英语语言学笔记
英语语言学笔记(3)
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三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进⾏学习。
语素:语⾔最⼩的意义单位 语素的类型 复合词的类型 复合词的特征 Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. 形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则,有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两⼤分⽀。
Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language. 语素:语⾔最⼩的意义单位。
Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent) ⾃由语素可以作为单词独⽴使⽤。
Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. 粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词 Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) root (2)Affix(词缀) 1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀)(inflectional morphemes): affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional 2)Derivational affixes(派⽣词缀) A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix An adjective suffix(形容词后缀) that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective. free=free root(⾃由词根) Morpheme(词素) Bound root prefix bound derivational affix suffix inflectional Root and stem(词根和词⼲) 1) Root 2) Stem The differences between root and stem: A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root. Individualistic Undesirables Individualist (stem) undesirable (stem) Individual (stem) desirable (stem) dividual (stem) desire (root, stem) divide(root, stem) Affixation词缀法(Derivation派⽣法):adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem. Prefixation前缀@:It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems. 1)'表⽰否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc. 2)''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc. 3)'表⽰贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc. 4)'表⽰程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc. 5)'表⽰⽅向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc. 6)locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc. 7)'表⽰时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. 8)'表⽰数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc. 9)'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes:auto-, neo-, pan-, vice- Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems. 1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes Compounding复合法(also called composition) Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems Formation of compounds Noun + noun(名词+名词) —— handbook, sunshine Adjective + noun(形容词+名词)——highway, deadline Adjective + noun + -ed(形容词+名词+ed)——white-haired, red-eyed Verb + noun(动词+名词)——driveway, breakwater(挡⽔板) Adverb + noun(副词+名词)——downtown, overburden Noun + verb(名词+动词)——toothpick, snowfall Verb + adverb(动词+副词)——follow-up, kick-off Noun + adjective(名词+形容词)——world-famous, lifelong -ing form + noun(ing+名词)——baking power, dining-room other forms(其他)——go-between, father-in-law Features of compounds复合词的特征 1.Orthographically书写特征 (Compounds are written in three ways: solid(airmail) hyphenated(air-conditioning) open(air force, air raid) 2.Syntactically句法特征(复合词的词性⼀般取决于复合词最后⼀个成分的词性) 3.Semantically语义特征(复合词的意义具有习语性质,许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和) 4.Phonetically语⾳特征(复合词的单词重⾳落在第⼀个构成成分上)。
英语语言学笔记
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3
语音学
语音(Phonetics)
研究语言的发音机制、音素(音位)的发音特征和分布规律。
/b/、/t/、/d/等辅音音素的发音方式。
4
音位(Phoneme)
语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。
在英语中,“bit”和“bet”因音位/ɪ/和/ɛ/的不同而意义不同。
5
音系学
音系(Phonology)
研究语言中音素的组合规则和模式,以及这些规则如何影响语言的意义。
英语中的重音和节奏模式对单词和句子的意义有影响。
6
语法学
语法(Grammar)
描述语言中单词、短语和句子如何组合成有意义的结构的规则系统。
句子“The cat sat on the mat.”遵循英语语法规则。
英语语言学笔记
序号
主题/子主题
关键概念/术语
定义/解释
示例/应用
备注
1
语言学基础
语言学(guistics)
研究语言的科学,包括语言的结构、功能、演变以及语言在社会中的应用。
语言学家研究不同语言的语音、语法、词汇等。
2
语言(Language)
人类特有的、用于沟通的一套符号系统,包括口语、书面语和手势语等。
研究语言中的词汇、短语和句子如何表达意义。
单词“happy”的意义是“快乐的”。
10
语用学
语用(Pragmatics)
研究语言如何在特定情境中使用,以及语言使用者的意图、背景和互动如何影响语言的意义。
“It’s cold in here.”可能不仅仅是描述温度,还可能暗示要求关窗或开暖气。
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社会语言学
社会语言学(Sociolinguistics)
英语语言学笔记
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英语语言学笔记最牛英语口语培训模式:躺在家里练口语,全程外教一对一,三个月畅谈无阻!太平洋英语,免费体验全部外教一对一课程: What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言,而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive:a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users‟ knowledge of the rules of his langu age Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Characteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quo tation from Shakespeare‟s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”)Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音,这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
英语语言学笔记16页
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英语语言学笔记16页第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of language①Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)②Duality(二层性):The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Productivity/creativity(创造性):Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.④Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3.Functions of language①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)② Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥ Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptiveSynchronic & diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performance6.Descriptive(描写/述性)—describe and analyze linguistic facts or the language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive(规定性)—lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar: “never use a double negative”)7.Synchronic study (共时)—description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)Diachronic study (历时)—description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)第四章1.What is Syntax (句法)?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Four Approaches :The traditional approach传统语言观(Parts of speech、Syntactic Function不考、Category范畴、Concord and government一致关系和支配关系)、The structural approach结构语言观、The generative approach、The functional approach功能语言观3.The traditional grammar regards sentences as a sequence of words , so it pays great attention to the study of words, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of function of words in terms of subject, predicate , etc.4. Parts of speechTraditional grammar defines 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.5.The term Category范畴in some approaches refers to word classes and functions in its narrow sense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能eg. Noun, Verb, Subject, Predicate. More specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units:the categories of the noun名词的范畴, include number, gender, case and countability(case);the categories of the verb动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6.Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun名词和不可数名词.Two terms of number in nouns: singular and plural单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中,格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative主格, accusative受格, and genitive与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive所有格In English, the case of noun is realised in three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present. Since the future time does not involve any inflection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed.Perfective(完成体)and Imperfective(进行体)Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. Voice语态: describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive被动语态and active主动语态12. Concord and government①Concord (一致关系) refers to agreement between words, especially between a verband the subject of a sentence.②Government (支配关系) is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more elements in a sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nounsor between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach ,由Ferdinand de Saussure提出14.Syntactic Relations:Positional relations位置关系、Relations of substitutability替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence 同现关系15.Immediate constituent (直接成分) is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction (向心结构) is a construction that contains:1) a head, which is the single obligatory element in theconstruction;2) one or more optional elements subordinate to the head.17.them e(主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listenerRheme (述位) refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listener The linguists of the Prague school believed that sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.subject, predicate (grammatical side)theme, rheme (functional side)第五章1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义(②——⑥)⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning (概念意义) is also called “denotative”(外延义)and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义,它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meaningsa person thinks of when they hear the word Associative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Referential Theory(指称理论):① The Referential Theory②The Semantic Triangle③ Sense and Reference7.The referential theory 指称理论is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论。
英语语言学笔记
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英语语言学笔记Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究,对于一个学习英语的人来说,应该懂一点语言学的知识,它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用,有助于更好的学习语言。
The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentExaminationReference Books戴炜栋,何兆熊,(2002),《新编简明英语语言学教程》,上海外语教育出版社。
胡壮麟,(2001),《语言学教程》,北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟,李战子,《语言学简明教程》,北京大学出版社刘润清,(1995),《西方语言学流派》,外语教学与研究出版社。
Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writi ng (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g.Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLan guage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo. The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort –lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.Functions of language – three meta-functions by HallidayThe ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information.The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community.The textual functionTo form a text.Functions of languagePhatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.Directive: get the hearer to do something.Informative: give information about facts.Interrogative: get information from others.Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please) Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used forhuman communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention. V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed theirwriting systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ?new‘. In one exper iment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sentoff to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. Theyflow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cann ot create a ?new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④A linguistic theory is cons tructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studiesthe characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔)early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentratesprimarily on what speakers do with languagewhich led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In H alliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖ and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the publication of F. d e Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language./doc/4215996376.