后格莱斯理论之列文森

Types of Q-implicature
Q-scalar implicature Q-clausal implicature (p or q,p and q,since p then q,if p then q,know that,believe that) Q-alternate implicature,which come from a nonentailment semantic (contrast) set.


<succeed,try˃ In 1888,Van Gogh tried to set up an artist's studio at Arles. +˃In 1888,Van Gogh did not succeed in setting up an artist's studio at Arles. <boil,grill,stir-fry˃ Stir-fry the bean sprouts,please. +˃please,don't,for example,boil the bean spouts as well. (Yan Huang2009:44)

In Sperber and Wilson's approach and that of Horn's,it is exactly adopted what grice had anticipated--to use the principle of revelance to subsume the second maxim of Quantity.Now Levinson believes that is mistaken.In his view, maxims of Quantity have to do with the quantity of information,while the maxim of Relation is “a measure of timely helpfulness with respect to interactional goals”(p.401).and “is largely about the satisfaction of others' goals in interaction,and the satisfaction of topical and sequencing constraints in discourse,as in the expection that answer will follow a question”(Levinson 1989:467).It is not,at least not primarily,about information.So he renames the second maxim of Quantity the Principle of Informativeness,I-principle for short;and the first maxim of Quantity the Principle of Quantity,or Q-principle.
The Levinsonian system

The original Gricean programme (the maxim of Quality apart) should be reduced to three neo-Gricean pragmatic principles: Q [uantity]-principle, I [nformativeness]-principle, M [anner]-principle. Each of the three principles has two sides: a speaker’s maxim, specifying what the principle requires the speaker to say a recipient’s corollary, dictating what it allows the addressee to infer


例二： <know,believe˃ (1)John believes that there is life on Mars. +˃John doesn know that there is life on Mars. 't （姜望琪，2000:130） (2)John knows that there is life on Mars. （1）不能推出宾语从句，（2）可以推出宾语从句。因此， 当说话人说（1）时，可以推导出：there is life on Mars or there's no life on Mars.即llary:
Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that: (i) if the speaker asserted A(W), where A is a sentence frame and W an informationally weaker expression than S, and the contrastive expressions <S,W> form a Horn scale (in the prototype case, such that A(S) entails A(W)), then one can infer that the speaker knows that the stronger statement A(S) (with S substituted for W) would be false (or K~ (A(S)));
examples of Q-implicature
例一：<all,some˃ 1 Some of my friends friends are linguists. +˃Not all my friends are linguists. （姜望琪，2000：130） 等级数量含义其实就是：说强蕴含弱；说弱否 定强。
The Levinsonian system
列文森在荷恩、阿特拉斯和他本人此前研究 的基础上于 1987 年发表的《语用学和前指 代语法》(pragmatics and the grammar of anaphora)的论文中提出了列文森会话含义 “三原则” 1991 年，他在一篇再论前指代规律的论文中 正式把列文森三原则称之为“新格赖斯语用 学机制”(Neo -Gricean pragmatic apparatus)
(ii) if the speaker asserted A(W) and A(W) fails to entail an embedded sentence Q, which a stronger statement A(S) would entail, and <S, W> form a contrast set, then one can infer the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not (i.e., ~K(Q) or equally {P (Q), P~(Q)}.
（姜望琪 2000:129）
1987 Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor:A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Binding and Ctronal Phenomena
He accuses Horn of falling to draw a distinction between two kinds of minimization :a semantic minimization and expression minimization...In Levinson's view,only the first type of minimization has to do with the I-Principle,the second type,in contrast,is the domain of the principle of manner,as it concerns the form of expression,the way to express something rather than what is to be expressed. He also criticizes Horn's division of labour in this regard.“The contrast involved in the Hornian division of labour is a contrast between marked and unmarked expression,and more exactly a contast beween usual vs.unusual,or brief vs.prolix expressions.This distinction has nothing to do with quantity of information,the paired expression being assumed to be synonymous;rather it has to do with surface form,and these implicatures are thus properly attributed to the maxim of Manner” (p.409). （姜望琪，2000:134,135）
Q-principle


Speaker's maxim: