语言学作业 第一章

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语言学教程习题答案第一章

语言学教程习题答案第一章

语言学教程习题答案第一章语言学教程习题答案第一章在语言学的学习过程中,习题是非常重要的一部分,通过习题的练习可以帮助我们巩固知识,提高对语言学理论的理解和应用能力。

本文将针对语言学教程第一章的习题进行解答,并对其中一些重要的概念进行深入探讨。

1. 什么是语言学?语言学是研究语言的科学,它涉及到语言的结构、语音、语法、语义、语用等方面的研究。

通过对语言的研究,我们可以了解语言的起源、发展、结构以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。

2. 语言学的研究方法有哪些?语言学的研究方法包括田野调查、实验研究、文献研究等。

田野调查是指通过对语言使用环境的观察和实地访谈等方式,收集语言数据并进行分析。

实验研究则是通过实验室环境下的控制变量实验,来研究语言现象。

文献研究则是通过对已有的语言学文献进行分析和综述,来推测和总结语言学理论。

3. 语言学的研究对象是什么?语言学的研究对象是语言。

语言是人类交流的工具,它包括语音、词汇、语法等方面的内容。

通过对语言的研究,我们可以了解语言的结构、规律以及语言与思维、文化之间的关系。

4. 什么是语言的层次结构?语言的层次结构是指语言的组成部分之间的关系。

从上到下,语言的层次结构包括语言(language)、语言系统(linguistic system)、语言单位(linguistic unit)以及语言要素(linguistic element)。

语言单位是指语言中的最小有意义的单位,如音素、词素、词等。

语言要素则是指构成语言单位的基本成分,如音素、词素中的音素。

5. 什么是语音学?语音学是研究语言中的语音现象的学科。

它研究的内容包括语音的产生、传播和接收等方面。

通过对语音的研究,我们可以了解语音的分类、规律以及语音与语义、语法之间的关系。

6. 什么是语音?语音是语言中的声音现象。

它是通过声带、口腔、鼻腔等发声器官的协调运动而产生的。

语音可以分为音位和音素两个层次。

音位是语言中的最小音位单位,它是语音的抽象概念。

语言学概论作业(1)

语言学概论作业(1)

Chapter 1. Invitations to Linguistics班级:组次:姓名/学号:I. For each question, there are four choices of answers. In some cases, only one choice is correct while in others more than one should be chosen. Choose ALL the correct ones.1. Which of the following are design features of language?A. arbitrarinessB. dualityC. interpersonalD. displacement2. By _____ we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. interpersonalD. displacement3. “I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2,000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of _____.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement4. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle _____.A. arbitrariness and creativityB. generalizations and abstractionsC. interpersonal relationshipD. performative functions5. Which of the following is NOT a theory about the origin of language?A. The bow-wow theoryB. The pooh-pooh theoryC. The “yo-he-ho” theoryD. The Winnie-the-Pooh theory6. Which of the following theories takes as the origin of language the instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy?A. The bow-wow theoryB. The pooh-pooh theoryC. The “yo-he-ho” theoryD. The Winnie-the-Pooh theory7. Which of the following statements is true of Jacobson’s framework of language functions?A. The referential function is to indulge in language for its own sake.B. The emotive function is to convey message and information.C. The conative function is to clear up intentions, words and meanings.D. The phatic function is to establish communion with others.8. Which of the following are among Hallida y’s theory of metafunctions of language?A. ideationalB. relationalC. interpersonalD. textual9. Using language for the sheer joy of using it shows that language has a _____ function.A. recreationalB. metalingualC. informativeD. performative10. _____ studies the internal organization of words.A. PhonologyB. MorphologyC. SemanticsD. Syntax11. _____ is concerned with the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds.A. PhoneticsB. MorphologyC. PragmaticsD. Phonology12. _____ is the study of meaning in context.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics13. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied _____.A. diachronicallyB. synchronicallyC. prescriptivelyD. descriptively14. “Don’t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of _____ rules.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. transformationalD. functional15. The distinction between langue and parole was put forward by _____.A. BloomfieldB. de SaussureC. ChomskyD. Halliday16. The distinction between competence and performance was made by _____.A. BloomfieldB. de SaussureC. ChomskyD. Hymes17. According to _____, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.A. JacobsonB. BloomfieldC. PikeD. Chomsky18. The distinction between etic and emic is based on the concept of _____ analysis.A. phonetic and phonemicB. semantic and pragmaticC. sociolinguistic and psycholinguisticD. morphemic and syntactic19. Which of the following was written by Ferdinand de Saussure?A. A Grammar of Modern GreekB. Aspects of the Theory of SyntaxC. Course in General LinguisticsD. The Structure of Shakespeare’s English20. Which of the following was written by Noam Chomsky?A. A Grammar of Modern GreekB. Aspects of the Theory of SyntaxC. Course in General LinguisticsD. The Structure of Shake speare’s English21. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic22.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness23. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable24. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above25. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative26.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB.psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic27. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language28. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas29. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission30. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Chomsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.3.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.5. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.6. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.7. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.8. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large numberof sentences which they have never heard before.10. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. Language is unique to humans so when we say “bird language” w e are using the word metaphorically.2. Language is conventional.3. Arbitrariness means you can use language in any way you like.4. Bloomfield defined the six primary factors of any speech event as: speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact.5. The metalingual function of language means that the human language can be used to talk about itself.6. If you repeat a sound, say [p], ten times, each time it may be slightly different.7. Latin has fewer morphological changes than English.8. Historical linguistics is a synchronic study of language.9. Computational linguists are interested in the history and structure of formerly unwritten languages.10. The concept of “communicative competence” was suggested by Dell Hymes.11. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.12.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.13. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.14. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.15. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.16. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.17. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.18. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.19. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.20. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.21. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.22. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.23. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.24.Social changes can often bring about language changes.25. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.26. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.27. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.28. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.29 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.30. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.III. Choose Four of the following questions and answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:.1. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.2. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?3. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?4. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?5. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?6. How do you understand competence and performance ?7. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?8. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?。