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics./doc/4215996376.html,nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondary34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BChapter 2 PhonologyLanguage is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Phonetics----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Three branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics----from the speakers‘ point of view, ―how speakers produce speech sounds‖the production of speech sounds. It is of our major concernAuditory phonetics----from the hearers‘ point ofview, ―how sounds are perceived‖the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.the physical properties of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the three cavities?Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.Transcription of speech soundsA standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Broad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, e.g. ], [ pit ] ?clear [ Narrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ]Some major articulatory variables ---- dimensions on which speech sounds may vary:V oicing---- voiced & voiceless (Two consonants sharing the same place and manner of articulation become a pair, which is distinguished by voiceless or voiced. )Nasality ---- nasal & non-nasalAspiration ----- aspirated & unaspiratedClassification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories: Vowels and ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the airstream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.Classification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:The manner of articulationThe place of articulationThe manner of articulationstops/plosives: [p],? , [t], [d], [k], [g];],?], [v], [s], [z], [? fricatives: [? ], [h];?], [?], [?[];??], [?? affricates: [?liquids:? ];?[l](lateral), [];?], [?], [? nasals: [?].?glides/semivowels: [w], [The place of articulationbilabial: [p], ], [w];?, [], [v];?? labiodental: [ ?];?], [? dental: [alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l],? [r];];??], [ ??], [??], [?], [? palatal: [?velar: [k],? ?];?[g], [glottal: [h].?The place of articulation1. Bilabial;2. Labiodental;3. Dental or interdental;4. Alveolar;5. Palatoalveolar;6. Palatal;7. Velar;8. Uvular;9. Glottal.The description of English consonants Page 20 (textbook)Classification of vowelsDifferent vowels are determined by the position of the tongue and the relative opening of the lips.The criteria of vowel description1. the part of the tongue that is raised---front, center or back2. the opening of the mouth----close, semi-close, semi-open, open3. the shape of the lips---rounded, unrounded4. the length of the sound---tense, lax (紧,松)Monophthongs or pure/single vowels?Diphthongs or gliding vowelsMonophthongs or pure/single vowels----According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as: front? ?]?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??vowels: [],?], [?? central vowels: [? ];?[].??], [?], [??], [?], [?? back vowels: [?According to the openness of the mouth].?], [??], [?], [?? Close: [?];??], [?Semi-close: [];?], [? Semi-open: [?],? Open: [? ];?], [??], [?], [?[According to the shape of the lips or the degree of lip rounding ];?], [??], [?], [?? rounded: [?].??], [?], [?], [??], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [??unrounded: [According to the length of the vowels],??], [?? long: [? ]??], [??], [??[],?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [?], [? short: [? ].?[Diphthongs/gliding vowels?],??], [??], [?? [? ].??], [??], [??], [??], [??[Exercises: underline the words that begin with a sound as required.A bilabial consonant: mad sad bad cad pad? had ladA velar consonant: nod god cod pod rod?Labiodental consonant: rat fat sat mat chat vat patAn alveolar? consonant: nick lick sick tick kick quickA palato-alveolar? consonant: sip ship tip chip lip zipA dental consonant: lie buy? thigh thy tie ryeA glide: one war yolk rush?Underline the words that end with a sound as required:A fricative?pay horse tough rice breath push sing wreathe hang cave messageA nasal?train bang leaf limbA stop?drill pipe fit crab fog ride laugh rack through tipAn affricate: rack such ridge booze?Underline the words that contain the sound as required:A central vowel:?mad lot but boot wordA front vowel:?reed pad load fate bit bed cookA rounded vowel:?who he bus her hit true boss bar walkA back vowel:?paid reap fool top good fatherDescribe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions:vd/vl place mannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobberEitherPhonologyPhonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different inperspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Phonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phonemePhoneA phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The? speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‘t, e.g. t ]??[ b & t]?t ], [sp?[ b & t].?[spPhonemeA? phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently t].?p] and [sp?t], [t?in [pAllophoneAllophones ---- the phones? that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.Phonemic? contrast----different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g. t].?t ] and [p? /b/ and /p/ in [ b Complementary? distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g.dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p].Minimal pairMinimal pair----when two different forms? are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g.beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.Some rules of phonologySequential rules?Assimilation ruleDeletion rule?Sequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sound s in a particular language, e.g. in English, ―k b i I‖ might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.。
英语语言学笔记第四章
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句法(syntax)这个单词,来自希腊语,由两个语素构成:﹛syn﹜和﹛tax﹜。
﹛syn﹜的意思是"一起、共同",﹛tax﹜的意思是"安排、排列",因此syntax本来是"排列在一起"或"组合"的意思。
在语言学上,它是指研究语言中词组合成句子的支配规则,或者简单地说,是研究句子的构造。
因为通常认为句子是语言中最大的语法单位,所以句法长期以来是语法研究的核心。
不同的语言学理论首先体现在对句子结构的不同处理上。
这一章我们将介绍一些有代表性的句法学派。
4.1 传统学派传统认为句子是词的序列。
因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究,例如,词类是对词进行的分类,主语、谓语是对词功能的描写,等等。
这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。
但是"范畴"这个术语,更专门用于表示像名词、动词这些单位的特性。
例如:常说名词有数、性、格的范畴,动词有时、体、态的范畴。
在这里,我们将简要地讨论以上一些范畴。
名词、动词、形容词等形式在有关范畴中的相互关系将在"一致关系和支配关系"中讨论。
4.1.1 数、性、格4.1.2 时和体4.1.3 一致关系和支配关系4.1.1 数、性、格数(number),主要是名词和代词的范畴,如:a book(一本书);some books(一些书);I(我),we(我们);he(他),they(他们)。
英语动词也反映了数的范畴,如:He speaks English.(他说英语);They speak English.(他们说英语)。
在法语等语言中,形容词和冠词也有数的变化,如:le cheval royal,les chevaux royaux。
数一般有两种:单数和复数。
但是在古希腊语、阿拉伯语等语言中,还有第三种数:双数,类似于英语中的both(双方,两者)。
斐济群岛语还有第四种数:三数。
英语专业笔记(语言学,原创)
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LinguisticsChapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics●What is language?⏹Different definitions of language◆Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in theirsynchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)◆[Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in lengthand constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)◆Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarilyproduced symbols.⏹Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence oflanguage, but all of them have left out something. We must see themulti-faceted nature of language.⏹As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as asystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.●Features of human language⏹Creativity◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding brand new messages.◆The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences areinfinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.⏹Duality◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings.◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequencesof speech sounds.⏹Arbitrariness◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.⏹Displacement◆There is no limit in time or space for language.◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture.⏹Cultural transmission◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.⏹Interchangeability◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.⏹Reflexivity◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.●Functions of language – three meta-functions⏹The ideational function◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.⏹The interpersonal function◆To get along in a community.⏹The textual function◆To form a text.●Types of language⏹Genetic classification⏹Typological classification◆Analytic language –no inflections or formal changes, grammaticalrelationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese andVietnamese◆Synthetic language –grammatical relationships are expressed bychanging the internal structure of the words, typically by changing theinflectional endings, such as English and German◆Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units,with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such asJapanese and Turkish●The myth of language – language origin⏹The Biblical account◆Language was God’s gift to human beings.⏹The bow-wow theory◆Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries ofanimals, like quack, cuckoo.⏹The pooh-pooh theory◆Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain orjoy.⏹The yo-he-ho theory◆Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged injoint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.⏹The evolution theory◆Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call ofsocial need.●What is linguistics?⏹Linguistics is the scientific study of language.◆Observing & questioning◆Formulating hypotheses◆V erifying the hypotheses◆Proposing a theory⏹Branches of linguistics◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions●Phonetics●Phonology●Morphology●Syntax●Semantics◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions●Pragmatics●Psycholinguistics●Sociolinguistics●Applied linguistics●Computational linguistics●Neurolinguistics⏹Features of linguistics◆Descriptive◆Dealing with spoken language◆SynchronicChapter 2 Phonetics●What is phonetics?⏹Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.⏹Sub-branches of phonetics◆Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds◆Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds◆Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds●The speech organs⏹Where does the air stream come from?◆From the lung⏹What is the function of vocal cords?◆Controlling the air stream⏹What are the cavities?◆Oral cavity◆Pharyngeal cavity◆Nasal cavity●Transcription of speech sounds⏹Units of representation◆Segments (the individual sounds)⏹Phonetic symbols◆The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds isthe International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).◆The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a singlesymbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguishphonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.◆In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may betranscribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to markthe finer distinctions.●Description of speech sounds⏹Description of English consonants◆General feature: obstruction◆Criteria of consonant description●Places of articulation●Manners of articulation●V oicing of articulation◆Places of articulation●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified toproduce a sound.