食品营养学(双语)

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高校食品营养学课程双语建设探究

序渐进、渐过渡的教学特色，逐成为较优的教学模及人们对于肥胖认识的态度等紧迫问题；食物中
式选择。
植物化学物质的科研工作与消费者在这方面对于
食品营养学是高校食品科学与工程专业本科指导的需要之间的矛盾；的食品工艺以及农业新教育课程中的一门重要的专业基础必修课。笔者如何确保提供高质量食品的方法等问题。但是，通过数年的双语教学实践体会到，门课程采用直接引用原版教材存在学生学习背景、该民族文化
领域内适量的外语教学是改善这一现状的有效措界，深入讨论了当前营养科学话题和营养学不断施。但限于全外语教学师资和学生学习的较大障涌现出的各种存在争议的问题。例如，解决一要
碍，语教学以外语比重由少到多、双由浅入深、循些围绕食品安全、减肥食品的有效性、品奸商以食
继续教育研究
２１年第１期０２Ｏ
高校食品营养学课程双语建设探究
王路程翠林
１００）５０１（尔滨Ｘ３哈－，ｋ大学食品科学与工程学院，黑龙江哈尔滨
摘要：以从事高校食品营养学课程双语教学实践为基础，出提高高校食品营养学课程双语教学质量的建议，提即ｘ－－ｔｉ教学在食品营养学课程应用中的必要性；￣原版教材与本土教材、自编教材结合，丰富食品营养学教材选择；选择合

食品营养学双语版_重点版

食品营养学食物可以定义为含有许多天然的化学成分以提供人类色、香、味和营养的可食物质，而食物中提供人体营养的有机和无机化学成分称为营养素。

从化学性质和生理功能可将营养素分为六大类，即蛋白质，脂肪，碳水化合物（糖和淀粉）、矿物质、维生素和水，这些物质因为是人体生存所必需而被称为必需营养素。

现在有人把膳食纤维看作第七大营养素，而抗氧化成分为半必需营养素。

这些营养素为机体提供能量、构建和维持机体组织、调节机体的各种生理过程。

第一章消化吸收NutritionNutrition might be defined as the process whereby we obtain the essential nutrients and use them to make many substances our bodies need.This process would include eating and digesting food and absorbing and using,or metabolizing,,the nutrients it contains.营养：谋求养身，即人类获得必需的营养素并利用他们来合成人体需要物质的过程，它包括人体摄入、消化、吸收、利用或代谢营养物质的过程，是人类通过摄取食物满足机体生理需要的生物学过程。

NutrientsNutrients are the chemical components of food which perform nutritive functions:Fats脂肪Proteins蛋白质Carbohydrates碳水化合物Minerals矿物质Vitamins维生素Water水Dietary fiber,Antioxidants膳食纤维和抗氧化成分Function of foods and nutrients:Provide energy for activities build and maintain body tissue(组织)Regulate body processes（调节生理过程）Good Nutrition1、What is good nutrition?Good nutrition implies that we are obtaining from our food all of the essential nutrients in the amounts needed to keep our bodies functioning and to maintain optimum（最适宜的）health.A very simplified definition of good nutrition might be“eating the right foods in the right amounts,and can keep us to finish our work(physical and mental)efficiently.”好的营养是指人体从食物中获得保持人体正常生理功能和最佳健康状况所需数量的必需营养素。

食品质量与安全专业营养学实施双语教学的可行性

食品质量与安全专业营养学实施双语教学的可行性摘要：通过回顾食品营养学双语教学的实践，论述在食品质量与安全专业开展双语教学的现实意义以及有效开展双语教学的可行性。

关键词：食品质量与安全双语教学可行性中图分类号：g640 文献标识码：a 文章编号：1007-3973（2012）012-171-021双语教学的必要性我国的大学英语教学目前还有很多不尽人意之处，课堂教学方法单一、节奏缓慢、缺少实践，课堂以老师为中心，照本宣科“满堂灌”，学生缺乏学习兴趣。

大学生要求掌握的专业词汇在大学英语课堂上很难接触到。

外语学习效率非常低下，许多学生花在英语学习上的时间和精力非常多，但收效却不明显，他们已经过9年到11年的英语学习，却不能非常熟练地阅读英语原版书籍，口语交流能力更是不行。

开展双语教学是教育国际化的需要。

如今知识与技术的更新速度加快，国际交流活动日益频繁，国际化办学已成为衡量高校办学水平的一个重要标志。

2004 年教育部试行《普通高等学校本科教学工作水平评估方案》工程，“双语教学”被列为重要考核指标。

学习语言的最好方法就是应用，把语言教学与真实内容的专业课结合在一起也是语言本身的性质所决定的。

开展双语教学是国际竞争的需要。

国与国之间的竞争主要是科技的竞争，世界纸质出版物使用英语的占大多数，很多新发现、新技术都刊登在英文杂志上。

我国学者要想获得认同，就必须用英文发表文章。

即使是与其他官方语言是非英语的国家的同行交往，也必须使用英语。

国际互联网内容中使用英语的占总量的80%。

这就要求21世纪的人才不但要有扎实的专业知识和专业技能、掌握流利的英语、过硬的信息技术、还要具有宽阔的国际眼光。

过去人们认为“学好数理化，走遍天下都不怕。

”而今，英语被认为人们进入21世纪的“通行证”。

开展双语教学是培养复合型人才的需要。

现在社会需要的是“一专多能”的人才，不管何种专业，英语是不可缺少的。

为了谋得一份理想的工作，其首要条件就是大学英语四、六级证书甚至口语证书，如果英语不好，机会即使就在你眼前，你也只能无耐地望而却步。

食品营养学(FoodNutriology)

政府将加大对食品营养学相关产业的扶持力度，鼓励企业加大研发和创新投入，推动行业健康发展。
社会共治
政府、企业和社会各方将共同参与食品营养学相关产品的监管和
供碳水化合物和膳食纤维；鸡蛋提供优质蛋白质和多种营养素；水果提
供维生素和矿物质。
02
午餐搭配
瘦肉（鱼、禽、畜肉）+蔬菜+豆制品+主食。瘦肉提供优质蛋白质和
多种营养素；蔬菜提供维生素和矿物质；豆制品提供植物性优质蛋白质
和多种营养素；主食提供碳水化合物和膳食纤维。
03
晚餐搭配
蔬菜+豆制品+瘦肉+主食。蔬菜提供维生素和矿物质；豆制品提供植
02
食品中营养成分与功能
碳水化合物
碳水化合物的分类：单糖、双糖、多糖等。
碳水化合物的生理功能：提供能量、维持血糖平衡、节约蛋白质等。碳水化合物的食物来源：谷物、薯类、水果等。
脂类
脂类的分类
饱和脂肪酸、不饱和脂肪酸等。
脂类的生理功能
提供能量、维持细胞结构、促进脂溶性维生素吸收等。
脂类的食物来源
食品营养学 (foodnutriology)
目录
• 食品营养学概述 • 食品中营养成分与功能 • 食品加工对营养成分影响 • 食品营养评价与标签解读
目录
• 膳食指南与合理膳食搭配 • 现代饮食问题及解决方案 • 未来发展趋势与挑战
01
食品营养学概述
定义与发展历程
定义
食品营养学是研究食物中营养成分与人体健康关系的科学。
营养标签解读及意义
营养成分表
标签上列出食品中能量和核心营养素的含量，如蛋白质、脂肪、碳水化合物、钠等，有助于消费者了解食品的营养组成。