语言学概论试题及答案

语言学概论试题及答案

语言学概论试题及答案语言学概论作业1导言、第一章、第二章一、名词解释1、历时语言学——就各种语言的历史事实用比较的方法去研究它的“亲属”关系和历史发展的,叫历时语言学。

2、语言——语言是一种社会现象,是人类最重要的交际工具和进行思维的工具。

就语言本身的结构来说,语言是由词汇和语法构成的系统。

3、符号——符号是用来代表事物的一种形式,词这样的符号是声音和意义相结合的统一体。

任何符号都是由声音和意义两方面构成的。

4、语言的二层性——语言是一种分层装置,其底层是一套音位;上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列,这一层又分为若干级,第一级是语素,第二级是由语素构成的词,第三级是由词构成的句子。

5、社会现象——语言是一种社会现象和人类社会有紧密的联系。

所谓“社会”,就是指生活在一个共同的地域中,说同一种语言,有共同的风俗习惯和文化传统的人类共同体。

语言对于社会全体成员来说是统一的、共同的;另一方面,语言在人们的使用中可以有不同的变异、不同的风格。

二、填空1、结构主义语言学包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学三个学派。

2、历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的,它是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。

3、人的大脑分左右两半球,大脑的左半球控制语言活动,右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。

4、一个符号,如果没有意义,就失去了存在的必要,如果没有声音,我们就无法感知,符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。

5、用什么样的语音形式代表什么样的意义,完全是由使用这种语言的社会成员约定俗成。

6、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特点。

7、语言的底层是一套音位,上层是符号和符号的序列,可以分为若干级,第一级是语素,第二级是词,第三级是句子。

8、语言系统中的所有符号,既可以同别的符号组合,又可以被别的符号替换,符号之间的这两种关系是组合和聚合。

9、组合是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系,聚合是指符号在性质上的归类。

三、判断正误(正确的打钩,错误的打叉)1、文字是人类最重要的交际工具。

英语专业英语语言学 配套练习题第一章Chapter One

英语专业英语语言学 配套练习题第一章Chapter One

Chapter OneI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general.3. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.4. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words iscalled morphology.5. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies morphemes,but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.6. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to the society.7. Modern Linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.8. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.9. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spokenlanguage.10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Ferdinandde Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k______ of the rules of hislanguage.2. Langue refers to the a_____ linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of rules.3. D_____ is one of the design features of human language which refers to thephenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.4. Language is a system of a_____ vocal symbols used for human communication.5. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words intopermissible sentences in language is called s_____.6. Human capacity for language has a g____ basis, but the details of language have tobe taught and learned.7. P______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s_____ study of language.III. Define the following terms briefly.1. language2. linguistics3. design features4. arbitrariness5. productivity6. displacement7. duality8. competence9. performance10. langue11. paroleIV. Answer the following questions briefly. Give examples for illustration if necessary.1. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication. Explain it in detail.2. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.3. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?4. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, notthe written?5. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?V. Further readingBooks:1.Aitchison, J. 1992. Linguistics. London: Hodder & Stoughton.2.Sapir, E. 2002. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press.3.Widdowson, H. G. 1996. Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.4.刘润清等编著,1990,《语言学入门》,北京:人民教育出版社。

