语言学--unit9语言与文学Language and Literature
语言学教程 第三版 第九章 文体学
9.3.3 Stress and Metrical Patterning 9.3.4 Conventional Forms of Metre and Sound
9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre 9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry? 9.4 The Language in Fiction 9.4.1 Fictional prose and point of view 9.4.2 Speech and thought presentation 9.4.3 Prose style 9.4.4 How to Analyse the Language of Fiction? 9.5 The Language in Drama 9.5.1 How should we analyse drama?
9.5.2 Analysing dramatic language
9.5.3 How to analyse dramatic texts? 9.6 The cognitive approach to literature 9.6.1 Theoretical background 9.6.2 An example of cognitive analysis
language of literary texts can enhance our appreciation of the different systems of language, because the
literary texts often reveal the nature of the language in which they are written.
中华英语 As a branch of linguistics, stylistics also develops with and is influenced by the other schools and trends of linguistic study. The 1960s was a decade of formalism, the 1970s a decade of functionalism, the 1980s a decade of discourse stylistics, and the 1990s a decade in which socio-historical and socio-cultural stylistic studies are a main preoccupation. (Carter and Simpson, 1989) In addition to this, there is a trend of "pluralheads development‖ (Shen, 2000), i.e. different schools of stylistics compete for development and new schools emerge every now and then. The cognitive approach to literature is a case in point.
语言学09--Chapter 9 Language and Literature.ppt
Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism.
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In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language.
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In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a
translation of the Czech aktualisace
(actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.
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The red-haired woman, smiling, waving to the disappearing shore. She left the maharajah; she left innumerable other lights o’ passing love in towns and cities and theatres and railway stations all over the world. But Melchior she did not leave.
语言学教程Chapter 9. Language and Literature
9.2.1 foregrounding and the grammatical form
In literary texts, the grammatical system of the language is often exploited, experimented with, or in Mukarosky’s words, made to “deviate from other, more everyday, forms of language, and as a result creates interesting new patterns in form and in meaning”.
Some forms of trope
Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche
Why people use language in a figurative way?
The figurative use of language has the effect of making the concepts under discussion more domestic and acceptable. Readers can……
1. phonology 2. grammar 3. semantics Literay language differs from non-literary
language in that the former is foregrounded in the above three aspects.
9.2.3 the analysis of literay
language
Procedures we should follow when we analyze the grammatical structure and meaning of a literary text.
语言学教案Chapter 9 Language and Literature
Chapter 9 Language and Literature9.1 Introduction9.1.1 Stylistics and Rhetoric9.1.2 Style9.2 Style investigation9.2.1 Deviance, Prominence and Foregrounding9.3 Levels of Style9.3.1 Phonological Level9.3.2 Lexical Level9.3.3 Syntactical Level9.1 Introduction9.1.1 Stylistics and RhetoricAs a branch of linguistics, stylistics is both old and young. It is quite “old”, because historically, we may find its origin in rhetoric, which dates back to the 5th century B.C.. Nowadays, some people still identify stylistics with rhetoric. But their difference is quite evident: Rhetoric is mainly concerned with the way to present ideas. It deals with how to say what you have to say. In its grand tradition marked by those distinguished names, such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle etc., it has been the deliberate exploitation of eloquence for the most persuasive effect in public speaking or in writing. Modern critics sometimes refer to the rhetorical dimension of a literary work, meaning those aspects of the work that persuade or otherwise guide the responses of the readers.Stylistics, in modern sense, is closely related to modern linguistics, in which linguists find a systematic and scientific approach towards language. So stylistics can be simply defined as the linguistic studies of style. It develops with the development of modern linguistics.9.1.2 StyleGenerally speaking, the word style refers to the way in which language is used in a given context, by a given person, for a given purpose, and so on. In practice, writers on style differ a great deal in their understanding of the subject, and one reason comes from their disagreement over the question “To what or whom do we attribute style?”According to Roman Jakobson, there are sis constitutive factors in any speech event:ContextMessageAddresser AddresseeContactCodeThese factors are, according to our understanding, writer, text, reader, context and meaning. 