbon energy sources. Such a benchmark would reflect the potential risks of import dependency, identify an overall aspiration for the long term development of low carbon energy sources and permit the identification of the essentially internal measures necessary to achieve these goals.It would combine the freedom of Member States to choose between different energy sources and the need for the EU as a whole to have an energy mix that, overall, meets its core energy objectives. The Strategic EU Energy Review could serve as the tool for the proposal and subsequent monitoring of any such objective agreed by the Council and Parliament.2.4. An integrated approach to tackling climate changeEffective action to address climate change is urgent and the EU must continue to lead by example and, above all, work towards the widest possible international action. Europe needs to be ambitious and must act in an integrated manner that promotes the EU’s Lisbon objectives.The EU is already at the forefront of approaches to decouple economic growth from increasing energy consumption. Its action has combined robust legislative initiatives and energy efficiency programmes with encouragement to competitive and effective renewable energy. However, the EU’s commitment to fighting climate change is a long-term one.In order to limit the forthcoming rise of global temperatures at the agreed target of maximum of 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels, global greenhouse gas emissions should peak no later than 2025, and then be reduced by at least 15%, but perhaps as much as 50% compared to 1990 levels. This huge challenge means that Europe must act now, in particular on energy efficiency and renewable energy.Action on renewables and energy efficiency, besides tackling climate change, will contribute to security of energy supply and help limit the EU’s growing dependence on imported energy. It could also create many high-quality jobs in Europe and maintain Europe’s technological leadership in a rapidly growing global sector.In this respect, the EU Emissions Trading Scheme creates a flexible and cost-efficient framework for more climate friendly energy production. The full review of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme gives an opportunity for expanding and further improving the functioning of the scheme. In addition, the EU Emissions Trading Scheme provides the nucleus for a gradually expanding global carbon market, hereby giving European business a head-start. (i)Making more from less: leading on energy efficiencyAn effective energy efficiency policy does not mean sacrificing comfort or convenience. Nor does it mean reducing competitiveness. In fact an effective policy in this area means the opposite; making cost-effective investments in order to reduce the waste of energy, thereby increasing standards of living and saving money, and using price signals, that would lead to more responsible, economical and rational use of energy. Market-based instruments, including the Community energy tax framework, can be a very efficient tool in this respect.Although Europe is already one of the world’s most energy efficient regions, it can go much further. In its 2005 Green Paper on Energy Efficiency, the Commission showed that up to 20% of EU energy use could be saved: equivalent to spending as much as € 60 billion less on energy, as well as making a major contribution to energy security and creating up to a million new jobs in the sectors directly concerned.One useful instrument in this respect is the EU’s cohesion policy, which identifies as objectives supporting energy efficiency, the development of renewable and alternative energysources and investments in networks where there is evidence of market failure. The Commission calls upon Member States and regions, when preparing their National Strategic Reference Frameworks and operational programmes for 2007-2013, to make effective use of the possibilities provided for by cohesion policy in support of the present strategy.The Commission will this year propose an Action Plan on Energy Efficiency to realise this potential. This effort needs consistent support and determination at the very highest political level throughout Europe. Many of the tools are in national hands, such as grants and tax incentives, and the national level holds the key to convincing the public that energy efficiency can bring them real savings. But the EU level can have a decisive impact and the Action Plan will propose concrete measures to reach this 20% potential by 2020.Examples of possible action include:–Long-term targeted energy efficiency campaigns, including efficiency in buildings, notably public buildings.– A major effort to improve energy efficiency in the transport sector and in particular to improve rapidly urban public transport in Europe’s major cities.–Harnessing financial instruments to catalyze investments by commercial banks in energy-efficiency projects and companies providing energy services.–Mechanisms to stimulate investment in energy efficiency projects and energy services companies.– A Europe-wide “white certificates” system, tradable certificates, which would enable companies that exceed energy efficiency minimum standards to “sell” thissuccess to others that have failed to meet these standards.–To guide consumers and manufacturers, more focus will need to be put on rating and showing the energy performance of the most important energy-using productsincluding appliances, vehicles, and industrial equipment. It may be appropriate toset minimum standards in this area.Finally, energy efficiency needs to become a global priority. The Action Plan can serve as a “launch pad” to catalyse similar action worldwide, in close collaboration with the IEA and the World Bank. The EU should propose and promote an international agreement on energy efficiency, involving both developed and developing countries and the expansion of the Energy Star Agreement.(ii) Increasing the use of renewable energy sourcesSince 1990, the EU has been engaged in an ambitious and successful plan to become world leader in renewable energy. To take one example, the EU has now installed wind energy capacity equivalent to 50 coal fired power stations, with costs halved in the past 15 years. The EU’s renewable energy market has an annual turnover of € 15 billion (half the world market), employs some 300,000 people, and is a major exporter. Renewable energy is now starting to compete on price with fossil fuels.In 2001, the EU agreed that the share of electricity from renewable energy sources in the EU consumption should reach 21% by 2010. In 2003, it agreed that at least 5.75 % of all petrol。