⏹Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]⏹Labiodental: [f] [v]⏹Interdental: [ ] [❆]⏹Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]⏹Palatal: [☞] [✞] [t☞] [d✞] [j]⏹V elar: [k] [g] [☠]⏹Glottal: [h]◆Manners of articulation●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it iscompletely blocked or partially obstructed.⏹Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]⏹Fricatives: [s] [z] [☞] [✞] [f] [v] [ ] [❆] [h]⏹Affricates: [t☞] [d✞]⏹Liquids: [l] [r]⏹Glides: [w] [j]⏹Nasals: [m] [n] [☠]◆V oicing of articulation●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds areproduced.⏹V oiced sounds⏹V oiceless sounds⏹Description of English vowels◆General feature: without obstruction◆Criteria of vowel description●Part of the tongue that is raised⏹Front⏹Central⏹Back●Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate⏹High⏹Mid⏹Low●Kind of opening made at the lips●Position of the soft palate◆Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs●Phonetic features and natural classes⏹Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.⏹Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowelboundary.⏹Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations ofsounds can be analyzed.Chapter 3 Phonology●What is phonology?⏹Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.⏹Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which areconcerned with the study of speech sounds.⏹Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.◆What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning ina particular language?◆What sounds vary in what ways in what context?◆What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?●Phonemes and allophones⏹ A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.⏹The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.⏹We use allophones to realize phonemes.●Discovering phonemes⏹Contrastive distribution – phonemes◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be incontrastive distribution.◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs andminimal sets.● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one soundin the same position.●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by onesegment in the same position.◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels representedby the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.Therefore, they are separate phonemes.⏹Complementary distribution – allophones◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be incomplementary distribution.◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number offeatures, they are allophones of the same phoneme.⏹Free variation◆If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution doesnot result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.●Distinctive and non-distinctive features⏹Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and featuresdo not, non-distinctive features.⏹Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.●Phonological rules⏹Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones arethe actual pronunciations in speech.⏹What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context isanother major question in phonology.⏹The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context aregeneralized and stated in phonology as rules.⏹There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following o nes asexamples.●[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_●[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_●Syllable structure⏹ A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.⏹Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.⏹The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onsetand followed by one or more consonants called the coda.●Sequence of phonemes⏹Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be puttogether.⏹Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences arecalled systematic gaps.⏹Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.⏹When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but theywill never fill systematic gaps.●Suprasegmental features⏹Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called suprasegmental features.⏹These features are distinctive features.⏹Stress◆Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements overothers in a word.◆Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or moresyllables have stress.◆If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and asecondary stress.◆In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. InEnglish, word stress is unpredictable.⏹Intonation◆When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.◆Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.◆The same sentence uttered with different intonation may expressdifferent attitude of the speaker.◆In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.⏹Tone◆Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.◆The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered withdifferent tones.◆Chinese is a typical tone language.Chapter 4 Morphology●What is morphology?⏹The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.⏹Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds withmeaning.⏹Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and theformation of words.●Morphemes and allomorphs⏹The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.⏹ A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.⏹“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletives◆Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly,some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In thesetwo cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among whichthere is one “zero form” of a morpheme.◆Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In thiscase, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not relatedin form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are calledsuppletives.●Free and bound morphemes⏹Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes arecalled free morphemes.⏹Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. Theyare always attached to free morphemes to form new words. Thesemorphemes are called bound morphemes.⏹The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme iswhether it can be used independently in speech or writing.⏹Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are theaffixes (prefixes and suffixes).●Inflexional and derivational morphemes⏹Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number ofnouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.⏹Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms toconstruct new words.◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted intoother morphemes.◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words iscalled derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes◆Bound morphemes●Inflexional●Derivational: affixes⏹Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s⏹Suffixes●Formation of new words⏹Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create aderived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes tothe word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a differentlanguage origin.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.⏹Compounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is thecombination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words fromthe three classes –nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the threeclasses.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech ofthe word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of thecomponents.⏹Conversion◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class intoanother class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.⏹Clipping◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting oneor more syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informaloccasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even informal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarelyused in their complete form.⏹Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfastand lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word inthe textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind ofmachine that is like both a plane and a bike).⏹Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a realor supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed fromtelevision. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefixtele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in theword television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.⏹Acronyms and abbreviations◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initialletters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer thanabbreviations, which are read letter by letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations andscientific terminology.⏹Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals orplaces. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originatingfrom the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slicesof bread so that he could eat while gambling.⏹Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existingmorphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases whereindustry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak andCoca-cola.Chapter 5 Syntax●What is syntax?⏹The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literallymeans “arrangement” or “setting out together”.⏹Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways inwhich words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to showconnexions of meaning within the sentence.⏹Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences.●What is a sentence?⏹Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence ofwords arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.⏹ A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of alanguage know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and whatare ungrammatical.●Knowledge of sentence structure⏹Structural ambiguity◆Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have morethan one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would comeyesterday can be interpreted in different ways.⏹Word order◆Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. Forexample, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom lovesMary or Mary loves Tom.⏹Grammatical relations◆Native speakers know what element relates to what other elementdirectly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough andWe don’t have enough boats, the word enough is related to differentwords in the two sentences.⏹Recursion◆The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. Forexample, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you arehappy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy.⏹Sentence relatedness◆Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.⏹Syntactic categories◆ A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute forone another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider thefollowing sentences:●The child found the knife.● A policeman found the knife.●The man who just left here found the knife.●He found the knife.◆All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called nounphrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject.The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.