9.2 Style investigation9.2.1 Deviance, Prominence and ForegroundingThree concepts and their interrelationship are crucial in our investigation of style.Deviance: A statistical notionIt is the difference between the normal frequency of a feature, and its frequency in the text or corpus.Deviance is achieved by a writer, which can be calculated and may escape reader’s attention.Prominence: A psychological notion“The general name for the phenomenon of linguistic highlighting, whereby some linguistic feature stands out in some way” (Halliday).We assume that p rominence of various degrees and kinds provides the basis for a reader’s subjective recognition of a style.Foregrounding:“value in the game” (Halliday)Artistically or functionally motivated deviationWhatever is prominent is considered foregrounding to achieve certain effect. Foregrounding may be:qualitativeThe deviation from the language code itself, i.e. failing to observe some rules or conventionsof the language, for example:There was things which he stretched, but mainly he told the truth. (Mark Twin)He gave it to me —for an unbirthday present. (Lewis Carroll)quantitativeThe deviation from some expected frequency, for example:(1)The way nothing is accompanied, he thought. His mouth was too dry to speak but he could not reach for the water. Now I must get him alongside this time, he thought. I am not good for many more turns. Yes, you are, he told himself. You are good forever. On the next turn he nearly had him. But again, the fish righted himself and swam slowly away.(2)He took all his pain and what left of his strength and his long-gone pride and he put it against the fish’s agony and the fish came over onto his side and swam gently on his side, his bill almost toughing the planking of the skiff, and started to pass the boat, long, deep, wide, silver and barred with purple and interminable in the water.Any text set an expected frequency. Paragraph (1), filled with short sentences, is a typical Heminwayan paragraph. All together it contains 8 short sentences. Paragraph (2) quoted from the same novel, The Old Man and Sea, has only one long sentence. So it is quantitatively deviated from the expected frequency of Heminwayan text.We may place the three notions of saliency in an ordered relation as follows:Foregrounding Psychological Statistical(functional relevance) (Prominence) (Deviance)We interpret the arrow in “X Y” to mean “all instances of X are instances of Y”. bUt in the opposite direction, the relation does not hold.9.3 Levels of StyleIn the linguistic method, we operate language as a communicative coding system that comprises different levels presented as follows:Written Language Lexical level Lexical levelSpeaker Reader encodes Syntactical level Syntactical level decodes Phonological level Phonological levelSince we look at this method may work in both literary and non-literary context. It is on these levels that we search for potential stylistic markers.9.3.1 Phonological LevelAs we are mainly concerned with written texts, much of the discussion about sounds, stress, pitch and intonation patterns has been left out. Nonetheless, some knowledge of phonology is quite necessary, since written language has the so-termed “phonic potentials”. Texts, for example,a poem, a dramatic dialogue, are often written with the spoken word in mind.1.Sound PatterningSound patterning refers to the matching of identical or similar sounds between two or more words. English words may consist of one or more syllables. Let us examine the possible types of sound patterning between monosyllabic words. The patterning can be represented as C V CThe love for rhythmic patterning of sounds, usually between content words, seems to be instinctive and examples abound in daily speech. For example:words and phrases: riff-raff, zig-zag, pell-mell, tit for tat, see-sawnick names: Nicky Mouse, Simple Simon, Tricky VickySound patterning is not only a source of aesthetic satisfaction, but also a phonological means of emphasis. For example:On the morning of February 12, a Sunday, the granny woman was there at the cabin. And she and Tom Lincoln and the moaning Nancy Hanks welcomed into the world of battle and blood, of whispering dreams and wistful dust, a new child, a boy. (Carl Standburg, Nancy Hanks)2.OnomatopoeiaSome words such as sizzle, bang, moo, hiss, are said to be onomatopoeic. These words are thought to be capable of producing sound images, and are imitative of their senses, for example, cackle, chuckle, giggle. But the relationship between the sound and the sense of a word is purely arbitrary. Some linguists have rightly pointed out that “onomatopoeia is actually the mutual reinforcement of sense by sound and sound by sense”. Let’s see the opening sentence of D.H. Lawrence’s Odour of Chrysanthemums:The small locomotive engine, Number 4, came clanking, stumbling down from Selston with seven full wagons.The sense of listening to and “feeling” the motion of the locomotive is created by a combination of rhythm (the trochaic regularity of “clanking, stumbling, down from Selston”), the dragging effect of consonants (/k/, /t/, /b/).3.ElisionElision refers to the omission of a sound or sounds in speech. For example:Next week /neks wi:k/ (/t/ elided)Wouldn’t he come /wudn i k m/ (/t/ and /h/ elided)Elided forms are perfectly acceptable and common in ordinary conversational speech esp. in rapid speech. Yet, when rendered in written form, they often become markers of a very informal, or casual style, with a hint of sloppiness and laziness in speech. For example,(Houlden makes a phone call. He is very drunk.)