语言学概论作业答案提示

语言学概论作业答案提示
15.任何一种符号,都是由内容和意义两个方面构成的。( )
错误。符号是由形式和意义(内容)构成的。此题很多同学选择了正确,可能是由于没有仔细审题的缘故。16.从本质上看,语言其实是一种符号系统。 ( )
正确。语言是用声音作为形式表达一定意义的。17.人类选择语音而不是色彩、手势作为语言符号的形式,是因为语音比较好听。( )
18.(组合关系)是指符号与符号相互之间在功能上的联系,(聚合关系)是指符号在性质上的归类。
19.人类之所以具有语言而动物没有,是因为人类具有(抽象思维)能力和(发音)能力。
三、判断正误
1.语言是人类最重要的交际工具。 ( ) 正确,这是任何交际工具所不能代替的。
2.文字是人类最重要的交际工具。 ( ) 错误,文字的交际功能离不开语言这个基础。3.地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言,这说明语言是有阶级性的。( )
6.语言是人类社会的(交际工具) ,而且也是思维的(工具) ,这是语言的两大功能。7.人的大脑分左右两半球,大脑的(左)半球控制语言活动,右半球掌管不需要语言的感性(直观思维)。
8.汉语的"哥哥"、"弟弟",英语用(bruther)表示,汉语的"舅舅、姨父、姑父、叔叔、伯伯",英语(uncle) 表示。
9.英语可以直接用数词修饰名词,汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个(量词)。
10.儿童最早的智力活动就是学习(语言) 。
11.任何符号,都是由(形式)和(内容)两个方面构成的。
12.一个符号,如果没有(内容) ,就失去了存在的必要,如果没有(形式) ,我们就无法感知,符号也就失去 了存在的物质基础。
13.语言符号是(形式)和(内容)的统一体,声音是语言符号的。

语言学作业1

语言学作业1

语言学概论:结合层级性,组合和聚合谈谈语言的系统性举例说明语言系统性中各结构要素是相互影响的~~~~语言的系统性特点语言符号之间相互制约相互影响可以映证语言符号的系统性古今词汇最大的差异在于古代汉语单音节词为主,现代汉语双音节为主,例如:令行禁止、身体力行、求全责备、得意忘言、鳏寡孤独、具体而微从单音节词为主变化到双音节为主的主要原因——由于语音系统的简化导致了词汇系统的变化,而词汇的变化又反过来影响了语义、语音和语法——例如做词尾的“子、头”的意义虚化,变读为轻声;附加式结构的产生等等。

这些都是语言系统中各结构要素相互影响的表现。

例如:对头(tou 二声)——对头!你这个答案和我心里想的一模一样!对头(tou 轻声)——他两个是对头,早年两家有过矛盾。

层级性是系统的一个主要特点。

语言符号的层级性,是指语言符号作为一个有机整体是分层分级的。

构成整个语言系统的各种结构要素,虽然是依时间线条依次出现的,但并不处于同一个平面上。

它们在不同的层级上组成语言符号系统。

语言符号的层级性和系统性是密切相关的。

语言符号系统可以分为底层和上层。

语言符号系统的底层是一套音位。

任何一种语言的音位在数量上都是有限的,一般只有几十个,但这几十个音位却可以组成众多的音节,为表达语言符号的意义在形式上准备了足够的声音材料。

语言符号系统的上层是一套音义结合的符号及其序列,又可分为三级:第一级是语素,即一定语音形式和相应的语义内容相结合的最小的语言单位;第二级是由语素构成的词,词是语言中可以独立运用的最小的音义结合体;第三级是由词构成的句子。

这样,语言符号系统的底层与上层、第一级和第二级、第二级和第三级紧密结合,并按照一定的规则,由下向上逐层逐级,最终形成了语言符号这个复杂的系统,显示出了语言符号的系统性。