●Traditional grammar⏹In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words whichare classified into parts of speech.⏹Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects,objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, …⏹Compulsory elements of a sentence: subject, verb, object, complement,adverbial…⏹Nouns: number, case, gender…⏹V erbs: tense, aspect, voice…⏹Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative degrees⏹Agreement in number/person/gender⏹Parsing: trying to make detailed analysis in structure●Structural grammar⏹Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditionalgrammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units.In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independentgrammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.⏹Form class◆Form class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar.◆Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in thesame form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every,etc. can beplaced before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into oneform class.◆These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution.⏹Immediate constituent (IC) analysis◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of thesentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Eachsection is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cutinto constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituentanalysis.◆Examples:●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but alsovertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity andthe hierarchy of sentence structure.●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.◆Two advantages of IC analysis:●It can analyze some ambiguities.●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar⏹Background and the goal of TG grammar◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.●Adequacy of observation●Adequacy of description●Adequacy of explanation◆Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules –phrasestructure rules and transformation rules –which are followed byspeakers of the language.◆TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.⏹Syntactic categories◆Noun Phrase (NP)◆V erb Phrase (VP)◆Sentence (S)◆Determiner (Det)◆Adjective (Adj)◆Pronoun (Pro)◆V erb (V)◆Auxiliary V erb (Aux)◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)◆Adverb (Adv)⏹Phrase structure (PS) rules◆S → NP VP(Det) (Adj) N◆NP →{Pro◆VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)◆PP → P NP⏹Tree diagrams (omit)⏹Recursion and the infinitude of language◆S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NPand PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on bothsides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive.Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structurecan grow endlessly.⏹Sub-categorization of the lexicon.◆The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smallerclasses according to their syntactic characteristics is calledsub-categorization.⏹Transformational rules (T-rules)◆Particle movement T-rule●John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.◆Replacement T-rule●John beat Tom. He beat Tom.●The house needs repairing (to be repaired).◆Insertion T-rule● A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in thepond.◆Deletion T-rule●They came in and (they) sat down.◆Copying T-rule●He is coming, isn’t he?●He has finished his homework, hasn’t he?◆Reflexivization T-rule●I wash me (myself).⏹TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.●Systematic-functional grammar⏹Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar◆M. A. K. Halliday●Language is a system of meaning potential and a network ofmeaning as choices.●Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realizedthrough forms.●The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function andmeaning are realized through forms.●The three meta-functions of language⏹Ideational function⏹Interpersonal function⏹Textual function⏹The transitivity system of language◆Elements●Process●Participants●Circumstances◆Categorization of reality●Doing – material process⏹Processes involving physical actions: walking, running,throwing, kicking, wrapping, etc.⏹Actor, goal and circumstance●Being – relational process⏹Processes representing a relation being set up between twoseparate entities.⏹Be (identifying), have (attributive)⏹Carrier/possessor and attribute/possessed●Sensing – mental process⏹Processes of sensing, including feeling, thinking, perceiving,imagining, wanting, liking, etc.⏹Senser and phenomenon●Less central types of linguistic process⏹V erbal processes – saying something◆Sayer and receiver⏹Behavioural processes – active conscious processes◆Behaver and range⏹Existential processes – existence of an entity◆Existent⏹Mood and modality◆Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude and serves for interpersonalfunction. It is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and thefinite.◆Modality is the degree of certainty or frequency expressed by thegrammatical forms of finite. It can be categorized by modalization andmodulation.⏹Theme and rheme◆Theme is the given information, while rheme is the new information.◆Examples:●John | is my friend.●He | should have replied to my letter.Chapter 6 Semantics●What is semantics?⏹Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the onlylinguistic discipline that studies meaning.⏹Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In otherwords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences outof context.●Reference and sense⏹Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspectsof meaning.⏹Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity inthe world. But the referential theory fails to account for certain kinds oflinguistic expression.◆Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the realworld, such as the words dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid.◆It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such asthe words but, and, of, however, the, etc.◆Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round trianglealthough there is no such graph.⏹Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mentalrepresentation, the association with something in the speaker’s or hearer’smind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called therepresentational approach.●Classification of lexical meanings⏹Referential meaning (denotative meaning) – central meaning of words, stable,universal⏹Associative meaning –meaning that hinges on referential meaning, lessstable, more culture-specific◆Connotative meaning –the communicative value an expression has byvirtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent,peripheral◆Social meaning (stylistic meaning) – what is conveyed about the socialcircumstances of the use of a linguistic expression◆Affective meaning – what is communicated of the feeling or attitude ofthe speaker/writer towards what is referred to◆Reflected meaning –what is communicated through association withanother sense of the same expression●Taboos◆Collocative meaning –the associated meaning a word acquires in linewith the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it●Lexical sense relations。
语言学笔记——精选推荐
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语⾔学笔记《简明英语语⾔学》笔记Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics?●Definition: the scientific study of language.● A discipline that data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation;that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remaina muddled mass of things.●The scope of linguistics:General linguistics: study language as a wholeSpecific aspects:1)Phonetics: the study of sounds2)Phonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning3)Morphology: how symbols are formed and combined to form word4)Syntax: study the rules of how to form grammatically correct sentence5)Semantics: the study of meaning6)Pragmatics: the study of meaning in the context of language useInterdisciplinary branches:1)Sociolinguistics2)Psycholinguistics3)Applied linguistics●Important distinctionsPrescriptive and descriptive:1)Descriptive: Describe and analyze the language that people actuallyuse2)Prescriptive: Lay down rules for correct and standard behavior inusing language3)Modern language is mostly descriptive. Modern language, which isscientific and objective, describes language people actually use, be itcorrect or not.Synchronic and diachronic1)Synchronic: describe language at some point of time in history, al-ways in its current existence.2)Diachronic: the description of language as it changes through time; it3)In modern linguistics, synchronic approach enjoys priority.Speech and writingSpeech is prior to writing in linguistics, for it is more natural and reveals more true feature of language.Langue and parole1)Langue: abstract system shared by all members of language com-munity; it is the set of conventions and rules that language users have abide by2)Parole: Concrete use of language.3)Saussure: 1) parole is simply a mass of linguistic language facts; 2) linguist should abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regu-larities governing the actual use of languageCompetence and Performance-American linguist Chomsky1)Competence: knowledge of rules of language2)Performance: the realization of this knowledge in linguistic commu-nication3)The imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Traditional grammar and modern linguistics1)Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2)Modern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.3)Modern linguistics does not force languages into Latin-based framework.What is language?●Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com-munication.1)Language is a system, which means elements of language are com-bined according to rules.2)Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.3)Language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound.4)Language is human-specific.1)Arbitrariness: logical connection between meaning and sounds. While some words are motivated: the first are onomatopoeic words, such as rumble, crash, bang; the second are compound words, e.g. photocopy. This kind of words only make up small percentage of vocabulary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistica-tion of language and make it possible for language to have an unli-mited source of expressions.2)Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its us-ers.3)Duality: basic level: a structure of soundsHigher level: sounds of language can be rearranged into morphemes and words4)Displacement: 不受时空限制的5)Cultural transmission: human have to be learned and taught be acquire language.