“Who is this?” this very cold, lady’s voice said.“This is me, Houlden Caulfield. Lemme speaka Sally, please.”“Sally’s asleep… Do you know what time it is?”“Yeah. Wanna talka Sally. Very important. Put her on.”(J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye) 9.3.2 Lexical LevelIn their long-term use, many words have acquired stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. These distinctive features constitute the stylistic colouring of the words.The stylistic differentiation on the lexical level is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same referential meaning and stylistic meaning. Martin Joos in his The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of formality: “frozen”, “formal”, “consultative”, “casual”, and “intimate”. Accordingly, the synonyms charger, steed, horse, nag, plug can be labeled as such respectively.Look at the following two sentences:They chucked a stone at the cops, and then did a bunk with the loot.After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with the money.The lexical feature of the two sentences makes their stylistic meaning conspicuous: Sentence (1) may come from two criminals’ conversation, cas ually mentioning the crime afterwards, so many slang words are used. Sentence (2) may be from some official report, and thus the words used are literary (cast, abscond) or neutral (police, money).1.Special Word TypesSome words do not belong to the common core of the language and have distinctive2. Figures of SpeechAs to those common words, sometimes they are used literally, and sometimes figuratively. The figurative language is usually of high stylistic significance.Figurative Use Definition ExampleSimile A comparison between twodistinctly different things and thecomparison is indicated by the wordas or like.O my love’s like a red, red rose. They all rose as one man.Metaphor The use of a word which originallydenotes one thing to refer to anotherwith a similar quality.He is the soul of the team.Personification It is to treat a thing or an idea as if itwere human or had human qualities. Youth is hot and bold, Age is weak and cold.Metonymy It is substituting the name of onething for that of another with whichit is closely associated. When the war was over, he laid down the sword and took up the pen.Synecdoche A part is substituted for the whole The farms were short of handsor the whole is substituted for apart.during the harvest season.Euphemism The substitution of a mild or vagueexpression for a harsh or unpleasantone. to leave us (one’s heart has stopped beating)Overstatement The diction exaggerates the subject. She is dying to know what job hasbeen assigned for her.Understatement The words play down themagnitude or value of the subject. It took a few dollars to build this indoor swimming poolIrony The use of words which are clearlyopposite to what is meant, in orderto achieve a special effect. His designs were strictly honorable, as the saying is; that is; to rob a lady of her fortune by way of marriage.Transferred Epithet An epithet is an adjective ordescriptive phrase that serves tocharacterize somebody orsomething. A transferred epithet isone that is shifted from the noun itlogically modifies to a wordassociated with that noun. She was so worried about her son that she spent several sleepless nights.Oxymoron Contradictory terms combined toproduce a special effect. When the news of the failure came, all his friends said that it was a victorious defeat.9.3.3 Syntactical Level9.3.3.1 Sentence TypesAccording to different criteria, the English sentences can be classified into different types, and they each manifest distinctive stylistic features and are suitable for different ideas expressed.1.Classification according to COMPLEXITYSimple SentenceA simple sentence has only one predicate. Short simple sentences are usually emphatic. They have special clarity, and provide variety when used with longer sentences, for example,People think I am foolish and ignorant, but I’m not. I listen. I hear. I see. I think.I read. I walk alone by myself. (Taylor Caldwell, Testimony of Two Men)Compound SentenceA compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon without a conjunction.Compound sentences present coordinate ideas that are compatible and roughly equal in importance, and thus convey a sense of balance. Or it can be used to relate things in their natural order of