食品科学与工程专业课英文对照

食品科学与工程专业课英文对照普通化学：General chemistry生物学基础：Biological basis大学物理D：University physics分析化学：Analytical chemistry食品生物化学：Food biochemistry有机化学：Organic chemistry食品工程原理：Food engineering principle食品机械基础：Food machinery basis食品加工厂设计：Food processing plant design食品营养学：Food nutrition食品发酵工艺学：Food fermentation technology食品分析：Food analysis食品企业经营管理：Food enterprise operation and management食品微生物：Food microbiology食品卫生检验：Food hygiene inspection焙烤食品工艺学：Baking food technology功能性食品：Functional food粮油食品加工学：Cereals, oils and foodstuffs processing learn 食品添加剂：Food additive畜产品加工学：Animal products processing learn制冷学：Refrigeration专业英语：Professional English淀粉与淀粉制品工艺学：Starch and starch products technology酿造酒工艺学：Brewing wine technology食品包装：Food packaging食品毒理学：Food toxicology食品生物技术：Food biotech仪器分析：Instrument analysis饮料工艺学：Beverage technology园产品加工学：The product processing learn调味品生产工艺：Dressing production process肉制品加工技术：Meat processing technology乳制品加工技术：Dairy products processing technology 食品安全评价：Food safety evaluation水产品加工技术：Aquatic product processing technology。

10.7 铁食品营养学(全英语)

卟吩Porphin 血红素Heme 血红蛋白Hemoglobin肌红蛋白Myoglobin HemeO2Fe2+•肌红蛋白是使肌肉呈现红色的色素蛋白•肌红蛋白由血红素与球蛋白构成•卟啉环上的亚铁原子可结合氧气•肌红蛋白可以携带、存储氧气•血红蛋白是使血液呈现红色的色素蛋白•血红蛋白由4个血红素与4个球蛋白构成•与肌红蛋白一样，血红蛋白上的亚铁原子可以结合氧气•血红细胞中的血红蛋白可以携带氧气，随着血液循环起到运输氧气的作用有缘学习更多＋谓ｙｇｄ３０７６或关注桃报：奉献教育（店铺）细胞色素C的三维结构•细胞色素是一类以血红素作为辅基的电子传递蛋白•细胞色素广泛参与动、植物，酵母以及好氧菌、厌氧光合菌等的氧化还原反应•细胞色素作为电子载体传递电子的方式是通过其血红素辅基中铁原子的还原态(Fe2+)和氧化态（Fe3+）之间的可逆变化实现的这五种蛋白质复合体中都含有血红素铁或铁硫簇单元来实现电子的转移•氧化磷酸化（oxidative phosphorylation）是细胞的一种能量代谢途径，产生ATP•需要5种蛋白质复合体来完成电子的传递ØNADH-辅酶Q氧化还原酶（复合体I）Ø琥珀酸-Q氧化还原酶（复合体II）Ø电子传递黄素蛋白-Q氧化还原酶ØQ-细胞色素c氧化还原酶（复合体III）Ø细胞色素c氧化酶（复合体IV）血液功能免疫系统大脑功能肌肉功能能量代谢胎儿健康有缘学习更多＋谓ｙｇｄ３０７６或关注桃报：奉献教育（店铺）Iron Deficiency•贫血会导致心律失常、呼吸急促、头晕、头痛、手脚冰冻、皮肤出现淡黄色、胸部疼痛等症状•在世界范围内，婴儿，儿童，青少年和育龄妇女，特别是孕妇中，铁缺乏的患病率非常高•缺铁会导致缺铁性贫血（anemia ）•贫血会导致红细胞不足,以及氧气不足•氧气不足会导致能量代谢不足Iron Overload•长时间服用高剂量的铁补充剂可能导致铁中毒，单次剂量10至20 mg/kg 可引起一些铁毒性症状，剂量大于40 mg/kg时需要就医，超过60 mg /kg 可能是致命的•大量铁可阻碍氧化磷酸化和线粒体功能，导致细胞死亡•过量的铁可能会损害胃肠系统，症状包括恶心，呕吐，腹泻和胃痛•过量的铁会在器官中积聚，并对肝脏或大脑等器官造成致命的伤害•肝脏中的铁沉积可导致肝硬化，而在胰腺中，它可能导致糖尿病体内铁总量•正常成年男性50～55mg/kg，女性35～40mg/kg•红细胞，血红蛋白铁2500mg；•肌肉中，肌红蛋白铁140mg；•肝，脾，骨髓组织，铁蛋白（ferritin）及含铁血黄素（hemosiderin）铁300～1000mg，作为储存铁；•转运铁蛋白（transferrin）铁3～4mg•含铁酶中少量铁红细胞在骨髓中形成红细胞在血流中循环120天老化的红细胞在肝脏和脾脏中被吞噬血液中的血红素成分被回收利用血红素转化为胆绿素，然后转化为胆红素，胆红素从肝脏分泌到胆汁中铁通过铁转运蛋白在体内转运，包括运输到骨髓重新合成红细胞红细胞膜蛋白和珠蛋白被分解成氨基酸，其中一些被用于制造新的红细胞铁的循环铁的吸收•铁的吸收部位在十二指肠及空肠上段经主动转运过程吸收•铁通过转运蛋白从小肠运输到血液•铁的吸收受到生理状态、食物中铁的水平等因素的调节•铁缺乏时，铁吸收率会升高•食物中铁水平高时肝脏会分泌铁调素（hepcidin）抑制铁转运蛋白，从而降低铁的摄入量•通过这样的机制来调节铁的吸收铁的储存•铁蛋白（ferritin）是铁的主要储存形式•大部分被人体吸收的铁（几乎70％）用于制造血红蛋白•大部分剩余的铁与蛋白质结合称为铁蛋白，并主要储存在肝脏中,它还储存在骨髓，脾脏和肌肉中•血液中含有少量铁蛋白，是体内储存铁量的指标你每天需要多少铁呢？男孩14-18岁11mg/d女孩14-18岁15mg/d成年男性19+8mg/d成年女性19+18mg/d孕妇27mg/d老年妇女50+8mg/d可耐受的上限摄入量Tolerable upper intake level有缘学习更多＋谓ｙｇｄ３０７６或关注桃报：奉献教育（店铺）肉的新鲜度下降后会影响身体对其中铁的吸收吗？。

食品营养学(双语)_南昌大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年

食品营养学（双语）_南昌大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年1.好的营养”（good nutrition）是，吃正好数量的适宜食物，以使人体能有效地完成体力和脑力工作。

参考答案:正确2.胃液的成分包括盐酸（胃酸）、胃蛋白酶原（pepsinogen）、胃脂肪酶（gastric lipase）、粘液（mucus）、碳酸氢盐和内因子等。

参考答案:正确3.The purpose of washing, cleaning and trimming is to remove dirt, sand,insects, insecticides and other chemicals from the skin or leaves of vegetables and fruit.参考答案:正确4.胃是食物消化的主要器官。