●Functions of languageDescriptive function: convey factual informationExpressive function: supplies informationSocial function: maintain social relations between people Structural linguist Roman JakobsonAddresser---emotive: addresser express his attitude towards thetopic or situationAddressee---conative: the addresser aims to influence addressee’s actionContext---referential: addresser conveys a message or information Message---poetic: use language to display the beauty of language Contact---phatic communication: it tries to establish or maintain in-terpersonal relationsCode---metalinguistic: make clear the meaning of language itselfIn early 1970 British linguist M.A.K. Halliday7 function in children.Ideational function: organize one’s experience, attitude, evaluation,feeling, and emotionsInterpersonal function: establish and maintain interpersonal rela-tionsTextual function: organize written or spoken English in such amanner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particularsituation in which they are usedChapter 2 PhonologyThe phonic medium of languageLimited range of sounds constitute the phonic medium of language.The individual sounds within the range are the speech sounds.Phonetics●What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s languages.Articu latory phonetics: studies the sounds form speaker’s point ofView, i.e. how the speaker uses his speech organs to articulate thesoundsAuditory phonetics: studies from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. howthe sounds are perceived by the hearerAcoustic phonetics: the way sounds travel by looking at the soundswaves.Chapter 4 SyntaxWhat is it?●Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules the govern the formation of sen-tences.Words categories●In traditional grammar, there are 8 categories (called parts of speech). Non-traditional categories as determiner (Det), degree words (Deg), and qualifier (Qua).●Two divisionMajor lexical categories: the heads around which phases are built. Noun, verb, ad-jective, preposition.Minor lexical categories: determiner限定词, degree words, qualifier限定语, aux-iliary, conjunction.Meaning: 1) nouns often designate its entity; verbs often designate action, sensation, and states. 2) the property or attribute of a noun can be elaborated by adjectives, those of verbs, adverbs.Deficiencies: 1) some words do not have entity such as dilemma, friendship.2) some words belong to more than one categories3) words with same or similar meaning belongs to different catego-ries, e.g. be aware of a nd knowInflection: 1) noun → -s or –es indicating plural2)adjectives→-er or –est indicating comparative degree and superla-tive degree3)verb→-ing and –ed indicating progressive and past tenseDeficiency: some words do not take inflectionsDistribution: it is reliable, which indicates what type of elements can co-occur with certain words.Noun co-appear with determiner, e.g. a girl, the penVerbs with auxiliary, e.g. should openAdjectives with degree words, e.g. very coolPhrase categories and their structure●XP ruleXP→Specifier ——head—— complementNP→(Det) N (PP) …VP→(Qual) V (NP) …AP→(Deg) A (PP) …PP→(Deg) P (NP) …●Coordination ruleNo limit on the number of coordinated categories prior to the conjunction.A category at any level (head or XP) can be coordinated.Coordinated categories must be of the same type.The category type of coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of elements being conjoined.Structure: X→X, X, X…Con XPhrase elements:●SpecifiersRole:1) semantically, make more precise the meaning of head; 2) syntactically,●Provide information and location, attached to right of the head Monotransitive: open the doorDitransitive: send me the mailComlex transitive verbs: put it on the wallComplement clauseMiss Herbert believes that she will win.Matrix clause complementizer complement clauseCP complement●ModifiersTo modifier nouns →adj. phrasesTo modifier verbs →adv. Phrases and prepositional phrases Position of modifiersModifiers Positions ExamplesAP PP AdvP Precedes the headFollow the headPrecedes or followA very careful girlOpen with careRead carefully; carefully readSentences (the S rule)Inflp= (s)NP Inlf VP。
英语语言学笔记1-8
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Chapter One----Introduction1.1----What is linguistics?1.1.1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Collect and observe language facts----àformulate hypotheses-----àcheck the hypotheses repeatedly to fully prove their validity-----àproveNo Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general.Linguists‟ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.Interest of linguists is “what is said”1.1.2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguisticsSpecific linguistics----the study of a specific language----Chinese linguisticsPhonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words. Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formationSemantics-----the study of meaning.Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.1.1.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptivePrescriptive----the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from grammar in that the latter is based on “high”(religious/literary) wr itten language.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writingTwo major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing: (1)from the point of wiew of the liguistic evolution , speech is prior to writing.(2)in daily communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: single.outone aspect of language for serious study.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics-- the publicat ion of Saussure‟s “Course in General Linguistics” in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar; (1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‟t force languages into a Latin-based framework.1.2----What is language?1.2.1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.Vocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.1.2.2 Design features----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12)Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaningThe significance of Duality: because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heared before. In other words, language is productive because of its own duality.(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doesn‟t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.2.3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the “content” of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those “Phatic language”, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没?in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‟t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‟s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‟s babbles and chanter‟s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of l anguage. For example, we may use “book” to refer to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use “the word book” to stand by the concept “book” as embodied in language.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1: Introductionmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.3.2. Open class and closed classopen class words: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class words: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.Content words /function words lexical words/grammatical words variable words/invariable words 3.3: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or functionword: the smallest free form found in language.bound morpheme: morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be attached to another one. It includes derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme.free morpheme: a morpheme that can be a word by itself.allomorphs: the variant forms of a porpheme are called its allomorphs.3.4 Analyzing word structureroots: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major commonent of its meaning.(A root is not always a free morpheme.)affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.3.5: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme:派生语素Bound morphemes which change the category or grammatic class of words.(改变词性)inflectional morpheme:曲折语素Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concept as tense,number,case and so on.(表时态/语态等) E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes.inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.3.6: Morphological rules of word formation构词的词素音位规则morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.productive morphological rules: morphological rules that can be used quite freely to new words. 3.7 Derivationderivation: an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct form that of its bases.3.8 Compoundscompounds: or compound words , words formed by strinking words together.the noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‘take (v),in’action (n), up’lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‘redcoat, ‘greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2: Categories4.2.1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, VMinor lexical categories: Det. Deg. Qua. Aux. Con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word’s category?1Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The proper ty or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‟s categ ory can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with th e same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word‟s category, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as shoul d stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion:Thus, a word‟s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify is syntactic category.4.2.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P <---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head:中心语The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier:标识语The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement:补足语The words on the right side of the heads are complements.4.3 Phrase Structure Rule(PS-rule)段语结构规划phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP---- > (Det) N (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) V (NP)….(动宾)AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)…...(介宾)4.3.1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.:The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule :In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.4.3.2. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X---→ X *Con X4.4: Phrase elements4.4.1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, the y typically make a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.4.4.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English. subcategorization:the information about a word‟s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.The XP rule (revised): XP ---→ (Specifier) X (Complements*)“*” means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.“that” ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.“she will win” ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.“that she will win” ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.“Miss Hebert believes” ---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.4.4.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier. The expanded XP rule: XP----→ (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, amodifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well.“修饰语” 相对于“中心语”的位置总结为:“形”在前,“介”在后,“副词”前后都可以。
英语语言学笔记第三章
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当人们在统计一篇文章或一段话中的频率时,看到一组名词如boy、boys或一组动词如check、checks、checked、checking,会分别把它们当作两个词、四个词计算。可是,在词典里它们各自被看作一个词,如这两个名词形式共用词根"boy",四个动词形式全都共用词根"check"。因此,词是在一组形式之下的共同要素,是词汇的单位,是一个词条,或是一个词位。
为了减少"词"这一术语的含糊性,词位(lexeme)被假定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最小单位之下的抽象单位,而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。例如,"write"和"fat"分别是例3-3中两组词的词位。
例3-3
write fat
writes fatter
wrote fattest
writing
written
ⅱ.助动词
以前习惯于把助动词(auxiliary)看作动词。因为其特有的性质,很难让人们将它们看作动词,现在语言学家倾向于把它们当作一个单独的词类。下面我们比较一下助动词和其他普通动词的用法:
例3-10
否定I(can't)come.
* I(wantn't)come.
倒置(Is he)coming?
*(Keeps he)coming?
(4)词类
上面所说的类别似乎是普遍的。要划分词类,更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征、语义特征和音系特征,或者根据形态变化和分布方面的形式相似性来给词分组。在传统语法中词类(part of speech)是封闭的。基于拉丁语法的传统,一般建立八个或九个词类,如"名词"、"代词"、"形容词"、"动词"、"副词"、"介词"、"连词"、"感叹词"和"冠词"。
英语语言学导论笔记
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一、语言学总论1. design feature of language(语言的定义特征)defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1)Arbitrariness(任意性): 象似性iconicity定义:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.举例:书, book, livre喜欢,like,aimer2)Duality(二层性):定义:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例:Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性):定义:Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality.举例1:/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or park举例2:England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4)Displacement(替代性、移位性):定义:Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性):定义:language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.反例:印度狼孩2. Important Distinctions in Linguistics(语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) Descriptive (描述性)vs. Prescriptive (规定性)Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例:Don't say X.People don't say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.2). Synchronic(共时性)vs. Diachronic (历时性)synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history.举例:研究1800年的英语发音Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)3). langue(语言)& parole (言语)Theorist:Saussure(索绪尔), father of modern linguisticslangue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langueImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence(语言能力)and performance (语言运用)theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基)competence: user's knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.二、语音学和音系学1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子,音位, 超音段特征Phonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received.Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音)举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers productionacoustic phonetics(声学语音学): transmission’s mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s receptionHow speech sounds are madeSpeech organsPosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)Voiceless(清音):vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction清音举例:[p,s,t]Voicing/Voiced(浊音):vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates浊音: [b,z,d]The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of air stream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.音系学重要概念:Phone(音子):a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones举例:too 和tea 中的/t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时,舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和tea 中的/t/两个不同的音子Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value;the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.举例:tea 和sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeSuprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments .The principal suprasegmentals are:stress (重音)举例: perfect (adj) 和perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高):定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马,mà骂比较:英语单词,如meintonation (语调):pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.三、Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类(classification of words)形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素). The most basic element of meaning in language,an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例:ballfootballballsTypes of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes(自由语素和黏着语素):Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀):change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense)Derivational morpheme(派生语素)=derivational affix (派生词缀): change the lexical meaningDerivational morpheme(改变词义):改变词义:dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性:en-, -full, -mentInflectional morpheme(改变语法含义):改变名称的性,数,格:-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态,体: -ing, -ed,改变形容词的级:-er, -est如何区分派生词(derivational word)和合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词,如果可以,就是合成词,如果不能就是派生词。
英语语言学笔记
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英语语言学笔记1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is s ymbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all huma n languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than wr itten. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meani ngs and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words,like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native langua ge, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in rightregister. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot?) , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C.F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with some animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang(1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal andtextual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396).1.11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” r efers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this functio n. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts ca n, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indrect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin etal.,pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth) or false(falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please.Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener;advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, yourliste ner. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the performative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, t he president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well(seeJ.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.,pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one languag e of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988).But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches :phonetics ,phonology ,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it mayalso be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A lin guistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostlydescriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by p sychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguisticpotential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are si milar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics.(1)Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2)Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear , the auditory nerve and the brain. (3)Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al.,p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of theair-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved,e. g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be oneof the following (1 )bilabial:[p,b,m]; (2) labiodental:[f,v]; (3) dental:[,]; (4) alveolar:[t,d,l,n.s,z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar:[,]; (7) palatal:[j]; (8) velar[k,g,];(9) uvular; (10)glottal:[h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w]has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and m ay be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following : (1) plosive:[p,b,t,d,k,g]; (2) nasal:[m,n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral:[l]; (6) fricative:[f,v,s,z]; (7) approximant:[w,j]; (8) affricate:[].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels,e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1)“Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2)Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‟s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]‟s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription ordiacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new wordor a new meaning thereof. So th e different[p]‟s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairsin English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “freevariation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme. 1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary dis tribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound aft er a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative pr efix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], [i] or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[…imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sou nd is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is。
英语语言学笔记(2)
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⼆、⾳系学 语⾔的声⾳媒介 什么是语⾳学 发⾳器官 ⾳标……宽式和严式标⾳法 英语语⾳的分类 ⾳系学和语⾳学 语⾳、⾳位、⾳位变体 ⾳位对⽴、互补分部、最⼩对⽴ ⼏条⾳系规则 超切分特征 Two major media of communication: speech and writing The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. ⽤于⼈类语⾔交际的声⾳称为语⾳,这些数⽬有限的⼀组语⾳构成了语⾔的声⾳媒介。
Phonetics语⾳学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发⾳语⾳学(most highly developed), auditory phonetics 听觉语⾳学and acoustic phonetics 声学语⾳学 Organs of speech 发⾳器官 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat The oral cavity⼝腔——the mouth The nasal cavity ⿐腔——the nose Vibration of the vocal cords (声带) results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊⾳,which is a feature of all vowels 元⾳ and some consonants 辅⾳。
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备
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Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力Competencelanguage.Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语语言学第十一章笔记
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英语语言学第十一章笔记以下是英语语言学第十一章的笔记:英语语言学第十一章:句法学1、句法学简介句法学是语言学的一个分支,主要研究句子的构造和规则。
它涉及词汇、词序、短语和句子等不同级别的语言单位,以及这些单位之间的关系。
2、句子的构成句子由主语和谓语构成。
主语通常由名词或名词短语担任,而谓语则描述主语的动作或状态。
例如,“The cat sat on the mat.”(猫坐在垫子上。
)中,“The cat”是主语,“sat”是谓语。
3、词序和短语词序是句子中词语的排列顺序。
在大多数情况下,英语中的主语、谓语和宾语的顺序是固定的。
此外,短语是一种由两个或更多词语组成、共同表达一个意思的语言单位。
常见的短语类型包括名词短语、动词短语、形容词短语等。
4、句子结构英语中的句子结构可以分为简单句和复杂句两种。
简单句是由一个主语和一个谓语组成的句子,例如“I am a student.”(我是一个学生。
)复杂句则包含一个或多个从句,从句通常是名词性从句或定语性从句。
例如,“The cat that sat on the mat is black.”(坐在垫子上的猫是黑色的。
)是一个包含定语性从句的复杂句。
5、转换语法转换语法是句法学的一个重要分支,研究如何通过改变词语的属性或结构来改变句子的意义。
例如,“I like eating pizza”和“Pizza is delicious”是两个意义不同的句子,但它们可以通过转换语法相互转化。
6、语言习得和句法学句法学在语言习得中扮演着重要的角色。
研究发现,儿童在习得语言时通常会先学会基本的词汇和短语,然后逐渐学习更复杂的句子结构和语法规则。
句法学的研究有助于我们更好地理解儿童语言习得的过程,也为二语习得提供了重要的理论依据。
英语语言学笔记