happening. They are often employed in story-telling: the narration is fluent and friendly. It is easy and comfortable for the reader or listener to follow. For example:Once there was a shark and there was another shark and they ate fishes and they got so fat that they exploded.Complex SentenceA complex sentence contains at least one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts.Complex sentences express complex ideas clearly and accurately. They are capable of presenting complex psychological activities or complicated interrelations among different things. For instance:She could not think without anger, hardly without contempt, on the easiness of temper, that what want of proper resolution which now made him the slave of his designing friends, and let him to sacrifice his own happiness to the caprice of their inclinations.(Jane Austin, Pride and Prejudice)2. Classification according to INFORMATION ARRANGEMENTLoose Sentence and Periodic SentenceA loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the reader know what it is mainly about when he has read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it. Foe instance:a. She decided to study English though she was interested in music. (Loose Sentence)b. Although she was interested in music, she finally decided to study English. (Periodic Sentence) Loose sentences are easier, simpler, and more natural and direct. The tone is easy, relaxed and informal; periodic sentences are more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.Inverted SentenceAn inverted sentence is a sentence with a change in normal word order.An inverted sentence is also emphatic, because the unusual word order draws readers’ attention: The poet was poor, and poor he remained all his life.On other occasions, inversion may help to enhance the cohesion in the context:They laughed together, and with that laugh ended all serious discourse.(R.Kipling, The Light that Failed)Elliptical SentenceIn an elliptical sentence, there is omission of one or more words that obviously understood but that must be supplied to make a construction grammatically correct.The focus of information in an elliptical sentence is foregrounding. This type of sentence is simple, direct and eye-catching. It is frequently used in spoken language nad advertising, and literary works as well:A beautiful way to Stop Fueling Around.No, not like that. A barren land, bare waste. Vulcanic lake, the dead sea; no fish, weedless, sunk deep in the earth.(James Joyce, Ulysses)9.3.3.2 Deviance on Syntactical LevelIn our reading, we may come across some grammatically incorrect sentences. Sometimes they are deviance by violating grammatical rules on purpose, say, to show the speaker is not well-educated, or is a child:Misuse of helping worde.g. He done gone. (He has gone.)2) Absence of the link-verbe.g. That (is) where he is.3) Non-standard auxiliarye.g. I ain’t (am not) talking with you.4) Disagreement in person or number.e.g. Has (have) I talked wild?The uses of rhetorical devices are modes of deviance on the syntactical level. For instance:1.RepetitionThe deliberate repetition of a word, phrase, or syntactical structure will enable certain important concept to leave a de ep impression to, or make a special effect in the reader’s mind:I love everything that’s old: old friends, old times, old manners, old books, old wine; and, I believe, Dorothy, you’ll own I have been pretty fond of an old wife.(Oliver Goldsmith, She Stoops to Conquer)2.ParallelismWhen a sentence contains two or more parts of the same form and grammatical function, or when two or more sentences are of the same form, it is one with parallel constructions.Parallel sentences (called balanced sentences) are emphatic and forceful. They are impressive because of the contrast, and pleasing to the ear because of the rhythm.To believe is very dull. To doubt is intensively engrossing. To be on the alert is to live; to be lulled into security is to die. (Oscar Wilde)3. AntithesisAntithesis is a special type of parallelism; it refers to the parallel of two phrases or coordinate clause, which are identical in structure, similar in word number, and relevant in meaning. This kind of sentences, symmetrical in form and impressive in meaning, are commonly found in proverbs, poems and titles:To err is human, to forgive, devine. (Pope)Not that I love Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. (Shakespeare)4. Rhetorical QuestionSometimes writers or speakers use the rhetorical question to emphasize a positive or negative meaning. The sentence is only in the form of question to enhance the tone of expression and make the idea impressive.Had you rather Caesar were living, and die all slave, than that Caesar were dead, to live al freemen? (Shakespeare)。
英语语言学胡壮麟09Chapter 9_literature
Syntactical Level 1 Sentence Types According to different criteria, the English sentences can be classified into different types, and they each manifest distinctive stylistic features and are suitable for different ideas expressed.
Chapter 9 Language and Literature
9.1 three definitions of style
Style: Style as deviation, style is regarded as deviation or deviance, i.e. departure from what is normal. E.g. a grief ago, generally we use a noun indicating time in the expression “ a ago”, such as a month ago and the word to fill the slot is normally a countable noun. In this phrase, grief doesn’t meet the conventional requirement. It express an idea in a beautifully succinct way. Since grief means a feeling of great sadness and any feeling will last for some time, it is not difficult to figure out the message. That is , sth terribly sad has happened, and the speaker may have experienced grief repeatedly so that he can measure time in terms of it.
语言学教程[第九章语言与文学]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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语言学教程[第九章语言与文学]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第九章语言与文学复习笔记I.文体学1．定义文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究特殊语境中语言的特征 (即语言的多样性)，并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。
2．文学文体学文学文体学是研究语言与文学关系的学科，其研究焦点是与文学文体相关联的语言特征。
(1)前景化前景化的概念来源于视觉艺术，与“背景”一词相对应，已经成为文体学的常用术语。
俄国形式主义语言学家、布拉格学派学者和现代文体学家都曾在文体研究中使用这一术语。
它被定义为“以艺术手法为动机的偏离”。
这种偏离，或非常规用法，覆盖了语言的所有层面；词汇、语音、句法、语义，笔迹等。
(2)字面语言和比喻语言词典定义中所提供的一个词的第一个意义通常是它的字面意义。
比喻语言是为了达到对比、强调、明确或标新的目的而使用的不同于日常常规语言的词句。
语言中表示比喻用法的另一个词是Trope (修辞、比喻)。
它是指为了修辞目的而通过比喻途径来使用的语言。
比喻在语言运用中频繁出现，并且采用许多不同形式。
明喻：明喻是把一种事物和另一种事物作比较，并通过展现一种事物如何与另一事物相似来解释这种事物是什么样子的方法。
它用as或like等词在文本中作为明确标志。
暗喻：像明喻一样，暗喻也是对两个并不相像的要素作出对比，这种对比是隐含的而不是直接表达的。
转喻：一种一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法。
提喻：提喻是用事物的一部分名称来指代整个事物，反之亦然。
II．诗歌语言1．语音模式押韵尾韵：每行结尾的押韵。
2．不同形式的语音模式头韵：在头韵里，句首的辅音是一致的。
准押韵：准押韵通过一个共同的元音来描述音节。
辅音韵：以相同辅音结尾的音节反韵：指音节拥有共同的元音和首辅音，而不是元音和末辅音押韵。
押副韵：当两个音节具有相同的首辅音和尾辅音。
反复：音节的重复。
3．韵律模式当重读被组织成有规律的节奏时，就形成了韵律。
简明英语语言学chapter9languageandculture
4. Language plays a major role in socializing the people and in perpetuating of a culture, espically in print form, written form or in digital form.
• 5. Culture aslo affets a discourse community’s imagination, or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in behavior and life.
• 'He gave man speech, and speech created thought, Which is the measure of the universe'
Prometheus Unbound,
Shelley
• In Hopi, there is something very special about its grammar. • One of the features that separate it from other languages is that it does not use the same means to express time, and hence is called as a “timeless language”(没有时间的 语言). • Do not recognize time as a linear dimension. • Hopi verbs do not have tenses of time and no concept of speed.
语言学 第9章9.4-9.6
9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point of View小说与视角 According to Mick Short(1996), we need at least three levels of discourse to account for the language of fictional prose (i.e. a novel or short story) Addresser 1-Message-Addressee 1 (Novelist) (Reader） Addresser 2-Message- Addressee 2 (Narrator) (Narratee) Addresser 3-Message- Addressee 3 (Character A) (Character B)
文本分析：
(1) He thanked her many times, and said that the old dame who usually did such offices for him had gone to nurse the little scholar whom he had told her of. (2) The child asked how he was，and hoped he was better. (3) “No,” rejoined the schoolmaster, shaking his head sorrowfully, “No better. (4) They even say he is worse.”
With the Direct Speech (DS) we have what the character said in its fullest form, and as we move from 1) to 4) the speech contribution of the character becomes more and more muted. 我们从直接言语（DS）中能得到人物所说的最 全面的形式， 从DS---IS---FIS---NRSA---NRS 的过程中，人物的言语贡献变得越来越弱。
Chapter 9 Language and Literature
Random calling: Explain items from the third-level titles in the contents (目录) for the Chapter—a mark of 95 shall be awarded to those who can provide correct explanations for 3 of the items.
4) Rhetorical analysis: e.g. “a sea of shouting” and “Waves of rejoicing” (Par.7) -- The two phrases are cases of both metaphor and hyperbole which vividly show the excitement and happiness of the crowd in the church. Furthermore, the two phrases echo each other in image (both mirroring a sea).
5) The image or symbolic meaning in/of the work (作品 (中事物) 的象征意义): e.g. Things/elements in the literary work (natural phenomena, plants, animals, buildings, objects, atmosphere, etc.) may be used to symbolize love, progress, eternity, hope, desire, illusion, sadness, evil, etc.
语言学Chapter 9
•
9· 1 Foregrounding and grammatical form前 2· 景化和语法形式
Events belong to the string of plot are usually foregrounded while those used to provide related information are backgrounded. Deviation（偏离）and parallelism（平行） are usually used to show foregrounding events. The study of foregrounding is called patterning（模式/干扰背景模式）.
Language & Literature 4
Chapter 9 Language & Literature • 9· Some general features of the literary 2 language
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9· 1 Foregrounding and grammatical form前 2· 景化和语法形式
Language & Literature 2
Chapter 9 Language & Literature • 9· Theoretical background 1
• 研究表明: 自20世纪60年代，建立起来了现代文体学， 从此该学科就飞速发展起来。但20世纪60年代，文体 学是形式主义formalism的十年，70年代是功能主义 functionalism的十年，80年代是语篇文体学discourse stylistics的十年，那么在90年代，是社会历史sociohistorical和社会文化socio-cultural文体学。 • 2000年后，文体学的发展趋势有两个主要特征。首先， 向着社会历史和社会文化文体学的研究深入。其次， 正兴起一种多元发展plural-heads development的趋势， 不同文体学学派竞相发展，新的学派不时涌现出来。
语言学教程Chapter 9. Language and Literature
The term “foregrounding”
Definition Deviation of language involves all levels of language: vocabulary, sound, syntax, meaning, graphology,etc. Repetition is also a kind of deviation. Alliteration, parallism, and many figures of speech are the examples of foregrounding in literary language.
9.2 some general features of the literary language
Features of literary language are displayed in the following three aspects: 1. phonology 2. grammar 3. semantics Literay language differs from non-literary language in that the former is foregrounded in the above three aspects.
9.2.3 the analysis of literay language
Procedures we should follow when we analyze the grammatical structure and meaning of a literary text. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。
新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 9 Language and culture
Chapter 9 Language and culture语言与文化知识点：1.*Definition: culture; cultural diffusion2.The relationship between language and culture3.# Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis4.*Linguistic evidence of cultural differences5.Cultural overlap and diffusion考核目标：识记：Definition: culture; cultural diffusion领会：Cultural overlap and diffusion; Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis; Linguistic evidence of cultural differences简单应用：The relationship between language and culture一、定义1.Culture文化：including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.由信仰，风俗，目标，机构，技术和语言构成，具有人类社区生活的特征。
2.Cultural diffusion文化扩散：through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. 通过交际，A文化中的某些成分进入了B文化，并成为了B文化的一部分。
二、知识点9.2 what is culture?Culture文化：including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.由信仰，风俗，目标，机构，技术和语言构成，具有人类社区生活的特征。
语言学课件9 Chapter Nine Language and culture
2. The relationship between language and culture
Language is the primary means by which a culture transmits its beliefs, values, and norms. It gives people a means of interacting with other members of the culture and a means of thinking.
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2.3 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and its
counter-example
A comparison between English and Hopi made by Whorf Berlin and Kay’s study of color words
The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole.
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Every people have its distinct language and culture. Different cultures make their different ideas, values and beliefs reflected in different languages.
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2.1. The study of language and culture on the Britain and American sides
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋9 Language and Culture课件
PPT学习交流
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The significance of cultural teaching and learning
• Learning a foreign language is inseparable from learning its culture.
• We need to learn enough about the language’s culture so that we can communicate in the target language
PPT学习交流
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Two Interpretations about SWH
• Strong version believes that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior;
• Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.
----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights (领悟) :
• There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations (偏见，成见) and constrains the way people think.
roadside…(B3 L10 Diogenes and Alexander)
PPT学习交流
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to die --- to pass away; to depart; to go to sleep; to go to heaven
英语语言学 第九章 语言与文化
▪ How the Chinese and the Europeans state their age differently. I'm ten and a half years old. The baby girl will be thirteen months old next Friday. Chinese use a round number(整数) followed by the measure sui.
▪ 所有这些类型的意义都与文化编码或联想有关， 因为词语的意义与它们的联想是不可分割的，而 这些联想的解释是约定俗成的。每种语言都有自 己的隐喻，这些隐喻在其范围内提供语义上的理 解。
Some cultural differences in language use
▪ Greetings and terms of address ▪ Gratitude and compliments ▪ Color words ▪ Privacy and taboos ▪ Rounding off numbers ▪ Words and cultural-specific connotations ▪ Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphor
▪ There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语言与文学）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语言与文学）【圣才出品】第9章语言与文学9.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Foregrounding; literal language and figurative language前景化；字面语言和比喻语言2. The language in poetry, fiction and drama诗歌、小说和戏剧中的语言3. The cognitive approach to literature从认知角度研究文学常考考点：文体学概念；前景化；原语言和比喻语言；言语和思维的表达；了解诗歌、小说和戏剧语言的分析方法；掌握押韵和音步的概念以及正确辨别和不同的视角在小说作品中的运用。
本章内容索引：I. Stylistics1. Definition2. Literary Stylistics(1) Foregrounding(2) Literal language and Figurative Language II. The Language in Poetry1. Sound patterning2. Different forms of sound patterning3. Metrical patterning4. Conventional forms of meter and sound5. The poetic functions of sound and meter6. How to analyze poetryIII. The Language in Fiction1. Fiction prose and points of view(1) I-narrators(2) Third-person narrators(3) Schema-oriented language(4) Given vs. New information(5) Deixis2. Speech and thought presentation(1) Speech presentation(2) Thought presentation(3) Stream of consciousness writing3. Prose style(1) Authorial style(2) Text style4. How to analyze the language of fictionIV. The Language in Drama1. How to analyze drama2. Analyzing dramatic languageV. The Cognitive Approach to Literature1. Figure and Ground2. Image Schemata3. Cognitive MetaphorI. Stylistics (文体学)1. Definition (定义)It is a branch of linguistics studies the features of situationallydistinctive uses (varieties) of language, and tries to establish principles capable of accounting for the particular choices made by individual and social groups in their use of language.文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究特殊语境中语言的特征（即语言的多样性），并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。
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Dictionary definition
The world is like a stage.