参考答案:错误5.以下不属于酚类化合物的是参考答案:类胡萝卜素6.植物化学物可以分为参考答案:Phenolic compounds_Terpenes_Alkaloid_S-containing compounds7.以下哪种食物单位重量的能量最高？参考答案:sugar8.以下哪些是能量的单位：参考答案:KJ_Kcal_cal9.成年人的能量消耗主要包括哪三部分？参考答案:基础能量消耗_活动的能量消耗_食物热效应10.抗氧化物质是人体必需营养素。

参考答案:错误11.食品营养学是农业科学、食品科学与营养科学有机结合的交叉学科。

参考答案:正确12.以下哪些是影响基础代谢率的主要因素？参考答案:瘦体质_性别和年龄_内分泌和应激状态_生活作业环境13.双标水测定法是间接测定能量的方法。

参考答案:正确14.营养素为机体提供能量、构建和维持体组织、调节机体的各种生理过程参考答案:正确15.（）is slightly higher than UL, to ensure most people intake adequatenutrients.参考答案:RAD16.以下哪个氨基酸不是必需氨基酸参考答案:甘氨酸17.Which could not through mammary gland to milk？（）参考答案:Iron18.Protein from food or a protein supplement acts the same in the body.参考答案:正确19.妊娠糖尿病是妊娠早期可能出现的一种糖尿病症状。

Chapter 2 Protein食品营养学(全英语)

Incomplete proteins Legumes
2.6 Complementary Protein
◆ Two food protein sources that make up for each other’s inadequate supply of specific essential amino acids
2.4 Nitrogen Balance and Imbalance
Healthy, nonpregnant adults should
consume enough to replace what is used every day
⚫The goal is nitrogen balance
Pregnant woman, people recovering from
2.5 Protein Quality
Protein Labelling Claims
Claim
Conditions to meet claim
“Source of protein”
Protein rating>20
“Excellent source of protein”
Protein rating>40
Chapter 2 Protein
nutrition
Proteins
Outcomes
Distinguish between essential, nonessential and conditional amino acids
Identify food sources of protein, distinguish between high-quality and lowquality proteins, describe the concept of complementary proteins

P208食品营养学(全英语)

CRITICAL THINKING
Evan, a vegetarian, has heard of the “all-or-none principle” of protein synthesis but does not understand how this principle applies to protein synthesis in the body. He asks you, “How important is this nutritional concept for diet planning?” How would you answer his question?
complementary proteins Two food protein sources that make up for each other’s inadequate supply of specific essential amino acids; together, they yield a sufficient amount of all nine and so provide high-quality (complete) protein for the diet.
Food Item and Amount
RDA Canned tuna, 3 ounces Broiled chicken, 3 ounces Roast beef, 3 ounces Yogurt, 1 cup Kidney beans, 1/2 cup 1% low-fat milk, 1 cup Peanuts, 1 ounce Cheddar cheese, 1 ounce Egg, 1 Cooked corn, 1/2 cup Seven-grain bread, 1 slice White rice, 1/2 cup Pasta, 1 ounce Banana, 1 * for 70 kilogram man

食品营养学(双语)

食品营养学（双语）Food and NutritionFood and nutrition play an essential role in the overall health and well-being of an individual. A balanced diet is essential for the proper functioning of the body and mind. Eating the right foods in the right quantities and at the right time helps to maintain an ideal body weight, ensure good digestion, promote good immunity, and prevent chronic illnesses.In the modern world, however, people are often faced with food choices that are high in calories, saturated fats, and sugars. These foods may taste good, but they are generally not good for our health in the long run. They can cause a variety of health problems such as obesity, heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.To make healthy eating choices, it is important to understand the basics of nutrition. The five food groups that make up a balanced diet include fruits, vegetables, grains, proteins, and dairy. Each group has its unique set of nutrients that are essential for a healthy body.Fruits and vegetables are rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants that help to boost the immune system, fight off diseases, and promote healthy skin and hair. They are also a great source of fiber that aids in digestion and helps to keep the digestive system healthy.Grains provide the body with carbohydrates, which are the main source of energy for the body. Whole grains are a better choice asthey contain more fiber, vitamins, and minerals than refined grains. Examples of whole grains include brown rice, quinoa, whole wheat bread, and oatmeal.Proteins are essential for the growth and repair of the body's tissues. They are also important for the production of hormones and enzymes that regulate body functions. Good sources of protein include lean meats, fish, beans, and tofu.Dairy products provide the body with calcium, which is essential for strong bones and teeth. Low-fat dairy products such as milk, yogurt, and cheese are a good source of calcium.It is also important to watch the portions of food we consume. Eating too much of any food, even healthy ones, can lead to weight gain and other health problems. A balanced meal should include a variety of foods from the food groups mentioned above in the right proportions.In addition to eating a balanced diet, it is important to maintain a healthy lifestyle. Regular exercise, getting enough sleep, and reducing stress are all essential for a healthy body and mind.In conclusion, food and nutrition play a crucial role in our health and well-being. By making healthy food choices and maintaining a healthy lifestyle, we can prevent chronic illnesses and lead a fulfilling life.In recent years, there has been an increasing awareness of the importance of a healthy diet for overall health and well-being. This has led to the proliferation of various diets, including veganism, vegetarianism, and paleo. While each of thesediets has its benefits, it is important to remember that a balanced diet is the key to good health.Eating a balanced diet not only helps to prevent chronic illnesses, but it can also improve mental health. Studies have shown that a diet high in refined sugars, saturated fats, and processed foods can lead to depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders. On the other hand, a diet that is rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins has been shown to improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression and anxiety.One of the challenges in maintaining a balanced diet is the availability of unhealthy foods. Fast food restaurants, vending machines, and convenience stores often offer foods that are high in calories and low in nutrients. This can make it difficult for people to make healthy choices. However, by planning meals ahead of time and bringing healthy snacks with you, it is much easier to resist the temptation of unhealthy foods.Another challenge in maintaining a balanced diet is the cost. It can be more expensive to purchase fresh fruits and vegetables than processed foods. However, by shopping for produce at local farmers' markets, buying in-season fruits and vegetables, and cooking at home, it is possible to eat a healthy diet on a budget.It is also important to understand that certain health conditions may require specific dietary needs. For example, individuals with celiac disease cannot tolerate gluten and need to follow a gluten-free diet. Some people may also need to limit their intake of certain nutrients, such as sodium or cholesterol, due to other health conditions.Consulting with a registered dietitian can help individuals develop a healthy eating plan that meets their specific needs.In addition to a balanced diet, regular physical activity is also essential for good health. Exercise not only helps to maintain a healthy weight, but it can also reduce the risk of chronic illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes, and some types of cancer. Aim for at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise per week, such as brisk walking, cycling, or swimming.Getting enough sleep is also important for overall health. Sleep plays a crucial role in repairing and restoring the body's tissues, regulating hormones, and maintaining a healthy immune system. Adults should aim for 7-9 hours of sleep per night.While a balanced diet, regular exercise, and adequate sleep are all important for good health, it is also important to reduce stress. Chronic stress can lead to a variety of health problems, including high blood pressure, heart disease, and depression. Strategies for reducing stress may include mindfulness activities such as yoga or meditation, engaging in a hobby or other leisure activity, and spending time in nature.In conclusion, food and nutrition play a crucial role in overall health and well-being. By eating a balanced diet that includes plenty of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and dairy, as well as maintaining a healthy lifestyle through regular exercise, getting enough sleep, and reducing stress, individuals can improve their health and reduce the risk of chronic illnesses.。

《食品营养学》课程教学大纲(精)

《食品营养学》课程教学大纲一、课程基本信息
二、课程内容及基本要求
内容:
第一章营养物质的消化吸收
第二章蛋白质与氨基酸的营养原理
第三章碳水化合物的营养原理
第四章脂类的营养原理
第五章热能的营养原理
第六章水的营养原理
第七章维生素的营养原理
第八章矿物质的营养原理
第九章各类食品的营养价值
第十章植物化学物
第十一章食品营养强化
第十二章公共营养
基本要求：
了解人体消化道与消化吸收、人体所需的六大主要营养素及其生理功能，了解各类食品的营养价值，植物化学物与人类健康、食品的强化和公共营养等。

三、实践环节及基本要求：
内容：
第一章营养调查
第二章膳食调查及结果评价
第三章食品中营养素含量测定
第四章能量摄入的计算
基本要求:
通过膳食调查，了解膳食调查的目的和意义,掌握膳食计算的一般步骤和方法;掌握食品中营养素的的定方法及人体能量摄入的计算方法。

四、学时分配表：
五、课程教学的有关说明
1.本课程自学内容:各类人群的营养。

2.本课程全部使用多媒体教学，多媒体都用英文。

3.本课程为双语教学，讲授时基本为英语，重点和难点可增加中文解释.
4.学生要掌握较多的食品专业和健康有关英语词汇，有较好的听力能力。

P218食品营养学(全英语)

1 cup 1 cup 4 large 4 medium 5 small ½ cup ½ cup
8.5 5 5 8 12 2 0
Muffin Swiss cheese Banana
1 small
4
1 ounce
7.5
½ small
0.5
© John A. Rizzo/Getty Images
Total
218 Contemporary Nutrition: A Functional Approach
TABLE 6-2 ■ Protein Content of Sample Menus Containing 1600 and 2000 kcal
Menu
1600 kcal
Serving Size Protein (g)
101
2000 kcal Serving Size Protein (g)
⅔ cup
5
1 cup
1
1 cup
8.5
1 cup
0
4 ounces
33
3 cups
5
½ cup
2
2 tbsp
0
1 cup 2 cups 6 large 6 medium 10 small ¼ cup ½ cup
8.5 10
7 12 24
3 ounces
25
3 cups
5
½ cup
2
2 tbsp
0
© John A. Rizzo/Getty Images
Dinner
© Kevin Sanchez/Cole Group/Getty Images
Snack
Fat-free (skim) milk Brown rice Shrimp Mussels Clams Peas Sweet red pepper

食品营养学

什么是营养？是指人摄取食物后，在体内消化和吸收、利用其中的营养素以维持生长发育、组织更新和处于健康状态的总过程。

营养素:具有营养功能的物质，包括：水、碳水化合物、脂类、蛋白质、维生素、矿物质食品营养学（food nutrition）主要研究食物、营养与人体生长发育和健康的关系，以及提高食品营养价值的措施。

什么是健康？健康是生理、心理及社会适应三方面全部良好一种状况，而不仅仅是没有疾病或虚弱。

什么是亚健康？是指健康的透支状态，即身体确有种种不适，表现为易疲劳，体力、适应力和应变力衰退，但又没有发现器质性病变的状态。

第二章食物的体内过程消化（digestion）：人体摄入的食物被分解为小分子物质的过程称为消化。

(机械消化和化学消化)吸收（absorption）：食物经消化后，所形成的小分子物质通过消化道黏膜进入血液或淋巴，被机体细胞所利用的过程，称为吸收。

一、消化系统口腔咽与食道胃小肠大肠二、消化液（一）唾液成分：水、粘蛋白、球蛋白、唾液淀粉酶和溶菌酶、无机物作用：湿润口腔和食物；消化淀粉；清洁保护口腔（二）胃液性质：无色的酸性液体，pH为0.9－1.5。

作用：1 盐酸——激活胃蛋白酶原；杀菌；蛋白质变性；促进胰液、胆汁和小肠液的分泌；有利于铁和钙的吸收等。

2 胃蛋白酶原——作用于含Phe Tyr 的肽键3 内因子——保护维生素B124粘液——润滑；减少胃黏膜的机械、酸损伤（三）胰液成分：大量水分、有机物及无机物；无机物——碳酸氢盐有机物——胰淀粉酶、胰脂肪酶、胰蛋白酶和糜蛋白酶、羧基肽酶、RNAase 、DNAase 等。

性质：无色碱性液体，pH7.8－8.4；作用：碳酸氢盐——中和胃酸，调节pH 值胰淀粉酶——水解淀粉成糊精或麦芽糖等；胰脂肪酶——消化脂肪；胰蛋白酶、糜蛋白酶——水解蛋白质；（四）胆汁成分：水分、有机物及无机物，组成复杂；无机物——钠、钾、钙、碳酸氢盐等；有机物——胆盐、胆色素、胆固醇、卵磷脂等；胆盐是胆汁酸与甘氨酸或牛磺酸结合形成的钠盐；胆色素是血红蛋白的分解产物胆汁的作用：乳化脂肪；帮助脂肪的吸收；促进脂溶性维生素的吸收；胆盐可直接刺激肝细胞分泌胆汁。

食品营养学(Food Nutriology )

绪
食品营养学（Food
一、营养（nutrition）
论
Nutriology ）
（一）营养指人体为了维持正常生理、生化和免疫功能以及生长、发育、代谢和修补组织等生命现象的需要而摄取和利用食物的综合过程。
（二）合理营养指通过合理的膳食和科学的烹调加工，能向机体提供足够数量的热能和各种营养素，并保持各营养素之间的数量平衡，以满足人体的正常生理需要，保持人体健康。
因
绪
食品营养学（Food
一、营养（nutrition）
论
Nutriology ）
（三）营养不良
（1）早期症状：不明显
3 、症状
2 较重症状
①消瘦、乏力、肌肉萎缩等症状。 ②有时可出现贫血，水肿或发育障碍。 ③某些维生素缺乏可引起特殊症状。如夜盲症（缺VitA）、脚气病（缺VitB1）等。
1、按化学性质分
脂类
蛋白质
人体所需要的营养素约有几十种，按化学性质可概括为7大类。
碳水化合物
膳食纤维水
矿物质
维生素
5
绪
食品营养学（Food 二、营养素（nutrient）
论
Nutriology ）
（二）分类
2、按目前新的分类方法分
（1）宏量营养素(Macronutrients)
蛋白质（Protein）；碳水化合物（Carbohydrates）；脂类(Lipids)。（2）微量营养素(Micronutrients) 维生素（ Vitamin ）包括水溶性和脂溶性维生素；矿物质（Minerals）包括常量和微量元素。（3）其它膳食成分：
为目的的物品。
（五）食物的概念及食物应该具备的基本条件

食品营养学(双语)