语言这个音义结合的符号系统,是按照一定的关系组成的。

语言符号的系统性总是表现在各个语言符号之间的关系上。

这就是语言符号的组合关系和聚合关系。

语言学概论 作业

语言学概论 作业

导论第一章练习题一、单项选择题1、关于口语和书面语的关系,下列说法中正确的一项是(C )。

A.口语和书面是各自独立的两个系统,彼此间没有任何关系。

B.书面语是对口语的忠实记录,是口语的复制品。

C.与书面语相比,省略某些语言成分而不会影响理解和交际是口语的一大特点。

D.与口语相比,省略某些语言成分而不会影响理解和交际是书面语的一大特点。

2、普通语言学指的是( C )。

A.语言学研究中的初级阶段。

B.语言学研究的低级对象。

C.对人类语言进行一般性研究的科学。

D.对某一种语言进行普遍而适用的研究的学问。

3、对人类语言而言,声音四要素中最重要的一个是(D )。

A.音高B.音强C.音长D.音质4、在下列四个部位中,(A )是声道中最重要的。

A.口腔B.鼻腔C.咽腔D.喉头5、下列关于语音的表述中,不正确的一项是(D )。

A.语音是语言的物质外壳B.语音与一般声音有本质的区别C.语音本质上是一种社会现象D.语音本质上是一种生理和物理现象6、下列各组元音中,都是低元音的一组是(B )。

A.[ ][ ]B.[A.][ ]C.[ ][ ]D.[ ][ ]7、同样是指“会说话,能制造和使用工具的社会性动物”,汉语用“rén”去表示,而英语用“man”来表示,这说明了语言具有( D )。

A.强制性 B.可变性C.系统性 D.任意性8、一个声音区别于其他声音的基本特征是( D )。

A.音高 B.音强 C.音质 D.音长9、语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人类社会中人与人之间的( C )行为。

A.书面 B.文字 C.口头 D.体式10、语言单位之间构成的横向结构关系,就是( A )。

A.组合关系 B.聚合关系 C.同义关系 D.同音词关系二、多项选择题(每题有2-5个正确答案可选)1、(AD )的建立标志着语言学的诞生。

A.十八世纪B.十九世纪C.二十世纪D.历史比较语言学E结构主义语言学2、关于语言起源的学说有(ABC )。

语言学第一章笔记和习题

语言学第一章笔记和习题

Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究,对于一个学习英语的人来说,应该懂一点语言学的知识,它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用,有助于更好的学习语言。

The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentMonthly examExaminationReference Books戴炜栋,何兆熊,(2002),《新编简明英语语言学教程》,上海外语教育出版社。

胡壮麟,(2001),《语言学教程》,北京大学出版社。

胡壮麟,李战子,《语言学简明教程》,北京大学出版社刘润清,(1995),《西方语言学流派》,外语教学与研究出版社。

Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLanguage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.The pooh-pooh theoryLanguage arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.To sum up:The divine-origin theory: language is a gift of god to mankind.The invention theory: imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.The evolutionary theory: the result of physical and psychological development.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intendedmeaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words. Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Productivity/Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‗new‘. In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cannot create a ‗new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.g. human vocal tractFunctions of language (3+6+7+3)1. Three main functionsthe descriptive function: the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.the expressive function: it supplies information about the user‘s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. the social function:also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people2. The Russian-born structural linguists Roman Jakobson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function. That is, in conjunction of the six primary factors of any speech event, he established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication in his famous article: Linguistics and PoeticsAddresser—Emotive (intonation showing anger)Addressee—Conative (imperatives and vocatives)Context—Referential (conveys a message or information)Message—Poetic (indulge in language for its own sake)Contact—Phatic communion (to establish communion with others)Code—Metalinguistic (to clear up intentions, words and meanings)3. In the early 1970s the British linguist M.A.K. Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions, namely, instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic, and imaginative. This system contains three macrofunctions—the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual function.three meta-functions proposed by M. A. K. Halliday(1) The ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information. It constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations(2) The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community. It enacts social relationships(3) The textual functionTo form a text. It creates relevance to context.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔)early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actualrealization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentrates primarily on what speakers do with language which led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In Halliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the public ation of F. de Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psych ological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。

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语言学作业班级:姓名:Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance. 5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2)synchronic 3)diachronic 4)synchronic5)We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language What is linguisticsLanguage can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of languageThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds I. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________.4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions,one is they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [ł ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌit]bide [ba i d]tie [ta i] rice [rʌis]rise [ra i z]by [ba i] type [tʌip]bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i] wife [wʌif]wives [wa i vz]die [d a i]tyke [tʌik]time [ta i m]why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in thedialects of English shown in the data(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ。

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