The name of a
part of a
objective
to
synecdoche refer to the
whole thing.
simile Figurative language metapher
(4)
To demonstrate technical skill, and for intellectual pleasure
(5)
For emphasis or contrast
(6)
Onomatopoeia
9.3 The Language in Poety 9.3.6 How to Analyse Poetry
Ex.9-15
Trochee and palm to palm is holy palmer's kiss
Ex.9-16
Anapest Willows whiten, aspens quiver
Ex.9-17
Dactyl Without cause be he pleased, without cause be he cross
(1)
Information about the poem
(2)
The way the poem is structured
lingustics chapter 9.4 The Language
in Fiction
9.4.1 Fictional Prose and Point of View
(1) I-narrators (2)Third-person narrators (3)Schema-oriented language (4)Given vs New information (5)Deixis
文体》
Corpus Stylistics《语料库
文体学》
Speech presentation
(1) Direct Speech
(2) Indirect Speech
(3) Narrator's Representation of Speech Acts (4) Narrator's Representation of S(5p)eFereceh Indirect Speech
9.3 The Language in Poety 9.3.1 Sound Patterning
Ex.9-10
1
Little Bo-peep Has lost her sheep And doesn't know where to find them Leave them alone And they will come home Waggling their tails behind them
Stylistics
A creation of bibliographers(文献研究者). A branch of linguistics studying the features of situationally distinctive uses of language and establish some principles.
The world is a stage.
明喻
A change of name.
metonymy
暗喻 转喻 提喻
The analysis of literary language
1 words
Step 1.
3 Grammatical level
Step 3
2 Word order and syntax
Ex.9-21
5
When lovely woman stoops to folly, And finds too late that men betray, What charm can soothe her melancholy, What art can wash her guilt away? The only art her guilt to cover, To hide her shame from every eye, To give repentance to her lover, And wring his bosom – is to die.
9.4.2 Speech and Thought Presentation
Mick Short(肖特） Literacture professor of Lancaster University(英国
兰开斯特大学文学教授）
A famous English stylist
Style in Fiction 《小说中的
Ex.9-20
4
Her eyes are wild,her head is bare, The sun has burnt her coal-black hair, Her eyebrows have a rusty stain, And she came from far over the main.
To distinguish literal from non-literal usage, we may use:
The language’s
Foregrounding
1.Phonological features
Was widely used in stylistics. And it
2. Grammatical features 3. Semantic features 4. Foregrounded ones.
Ex.9-18
Spondee One for the master, and one for the dame
Ex.9-19
Pyrrhic and a black-/Back gull bent like an iron bar slowly
9.3 The Language in Poety
9.3.4 Conventional Forms of Metre and Sound
Ex.9-11
2
Fair is foul and foul is fair Hover through wind and murky air
Ex.9-12
3
Hark! The herald angels sing Glory to the newborn King.
9.3 The Language in Poety
syntax and so on, which includes
many figures of speech, like
repetitive patterns.
Foregrounding and Grammatical form
Deviate from those common forms of language, and as a result creates new interesting patterns in form and meaning
4
9.5 The Language in Drama
5
9.6 The Cognitive Approach to Literature
Introduction literary stylistics(文学文体学)
Style
Has been recognized since the days of rhetoric.
Step2 .
5 To analyze
1. Rewrite 2. Understand the structural
aspects 3. Search information 4. Check figurative language
4 The system of the language
Step 4
points
Some parts’ (which are necessary for a normal sentence) being lost makes a good effect in stressing or meaning.
Literal language and Figurative language
Language and Literature(语言与文学)
CHAPTER 9
Group 3 李青 陈嘉仪 朱灵丰
CONTENTS
1
9.2 Some General Features of the Literary Language
2
9.3 The Language in Poetry
3
9.4 The Language in Fiction
Ex.9-21
6
BUT do not let us quarrel any more, No, my Lucrezia; bear with me for once: Sit down and all shall happen as you wish. You turn your face, but does it bring your heart?
9.3 The Language in Poety
9.3.5 The Poetic Functions of Sound and Metre
(1)
For aesthetic pa convention/style/poetical form
(3)
To express or innovate with a form
Introduction of this Chapter Carter and Simpson observed that
The 1960s