翻译：①All you have to do is choose a selection of foods that supplies appropriate amounts of the essential nutrients, fiber ,and energy without excess intakes of fat ,sugar ,and salt and be sure to get enough exercise to balance the foods you get.所有你必须做的就是挑选食物，这些食物能够提供质量的必需营养物质，纤维素和能量，不过多摄入脂肪，糖和盐并确保能得到足够的锻炼平衡你所吃的食物。

②They also make some general statements about energy intakes ,but they do little to protect people from excess intakes of fats ,sugar ,salt ,and other food constituents believed to be related to chronic disease.他们也做些一些关于能量摄入的一般性说明，但是他们几乎没做多少来保护人们以免过多摄入脂肪、糖、盐和其他与慢性疾病有关的食物成分。

他们也制定了一些关于能量摄入的规定，但是这些措施在防止人们摄入过量的与慢性疾病有关的脂肪，糖盐以及一些其他的食物成分方面效果甚微。

③In practice ,however ,diet planners must be sure to choose mostly nutrient-dense foods in each group because some processes strip foods of some nutrients and add calories from fats. With this caution ,the daily food guide can provide a reasonable road map for diet planning.然而，实际上，膳食计划者必须确保每类食品中选择通常高营养密度的食物，因为在一些加工过程中除去食品中一些营养素并添加一些脂肪而增加能量。

基于问题的教学模式在食品营养学双语教学中的实践

云南社会主义学院学报 2012年第6期 NO.6,2012 云南社会主义学院学报JO UR NA L OF YU N NA NI N ST I TU T E OFS O CI A L I S M 220基于问题的教学模式在食品营养学双语教学中的实践曹清明1 2 钟海雁1 2 周波1 2 黄亮1 2 （1. 中南林业科技大学，湖南长沙 410004； 2. 稻谷及副产物深加工国家工程实验室，湖南长沙 410004）摘要：本文从基于问题的学习的定义出发，作者介绍了食品营养学双语教学实施的必要性和可能性，以及基于问题教学模式的方法、教学手段和考核方法。

关键词：基于问题；教学模式；食品营养学；双语教学中图分类号：R459.3-4 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1671-2811（2012）06-0220-2 一、基于问题的学习模式以问题为中心的教学模式是以问题为导向的教学方式。

传统的教学模式是以老师为主的灌输式教学方式。

以PBL 为导向的情景互动式教学重点加强学生在课程中的教学参与意识，在问题的引导下，结合本专业与其它学科知识展开讨论，从而系统地学习知识，及时地掌握所学知识，达到以点带面、融会贯通的学习目的。

二、PBL 在食品营养学双语教学中的应用《食品营养学》目前是我院食品质量与安全专业的一门专业基础课，主要研究食物、营养与人体健康的关系，其主要任务是使学生掌握各种营养素的功能、食物来源、营养与疾病、膳食改善的相关措施及政策等基本理论和知识。

具有很强的科学性、社会性和应用性。

（一）实施教学改革的可能性和必要性据调查，大学生营养知识水平普遍偏低，但学生懂得食品营养学课程的专业地位和对日常生活的指导意义，几乎所有的大学生都会对食品营养学感兴趣，他们对掌握食品营养学知识有强烈的愿望，他们并不满足于课堂教育，也有部分学生在大二时就开始参加报考营养师资格证书，因此，在教学中，一方面，老师要让学生主动参与课堂学习，另一方面，老师要加强课堂知识的拓展，教学密切联系生活实际，把问题留给学生，让学生在课余时间查阅资料，并且指导学生把知识用于实际生活中去，提高学生的营养知识水平，改善营养习惯。

Saliva composition食品营养学(全英语)

Saliva Composition and Functions:A Comprehensive ReviewAim: The aim of this study was to perform a literature review about the composition and functions of saliva as well as describe the factors that influence salivary flow (SF) and its biochemical composition.Background: Saliva represents an increasingly useful auxiliary means of diagnosis. Sialometry andsialochemistry are used to diagnose systemic illnesses, monitoring general health, and as an indicator of risk for diseases creating a close relation between oral and systemic health.Review: This review provides fundamental information about the salivary system in terms of normal values for SF and composition and a comprehensive review of the factors that affect this important system.Conclusion: Since several factors can influence salivary secretion and composition, a strictly standardized collection must be made so the above-mentioned exams are able to reflect the real functioning of the salivary glands and serve as efficient means for monitoring health.Clinical Significance: Since many oral and systemic conditions manifest themselves as changes in the flow and composition of saliva the dental practitioner is advised to remain up-to-date with the current literature on the subject.Keywords: Saliva, salivary glands, salivary proteins, lysozyme, lactoferrinCitation: de Almeida PDV, Grégio AMT, Machado MÂN, de Lima AAS, Azevedo LR. Saliva Composition andFunctions: A Comprehensive Review. J Contemp Dent Pract 2008 March; (9)3:072-080.AbstractIntroductionSalivary fluid is an exocrine secretion1,2consisting of approximately 99% water, containing a variety of electrolytes (sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, magnesium, bicarbonate, phosphate) and proteins, represented by enzymes, immunoglobulins and other antimicrobial factors, mucosal glycoproteins, traces of albumin and some polypeptides and oligopeptides of importance to oral health. There are also glucose and nitrogenous products, such as urea and ammonia.3,4The components interact and are responsible for the various functions attributed to saliva.2Total or whole saliva refers to the complex mixture of fluids from the salivary glands, the gingival fold, oral mucosa transudate, in addition to mucous of the nasal cavity and pharynx, non-adherent oral bacterial, food remainders, desquamated epithelial and blood cells, as well as traces of medications or chemical products.3-9At rest, without exogenous or pharmacological stimulation, there is a small, continuous salivary flow (SF), denominated basal unstimulated secretion, present in the form of a film that covers, moisturizes, and lubricates the oral tissues. Whereas, stimulated saliva is produced in theface of some mechanical, gustatory, olfactory, or pharmacological stimulus, contributing to around 80% to 90% of daily salivary production.2-4,9-12A healthy person’s mean daily saliva production ranges from 1 to 1.5L.4The SF index is a parameter allowing stimulated and unstimulated saliva flow to be classified as normal, low, orvery low (hyposalivation).8In adults, normal total stimulated SF ranges from 1 to 3 mL/min, low ranges from 0.7 to 1.0 mL/min, while hyposalivation is characterized by a SF of less than 0.7 mL/min. The normal unstimulated SF ranges from 0.25 to 0.35 mL/min, low rangesfrom 0.1 to 0.25 mL/min, while hyposalivationis characterized by a SF of less than 0.1 mL/ min.8,11 However, the values denominated “normal” for stimulated and unstimulated SF exhibit alarge biological variation. Thus, individual SF must be monitored regularly and not determined as “normal” or “abnormal”, based only on one measurement.9,11Saliva is critical for preserving and maintainingthe health of oral tissues and has been used as a source of non-invasive investigation of metabolism and the elimination of many drugs. However, it receives little attention until its quantity diminishes or its quality becomes altered.4,7,11,13At present, saliva represents an increasingly useful auxiliary means of diagnosis.14Many researchers have made use of sialometry and sialochemistry to diagnose systemic illnesses, monitoring general health, and as an indicator of risk for diseases creating a close relation between oral and systemic health.15However, since several factors can influence salivary secretion and composition a strictly standardized collection must be made so the above-mentioned exams are able to reflect the real functioning of the salivary glands and serve as an efficient means for monitoring health. Therefore, the aim of this literature review was to investigate the composition and functionsof saliva as well as describe the factors that influence SF and its biochemical composition. Saliva Functions and CompositionTasteThe SF initially formed inside the acini isisotonic with respect to plasma. However, as it runs through the network of ducts, it becomes hypotonic.6,9,16,17 The hypotonicity of saliva (low levels of glucose, sodium, chloride, and urea)and its capacity to provide the dissolution of substances allows the gustatory buds to perceive different flavors. Gustin, a salivary protein, appears to be necessary for the growth and maturation of these buds.1,4,13,18Buffer CapacitySaliva behaves as a buffer system to protect the mouth 8,19 as follows:1. It prevents colonization by potentiallypathogenic microorganisms by denying them optimization of environmental conditions.2. Saliva buffers (neutralizes) and cleans the acids produced by acidogenicmicroorganisms, thus, preventing enamel demineralization.13It is important to emphasize biofilm thickness, and the number of bacteria present determines the efficacy of salivary buffers.4Negatively loaded residues on the salivary proteins work as buffers. Sialin, a salivary peptide, plays an important role in increasing the biofilm pH after exposure to fermentable carbohydrates.8,13Urea is another buffer present in total salivary fluid which is a product of aminoacid andprotein catabolism that causes a rapid increase in biofilm pH by releasing ammonia and carbon dioxide when hydrolyzed by bacterial ureases.3,5,8,9,24,25 Children with chronic renal insufficiency present with less caries thanhealthy children, due to the increased levels of salivary urea.26Ammonia, a product of urea and aminoacid metabolism, is potentially cytotoxic to gingival tissues. It is an important factor in the initiation of gingivitis because it may increase thepermeability of the sulcular epithelium to other toxic or antigenic substances in addition to theformation of dental calculus.27The carbonic acid-bicarbonate system is the most important buffer in stimulated saliva, while in unstimulated saliva it serves as the phosphate buffer system.8Integrity of Tooth EnamelSaliva plays a fundamental role in maintaining the physical-chemical integrity of tooth enamel by modulating remineralization and demineralization. The main factors controlling the stability of enamel hydroxyapatite are the active concentrations free of calcium, phosphate,and fluoride in solution and the salivary pH.11,28Protection and LubricationSaliva forms a seromucosal covering thatlubricates and protects the oral tissues againstirritating agents.18,19This occurs due to mucins (proteins with high carbohydrate content)responsible for lubrication, protection against dehydration, and maintenance of salivary visco-elasticity. They also selectively modulate the adhesion of microorganisms to the oral tissue surfaces, which contributes to the control ofbacterial and fungal colonization. In addition, they protect these tissues against proteolytic attacks by microorganisms. Mastication, speech, and deglutition are aided by the lubricant effects of these proteins.1,4,8,19-22Dilution and CleaningSugars in their free form are present in total stimulated and unstimulated saliva at a mean concentration of 0.5 to 1 mg/100mL.3,5 Highconcentrations of sugar in saliva mainly occur after the intake of food and drink.3,5It is known there is a correlation between the glucose concentration in the blood and salivary fluid, particularly in diabetics, but because this is not always significant, saliva isnot used as a means of monitoring blood sugar.23In addition to diluting substances, its fluidconsistency provides mechanical cleansing of the residues present in the mouth such as non-adherent bacteria and cellular and food debris. SF tends to eliminate excess carbohydrates, thus,limiting the availability of sugars to the biofilm microorganisms. The greater the SF, the greater the cleaning and diluting capacity; therefore, if changes in health status cause a reduction in SF,there would be a drastic alteration in the level oforal cleaning.8,12,13,18,19Normal salivary pH is from 6 to 7 and varies in accordance with the SF, from 5.3 (low flow) to 7.8 (peak flow). There are various sources of hydrogen ions in oral fluids: secretion by the salivary glands in the form of organic andinorganic acids, production by the oral microbiota, or acquisition through food. These ions influence the equilibrium of calcium phosphates in theenamel. The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions, the lower the pH and vice versa.4,8Athigher flows of stimulated salivary secretion, the concentration of bicarbonate ions is higher, the pH also rises, and the buffering power of the saliva increases dramatically.11DigestionSaliva is responsible for the initial digestion ofstarch, favoring the formation of the food bolus.13,17This action occurs mainly by the presence of the digestive enzyme α-amylase (ptyalin) in the composition of the saliva. Its biological function is to divide the starch into maltose, maltotriose, and dextrins. This enzyme is considered to be a good indicator of properly functioning salivary glands,29contributing 40% to 50% of the total salivary protein produced by the glands. The greater part of this enzyme (80%) is synthesized in the parotids and the remainder in the submandibular glands. Its action is inactivated in the acid portions of the gastrointestinal tract and is consequently limited to the mouth.3,4,8,12,21Tissue RepairA tissue repair function is attributed to saliva since clinically the bleeding time of oral tissues appears to be shorter than other tissues. When saliva is experimentally mixed with blood, the coagulation time can be greatly accelerated (although the resulting clot is less solid than normal).Experimental studies in mice have shown wound contraction is significantly increased in the presence of saliva due to the epidermal growth factor it contains which is produced by the submandibular glands.13Antibacterial Properties and Participation in Film and Calculus FormationSaliva contains a spectrum of immunologic and non-immunologic proteins with antibacterial properties. In addition, some proteins are necessary for inhibiting the spontaneousprecipitation of calcium and phosphate ions inThe high concentrations of calcium and phosphate in saliva guarantee ionic exchanges directed towards the tooth surfaces that begin with tooth eruption resulting in post-eruptive maturation. Remineralization of a carious tooth beforecavitation occurs is possible, mainly due to the availability of calcium and phosphate ions in saliva.8,13,18The concentration of salivary calcium varies with the SF 8,11and is not affected by diet.However, diseases such as cystic fibrosis and some medications such as pilocarpine cause an increase in calcium levels. Depending on the pH, salivary calcium can be ionized or linked. Ionized calcium is important for establishing equilibrium between the calcium phosphates of enamel and its adjacent liquid. Non-ionized calcium can be linked to inorganic ions (inorganic phosphate, bicarbonate, fluoride), to small organic ions (citrate), and to macromolecules (statherin, histidine-rich peptides, and proline-rich proteins).A special case of the combination of calcium is its strong link with α-amilase, where it acts as a co-factor necessary for the enzyme function.8,11Inorganic orthophosphate found in saliva consists of phosphoric acid (H 3PO 4) and primary (H 2PO 4-), secondary (HPO 42-), and tertiary (PO 43-) inorganic phosphate ions. The concentrations of these ions depend on salivary pH and vary in accordance with the SF. As the flow increases, the totalconcentration of inorganic phosphate diminishes.8,11The most important biological function of this ion is to maintain the dental structure. Another function,discussed previously, is its buffer capacity, relevantonly in unstimulated SF.8,11The presence of fluoride in saliva, even at physiologically low levels, is decisive for the stability of dental minerals. Its concentration in total saliva is related to its consumption. It is dependent on the fluoride in the environment, especially in drinking water. Other sources are also important, such as dentifrices and otherproducts used in caries prevention. The presence of fluoride ions in the liquid phase reduces mineral loss during a drop in biofilm pH, as these ions diminish the solubility of dental hydroxyapatite,making it more resistant to demineralization. It has also been demonstrated fluoride reduces theproduction of acids in biofilm.4,8,11,28structure lubrication, and it is probable both are important in the formation of acquired film.Another function proposed for the proline-rich proteins is the capacity to selectively mediate bacterial adhesion to tooth surfaces.3,4,8,22The cystatins are also related to acquired film formation and to hydroxyapatite crystal equilibrium. Due to its proteinase inhibitingproperties, it is surmised they act in controlling proteolytic activity.3,4,8,22,31The histatins, a family of histidine-richpeptides,22have antimicrobial activity against some strains of Streptococcus mutans 32s and inhibit hemoagglutination of the periopathogenPorphyromonas gingivallis .33They neutralize the lipopolysaccharides of the external membranes ofGram-negative bacteria 34and are potent inhibitors of Candida albicans growth and development.s 35The bactericidal and fungicidal effects occur through the union of positively loaded histatins with the biological membranes resulting in the destruction of their architecture and altering their permeability. Other functions attributed to these peptides are: participation in acquired film formation and inhibition of histamine release by the mastocytes, suggesting a role in oral inflammation.21Salivary agglutinin, a highly glycosylated protein frequently associated with other salivary proteins and with secretory IgA, is one of the main salivary components responsible for bacteria agglutination.22Factors Influencing Salivary Flow and CompositionSeveral factors may influence SF and its composition. As a result, these vary greatly among individuals and in the same individual under different circumstances.3,5,9,10,36Individual Hydration The degree of individual hydration is the most important factor that interferes in salivarysecretion.10When the body water content is reduced by 8%, SF virtually diminishes to zero, whereas hyperhydrationcauses an increase in SF.9During dehydration,the salivary glands and in their secretions. Both the acquired film and the biofilm have proteins derived from saliva.3,11Secretory immunoglobulin A (IgA) is the largest immunologic component of saliva. It canneutralize viruses, bacterial, and enzyme toxins. It serves as an antibody for bacterial antigens and is able to aggregate bacteria, inhibiting their adherence to oral tissues.4,11,13,21 Otherimmunologic components, such as IgG and IgM,occur in less quantity and probably originate from gingival fluid.3,4Among the non-immunologic salivary protein components, there are enzymes (lysozyme,lactoferrin, and peroxidase), mucin glycoproteins,agglutinins, histatins, proline-rich proteins,statherins, and cystatins.11,21Lysozyme can hydrolyze the cellular wall of some bacteria, and because it is strongly cationic, it can activate the bacterial “autolisines” which are able to destroy bacterial cell wall components.Gram-negative bacteria are more resistant to this enzyme due to the protective function of their external lipopolysaccharide layer. Otherantibacterial mechanisms have been proposed for this enzyme, such as aggregation and inhibition of bacterial adherence.3,4,8,21,22Lactoferrin links to free iron in the saliva causing bactericidal or bacteriostatic effects on various microorganisms requiring iron for their survival such as the Streptococcus mutans group.s Lactoferrin also provides fungicidal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatoryfunctions.3,4,8,22,30Peroxidase or sialoperoxidase offers antimicrobial activity because it serves as a catalyst for the oxidation of the salivary thiocyanate ion by hydrogen peroxide into hypothiocyanate, apotent antibacterial substance. As a result of its consumption, proteins and cells are protected from the toxic and oxidant effects of hydrogen peroxide.3,4,8,22The proline-rich proteins and statherins inhibit the spontaneous precipitation of calcium phosphate salts and the growth of hydroxyapatite crystals on the tooth surface, preventing the formation of salivary and dental calculus. They favor oralsaliva in the floor of the mouth between swallows. Some researchers observed a small increase in SF in the face of visual stimuli, while others observed no effect whatever.9Regular Stimulation of Salivary FlowAlthough there is evidence regular stimulation of SF with the use of chewing gum leads to an increase in stimulated SF, further studies are required to explain whether this stimulation increases unstimulated SF.9Size of Salivary Glands and Body WeightStimulated SF is directly related to the size of the salivary gland, contrary to unstimulated SF whichdoes not depend on its size.9Unstimulated SF appears to be independent of body weight;10on the other hand, obese boys present significantly lower salivary amylase concentration in comparison with controls.44Salivary Flow IndexThe main factor affecting salivary composition is the flow index 8,9 which varies in accordance with the type, intensity, and duration of the stimulus.5,12,17As the SF increases, theconcentrations of total protein, sodium, calcium, chloride, and bicarbonate as well as the pH increases to various levels, whereas the concentrations of inorganic phosphate and magnesium diminish.3,8Mechanical or chemical stimulus is associated with increased salivary secretion. The action of chewing something tasteless itself stimulates salivation but to a lesser degree than the tastystimulation caused by citric acid.9Acid substancesare considered potent gustatory stimuli.10Contributions of Different Salivary Glands Other factors that influence total salivary composition are the relative contribution of the different salivary glands and the type ofsecretion.5,9The percentage of contribution by the glands during unstimulated SF is as follows:• 20% by the parotid glands • 65%-70% submandibular glands • 7% to 8% sublingual glands • <10% by the minor salivary glands When SF is stimulated, there is an alteration in the percentage of contribution of each gland withthe salivary glands cease secretion to conserve water.37Body Posture, Lighting, and SmokingSF varies in accordance with body posture, lighting conditions, and smoking. Patients kept standing up or lying down present higher and lower SF,respectively, than seated patients. There is adecrease of 30% to 40% in SF of people that are blindfolded or in the dark. However, the flow is not less in blind people, when compared with people with normal vision. This suggests that blind people adapt to the lack of light that enters through the eyes. Olfactive stimulation and smoking cause a temporary increase in unstimulated SF.9 Men that smoke present significantly higher stimulatedSF than non-smoking men.38The irritating effectof tobacco increases glandular excretion,39and nicotine causes severe morphologic and functional alterations in the salivary glands.40The Circadian and Circannual CycleSF attains its peak at the end of the afternoon but goes down to almost zero during sleep.Salivary composition is not constant and is related to the Circadian cycle.4,41 The concentration of total proteins attains its peak at the end of the afternoon, while the peak production levels of sodium and chloride occur at the beginning of the morning.9According to Edgar,9the circannual rhythm also influences salivary secretion. In the summer lower volumes of salivary flows from the parotid gland,while in the winter there are peak volumes of secretion. However, these data were obtained in the state of Texas in the southern United States and the reduction in SF may be associated with dehydration that occurs because of the hot weather.MedicationsMany classes of drugs, particularly those that have anticholinergic action (antidepressants,anxiolytics, antipsychotics, antihistaminics, and antihypertensives), may cause reduction in SF and alter its composition.9,18,42,43Thinking of Food and Visual Stimulation Thinking of food or looking at food are weak salivation stimuli in humans. It may seem thatpeople salivate simply because of thinking of food, but in reality they become more conscious of theis high.2 Alterations in the psycho-emotional state may alter the biochemical composition of saliva. Depression is accompanied by diminished salivary proteins.48Nutritional deficiencies may also influence salivary function and composition.4,11Fasting and NauseaAlthough short-term fasting reduces SF it does not lead to hyposalivation, and the flow isrestored to normal values immediately after the fasting period ends.11Stimulated SF increases when preceded by gustatory stimulation in less than one hour before saliva collection.49 Saliva secretion increases before and during vomiting.9AgeDespite numerous studies on salivary secretion the effect of aging on SF remains obscure due to conflicting observations in the literature leaving little information available regarding SF in healthy elderly persons.50Histologic analyses have demonstrated with advancing age the parenchyma of the salivary glands is gradually replaced by adipose and fibrovascular tissue, and the volume of the acini is reduced.51,52 However, functional studies among healthy individuals indicate aging itself does not necessarily lead to diminished glandular capacity to produce saliva.19Navazesh et al.53 found the total unstimulated SF is significantly lower in healthy patients between the ages of 65 and 83 years, in comparison with patients between the ages of 18 and 35 years.However, total stimulated SF was significantly higher in the elderly in comparison with the younger persons.Percival et al.50 also found the total unstimulated SF is related to age, being significantly reduced in healthy non-medicated elderly persons aged 80 years or older. However, no age-related reductions in stimulated SF from the parotid were detected. It is suggested the elderly do not present dysfunctions in the ability to respond to sialogogues, however, the reduction in unstimulated SF could contribute to the appearance of diseases in the oral mucosa.Lima et al.54demonstrated elderly persons presented a very low daily saliva production,the parotids contributing over 50% of the totalsalivary secretion.3,4,11,12,45The salivary secretions may be serous,mucous, or mixed. Serous secretions, produced mainly by the parotids, are rich in ions andenzymes. Mucous secretions are rich in mucins (glycoproteins) and present little or no enzymatic activity. They are produced mainly by thesmaller glands. In the mixed glands, such as the submandibular and sublingual glands, the salivary content depends on the proportion between the serous and mucous cells.2,8,13,17Physical ExercisePhysical exercise can alter secretion and induces changes in various salivary components, such as: immunoglobulins, hormones, lactate, proteins, and electrolytes.46,47 In addition to the determined intensity of the exercise, there is a clear rise in salivary levels of α-amilase and electrolytes (especially Na +).46 During physical activities sympathetic stimulation appears to be strongenough to diminish or inhibit salivary secretion.47AlcoholThe intake of a single high dose of ethanol causes a significant reduction of stimulated SF. This diminishment results from the altered release of total proteins and amylase as well as in diminished release of electrolytes.29Rats exposed to ethanol for a prolonged period showed significant reduction in salivary secretion and diminished release of proteins.40Systemic Diseases and NutritionIn some chronic diseases such as: pancreatitis,diabetes mellitus, renal insufficiency, anorexia, bulimia, and celiac disease, the amylase levelparotid when compared with men. Whereas,Shern et al.57 reported the total unstimulated SF was not influenced by gender.ConclusionSince several factors can influence salivary secretion and composition a precise standard for saliva collection must be established. Such a standard would make the test results obtained through sialometry and/or sialochemistry more helpful in characterizing the true functional state of the salivary glands which in turn would serve as indicators for a diagnosis when oral and/or systemic alterations are suspected.Clinical SignificanceSince many oral and systemic conditionsmanifest themselves as changes in the flow and composition of saliva the dental practitioner is advised to remain up-to-date with the current literature on the subject.and this appears to be more related to systemic diseases and the continuous use of medications than to aging.GenderThe differences in salivary secretion between men and women have been attributed to two theories: women present smaller salivaryglands in comparison with men and the female hormonal pattern may contribute to diminished salivary secretion.50 However, menopause and hormone replacement therapy are not associated with salivary dysfunction of the parotid.55 There were no significant differences with regard to SF between healthy pre- and post-menopausal women and between post-menopausal women under hormonal treatment and women that didnot receive treatment.56Percival et al.50 found healthy, non-medicated women presented a lower mean for total unstimulated SF and for stimulated SF of theReferences1. Berkovitz BKB, Holland GR, Moxham BJ. Oral anatomy, histology and embryology. 3rd ed. NewYork: Mosby; 2002.2. Ferraris MEG, Munõz AC. Histologia e embriologia bucodental. 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro: GuanabaraKoogan; 2006.3. Edgar WM. Saliva: its secretion, composition and functions. Br Dent J. 1992;172:305-312.4. Humphrey SP , Williamson RT. A review of saliva: normal composition, flow, and function. J ProsthetDent. 2001;85:162-169.5. Jenkins GN. The physiologic and biochemistry of the mouth. 4th. ed. Oxford: Blackwell ScientificPublications; 1978.6. Washington N, Washington C, Wilson CG. Physiological pharmaceutics: barriers to drug absorption.London: CRC Press; 2000.7. Tabak LA. A revolution in biomedical assessment: the development of salivary diagnostics. J DentEduc. 2001;65:1335-1339.8. Tenovuo J, Lagerlöf F. Saliva. In: Thylstrup A, Fejerskov O. Textbook of clinical cariology. 2nd ed.Copenhagen: Munksgaard; 1994.9. Edgar M, Dawes C, O’Mullane D. Saliva and oral health. 3rd ed. London: BDJ Books; 2004.10. Dawes C. Physiological factors affecting salivary flow rate, oral sugar clearance, and the sensationof dry mouth in man. J Dent Res. 1987;66:648-653.11. Axelsson P . Diagnosis and risk prediction of dental caries. v. 2. Illinois: Quintessence books; 2000.12. Douglas CR. Tratado de fisiologia aplicada à saúde. 5. ed. São Paulo: Robe Editorial; 2002.13. Ten Cate AR. Oral histology: development, structure and function. 5th ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 1998.14. Malamud D. Salivary diagnostics: the future is now. J Am Dent Assoc. 2006;137:284-286.15. González LFA, Sánches MCR. La saliva: revisión sobre composición, función y usos diagnósticos:primera parte. Univ Odontol. 2003;23:18-24.16. Turner RJ, Sugiya H. Understanding salivary fluid and protein secretion. Oral Dis. 2002;8:3-11.17. Costanzo LS. Fisiologia. 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier; 2004.18. Stack KM, Papas AS. Xerostomia: etiology and clinical management. Nutr Clin Care. 2001;4:15-21.19. Nagler RM. Salivary glands and the aging process: mechanistic aspects, health-status andmedicinal-efficacy monitoring. Biogerontology. 2004;5:223-33.。

The influence 食品营养学(全英语)

The Influence of Smoking on Vitamin C Status in Adults
GORDON SCHECTMAN, MD, JAMES C. BYRD, MD, AND HARVEY W. GRUCHOW, PHD
Abstract: To further define the relation between smoking and3 ,iLmol/L, 95% CI: 63.0, 67.0,
respectively). This inverse association between both intake and serum levels of vitamin C and smoking was independent of age, sex, body weight, race, and alcoholic beverage consumption. Following further adjustment for dietary vitamin C intake, the negative correlation between cigarette smoking and serum vitamin C levels persisted. The risk of severe hypovitaminosis C (serum levels < 0.2 mg/dl; 11.4 ,umol/L) was increased in smokers, particularly when not accompanied by vitamin supplementation (odds ratio 3.0, 95% CI: 2.5, 3.6). These data suggest that even though smoking adversely affects preferences for vitamin C rich foods, the inverse association