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第一章宇文皓月Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some importantdistinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言A tool for communication交流的工具An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不成或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不克不及完全理解语言的实质和结构,我们就会对人类的实质一无所知.1.2 What is language?什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的分歧意义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquiallanguagean abstract system2. A webster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used senseof the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds towhich meaning is attributed, used for the expression orcommunication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbalcommunication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventionalin that language is a social semiostic and communicationcan only take place effectively if all the users share abroad understanding of human interaction including suchassociated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, andsocio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us fromanimals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有介入者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才干有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitionsLanguage is a system of arbitraryvocalsymbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source(sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according tocertain rules systematically, rather than randomly.They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the tablecleaned. (×) bkli (×)Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the soundsthat people use and the objects to which these soundsrefer. This explains and is explained by the fact thatdifferent language have different words for the sameobject, it is good illustration of the arbitrary natureof language . it is only our tacit agreement ofutterance and concept at work and not any innaterelationship bound up in the utterance. A typicalexample to illustrate the arbitrary of language is afamous quot ation from shakepeare’s play:” Romeo andJuliet: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely,people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize whatthey wish to refer to.Vocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms.The fact that small children learn and can only learnto speak and listen before they write or read alsoindicates that language is primarily vocal, rather thanwritten.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication. 1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?任意性a. arbitrariness【'ɑːbɪtrərɪnɪs】----arbitrariness(任意性): onedesign feature of human language,which refers to thefact that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的实质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first.The link betweenthem is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。
英语语言学笔记清华大学
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英语语言学笔记清华大学英语语言学笔记(1)一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言,而是人类所有语言的特性。
The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive:a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2)a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation fromShakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.")Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性英语语言学笔记(2)二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音,这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。
英语语言学笔记第二章
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英语语言学笔记第二章言语产生和言语感知人类可以发出各种声音,但只有其中一部分成为语言系统的单位。
正如我们从前面对语言的讨论中所看到的,语言首先是一个"语音符号系统",语音远远早于文字而存在,并且,即使是今天,在世界的某些角落,还有些语言是没有文字系统的。
因此,语音的研究是语言学的一个主要组成部分。
在这一章中,我们将考察语音研究的方法以及使用的模式。
我们将从语音研究,即"语音学"开始,然后进入语音模式,即"音系学"的研究。
可以想象,语音被说话者A发出,然后,它被传递并被说话者B接收,语音如图2.1所示经历了3个阶段。
言语产生言语感知(说话者A)→(说话者B)图2.1 言语产生和言语感知过程语音研究自然地分成三个主要领域,一个领域就是一个步骤。
●发音语音学研究语音的产生。
●声学语音学研究语音的物理特征。
●听觉语音学和语音感知有关。
在本书中,我们只集中讨论发音语音学,不涉及其他的研究领域。
语言学教程2.2 言语器官言语器官,如图2.2所示,也经常被称作发音器官。
它们是人体中参与制造言语的部分。
这些器官,并非仅仅用在言语中,它们的主要功能其实是满足呼吸和进食等基本生理需要。
虽然如此,这些器官看起来是经历了长期的进化以适应言语的各种特定的需要。
因为它们的形成保证了其能有效地在言语行为中发挥作用。
如果去考察人体有多少部分参与了言语行为,你会大吃一惊,它们是:肺,气管,喉,鼻和口。
在口里,我们需要辨别舌及腭的不同部分。
在喉里,我们还要辨别咽(喉的上部)和喉头(喉的下部,包括声带)。
咽、口和鼻组成了声道的三大腔,口和鼻常被分别称为口腔和鼻腔。
图2.2 言语器官(略)发音以气流作为其能量来源。
大多数情况下,气流来自于肺部,它从肺里被挤出,然后通过细支气管和支气管(通往气管的一些管道分支)。
以这种方式产生的语音叫做"肺闭塞音"。
气管的顶端是喉头,喉头的前端是喉结。
语言学笔记(上课的笔记)
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION(高叔叔说这章要考50分,所以东西有点多~)1.Linguistics1.1Definition: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Three key words:♦Language:preceded by the zero article implies not any particular language but language in general.♦Study: investigate examine research♦Scientific:observation →generalization→hypotheses formation→data collection→hypotheses testing→ theory formulation How to make a study "scientific"?1) Exhaustiveness: gather all the materialsrelevant to one's investigation and give theman adequate explanation.2) Consistency: make no contradiction between parts of the total statement3) Economy: other things being equal, simpler shorter analysis is better.4) Objectivity: be as objective as possible in describing and analyzing the data, allowing no prejudice to influence one’s generalization.1.2 the scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a whole. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.General linguistics can be further divided into theoretical linguistics (micro-linguistics) and application of linguistics (macro-linguistics).1.2.1 Theoretical linguistics:1)Phnetics :the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.2) Phonology : studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.3)Morphology: study of the way in which the smallest meaningful components called morpheme are arranged to form words.4) Syntax[‘sintæks]: s tudies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences5)Semantics [si’mæntiks]: the study of meaning in isolation, statically out of context.1.2.2 Application of linguistics(2-8了解即可)1) Pragmatics: the dynamic study of meaning in context.2) Applied linguistics: application of linguistics theories, principles, methods and research findings to any language connected areas (broad sense), to language teaching esp to the teaching of foreign or second language (narrow sense) It includes language acquisition, language testing, language evaluation.3) Sociolinguistics: the study of social factors of language such as education background, economic status, sex and its relation with society. It includes language norm, language change and language policy.4) Psycolinguistics: studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and psychological processes that are believed to underlie that behavior. it aims to answer three questions:1) how human work when we use language;2)how we acquire our mother tongue ; 3)how we percept and internalize the information we receive in communication.5) Anthropological linguistics: it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.6) Neurolinguistics : studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.7) Mathematical linguistics: studies the mathematical features of language by employing models and concepts of mathematics.8) Computational linguistics; approaches in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied with theaid of computer machine. Translation or automatic translation; project which teaches machine how to recognize speech sounds and therefore words (speech synthesis)1.3 important distinctions in linguistics ( 重点)1.3.1 Prescriptive and descriptive [Descriptive →objective Prescriptive→subjective ]♦If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use , it is descriptive(描写性)♦If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, that is to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, It is called Prescriptive(规定性).Traditional grammar is Prescriptive, while modern linguistics is descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic (共时) vs diachronic (历时)♦The description of language at some point in time is a Synchronic study. (Periodical study)♦The description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. (Hisistorical study)1.3.3 Speech and WritingTwo major media of communication,speech is primary to writing.1.3.4 Langue (语言) and Parole (言语)♦Ferdinand de Saussure (1857—1913), pioneer of semiotics (符号学) ,he is the father of modern linguistics.♦Course in General Linguistics published in 1916. Saussure’s work marked the beginning of modern linguistics. ♦Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. It is a set of rules and conventions which all language users all have to abide by. It is abstract, not the language people actually use. ♦Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use . It is concrete, naturally occurring language event.1.3.5 competence(语言能力)and performance (语言运用)It was proposed by American linguistics N. Chomsky in the late 1950's.♦Competence refers to the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language and,♦Performance refers to the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication,♥what linguist should study is competence, not performance, why?1) Competence is comparatively stable2) Performance is haphazard due to some social or psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment, or mistakes such as slips of the tongues and unnecessary pauses, despite a perfect knowledge.It is a distinction between what one “knows”and what one “does”.nguage2.1 Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.2 Design features of language (重点)Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.♦Arbitrariness(任意性)It means there is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between sounds and meanings, or the linguistic forms bear no natural relationship to their meaning.♦ Productivity (创造性/多产性)Different sounds can be grouped to form words ,and different words can be arranged to form different sentences. Productivity is unique to human language.♦ Duality (二元性)*Language is a system consisting of two levels: Lower (sounds) and Higher (meaning)♦ At the lower level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless,which can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning♦At the higher level, the units of meaning can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences.Phoneme—morpheme—word—phrase—clause—sentence♦ Displacement (移位性) [2 dimensions: Temporal时间的& Spatial空间的]Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined, matters in the past ,present or future .♦ Cultural transmission (文化传递性)Language can be passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning rather than by instinct or inheritance/birth.♦ Specialization (特化作用)Linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose, such as breathing or feeding.♦ Interchangeability/reciprocity (相互性)This refers to the fact that any speaker/ sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener/ receiver.2.3 Functions of Language1)Informational function(信息功能): transmission of information (tell story /teaching)2) Interpersonal function(人际功能): interaction between the addresser (writer) and addressee (reader) and their attitudes among each other. (personal talk)3)Performative function(施为功能): use language to change one’s social status.4)Emotive function(感情功能): change the emotional status of audience for or against some one or something.5)Phatic function(寒暄功能): maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content (nice day/ good morning )6)Recreational function(娱乐功能): use language for sheer joy7) Meta-lingual function(元语言功能): use language to talk about language itself.CHAPTER 2 PHONOLOGY(木有讲~~)CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGY(形态学)♥ What is word?Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether in spoken or written form.♦ Three aspects of words:1) A physically definable unit:Phonological & orthographic2)The common factor underlying a set of forms.3) A grammatical unit♦ Classification of words:1) Variable and invariable words (有时态变化的词和没有变化的词)2) Lexical words(实词) and grammatical (function, form) words(虚词)3) Open-class words (开放性词) and closed-class words(封闭性词)♦ Word formation:(最重要的两种)1) Compounding(复合词)2)Derivation(派生词)3. What is Morphology?Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words and rules for word formation. In other words, it is the study of the composition of words.3.1Two sub-branches of Morphology:1) inflectional morphology屈折形态学2) derivational morphology词汇形态学3.2 Morpheme词位,语素(形位)3.2.1 Definition of morpheme♦ Morpheme: Smallest meaningful components of words.3.2.2 Allomorphs 词位变体The different/ variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs(词位变体).A morpheme needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. one denotes its lexical meaning and the other the grammatical meaning.6.3 Types of Morphemes6.3.1 Free Morphemes 自由词位(语素)♦A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself.Free morphemes fall into two categories: content words (open-class words) & function words (closed-class words) 6.3.2 Bound Morphemes 黏着词位(语素)♦ Bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound, to form a word.♦Bound morphemes include two types: roots (词根) and affixes(词缀)♦Affixes are of two types: inflectional(屈折词缀)and derivational(派生词缀)1) Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case.2) Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX(木有讲~~)CHAPTER 5 SEMANTICS(语义学)5.1 The definition of semantics♦ Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in language.The theme of semantics is meaning. Language must have meaning and meaning is part of language.A sentence is considered correct or acceptable if it is well-formed both grammatically and semantically.5.2 Approaches to meaning5.2.1 Meaning as naming♦The meaning of an expression is what it refers to (or denotes), stands for, or names.also called referential (or denotational) theory, or naming theory.5.2.2 Meaning as concept♦Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.5.2.3 Meaning as behaviour♦The meaning of an expression is the stimulus either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, ora combination of both on particular occasions of utterance,also called behaviourism or behaviourist theory.5.2.4 Meaning as context♦The meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered.Two kinds of context are recognized: a linguistic context and a situational context.5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions♦The sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances that sentence is true. Those “circumstances”are called truth conditions of the sentence. This is called truth-conditional theory/semantics,S is true if and only if P5.2.6 Meaning as useIt asserts that the meaning of an expression is just the use to which it is put in the language,also called use theory.5.3 Word meaning5.3.1 Sense and reference♦Sense(意义)relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves (mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic relations.♦Reference(所指)deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience.5.3.2 Seven types of meaning(记得到那七种意义就可以了~概念不用背)According to the British linguist G. Leech, meaning in its broadest sense can be classified into seven types:5.3.2.1 Conceptual meaning(概念意义)♦The meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to.5.3.2.2 Connotative meaning(内涵意义)♦Connotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.Difference between connotative meaning and conceptual meaning♥Connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable.♥In addition, connotative meaning is indeterminate and open-ended in a sense in which conceptual meaning is not.5.3.2.3 Social meaning(社会意义)♦Social meaning is that which an expression conveys about the social circumstances of its use. It chiefly includes stylistic meaning and the illocutionary force of an utterance.5.3.2.4 Affective meaning(情感意义)♦Affective meaning or emotive meaning refers to the fact that language reflects the feelings of a speaker.5.3.2.5 Reflective meaning(联想意义)♦Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.5.3.2.6 Collocative meaning(搭配意义)♦Collocative meaning is composed of the associations a word obtains because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its circumstances.5.3.2.7 Thematic meaning(主题意义)♦Thematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.5.3.3 Semantic relations between words(记名字就可以了~~那两个有differences的要注意)♦Homonymy(同音异义):words having different meaning have the same form.Words are identical in sound =>homophones(同音异形异义字)Words are identical in form =>homographes(同形异义字)Words are identical in sound and form =>homonyms(同形同音异义字)♦Polysemy(一词多义):one word having two or more meanings which are all related by extension. Difference between polysemy and HomonymyThe distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for words. If a word has two or more meanings (polysemic), then there will be a single entry, with a numbered list of the different meanings of the word. If the two words are treated as homonyms, they will typically have two separate entries.♦Synonymy(近义词):the sense relation of “sameness of meaning”.♦Antonymy(反义词):refers to oppositemess of meaning.♦Hyponymy(下义关系):the relationship where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another.Hyponymy: X is a kind of Y eg:Potato is a kind of vegetable,♦Meronymy(部分与整体):the semantic relationship which obtains between “parts”and “wholes”body.Meronymy: X is a part of Y eg:Head is a part of body.5.4 Sentence meaningPredication (句子) consist of Arugement(变元)&Predicates(谓语)consist of Features(语义特征)5.5 Semantic relations between sentences(名字要记到,最好晓得例子)♦Entailment(蕴含关系)♦Presupposition(预设关系)♦Synonymy(同义关系)♦Inconsistency(不一致关系)♦Implicature(暗含关系)5.6 Three Theoretical Approach(了解第一个就可以了,其他的两个晓得名字就OK~)5.6.1 Componential analysis(成分分析)♦Componential analysis claims that all lexical items can be analyzed into a set of semantic components or semantic features which may be universal.♦The problems:It is not easy to show relations of antonymy or oppositeness of meaning.5.6.2 Semantic Field Theory♦ A semantic field is a group of lexemes.(词位)5.6.3 Cognitive Semantics(认知语义学)♦It identifies meaning with conceptualization-the structure and processes which are part of mental experience.CHAPTER 6 PRAGMATICS6.1 The definition of pragmatics♦Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use.6.2 The scope of pragmatics♦Micropragmatics(微观语用学)The study of language use in smaller contexts. Phenomena such as reference(指称), deixis(指示), anaphora (回指)and presupposition(预设)are the topics in this field.♦In pragmatics,reference can be defined as an act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something.♦In semantics, reference is often assumed that the words we use to indentify things are in some direct relationship to those things.♦Macropragmatics(宏观语用学)♦Metapragmatics(元语用学)6.3 Pragmatic theories6.3.1 Speech act theory(言语行为理论)(晓得名字,记到一个例子就可以了~~)♦Speech act theory was proposed by J. L. Austin , which proposed that language is not only used to inform or to describe things, it is often used to “do things”, to perform acts.A. locutionary act(言中行为): the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and referenceB. Illocutionary act(言外行为): the making of a statement, offer, promise, etc. in uttering a sentence, by virtue of the conventional force associated with it.C. Perlocutionary act(言后行为):the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the circumstances.e.g. The weather is fine.言中行为:仅仅是描述天气好言外行为:天气那么好,我们逃课嘛去逛街嘛言后行为:我们没有去上课,去逛街去了~~6.3.2 Searl's classification of illocutionary acts(塞尔对言外行为的分类)(记名字和类型)♦Representatives(阐述类):statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions♦Directives(指令类):They are commands, orders, requests, suggestions♦Commissives(承诺类):They are promises, threats, refusals, and pledges.♦Expressives(表达类):They are apologizing,thanking,congratulating.♦Declarations(宣告类):The speaker has to have a special institutioanl role, in specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately.6.3.3 Indirect speech act(间接言语行为)♦三种基本句子形式及其对应功能:Declarative(陈述句) => statementInterrogative(疑问句)=> q uestionImperative(祈使句)=> command♦当句子形式与其基本功能不相互对应时,则此时即发生了“间接言语行为”6.3.4 The cooperative principle(合作原则)6.3.4.1 The cooperative principle and its maxims(合作原则及准则)比较重要,都记一下嘛`~~♦The Maxim of Quality(质量原则):Try to make your contribution one that is true(i) Do not say what you believe to be false;(ii) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.♦Maxim of Quantity(数量原则):(i) Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange) .(ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than required.♦Maxim of Relation(相关原则): Be relative.♦Maxim of Manner(礼貌原则): Be perspicuous.(i) Avoid obscurity of expression.(ii) Avoid ambiguity.(iii) Be brief.(iv) Be orderly.6.3.4.2 Conversational implicature(话语暗示)♦Conversational implicature is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance.♦According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and ostentatiously flouting the maxims.6.3.5 The politeness principle(礼貌原则)(呜呜~我也不晓得这个重要不,还是了解一下嘛~~)♦Tact Maxim (得体原则)a) Minimize cost to otherb) Maximize benefit to other♦Generosity Maxim(慷慨原则)a) Minimize benefit to selfb) Maximize cost to self ]♦Approbation Maxim(赞扬原则)a) Minimize dispraise of otherb) Maximize praise of other♦Modesty Maxim(谦虚原则)a) Minimize praise of selfb) Maximize dispraise of self♦Agreement Maxim(赞同原则)a) Minimize disagreement between self and otherb) Maximize agreement between self and other♦Sympathy Maxim (同情原则)a) Minimize antipathy between self and otherb) Maximize sympathy between self and otherCHAPTER 11 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION(二语习得)(还木有上完哈,我不晓得那些是重点,上完了补给你们哈~~)♦Second Language Acquisition (SLA):refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a secondlanguage subsequent to his native language.♦Target language (TL)(目的语): the language which a person is learning, in contrast to a first language or mother tongue.。
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语言学笔记总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的区别性特征:Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点2、语言的功能(不是很重要)信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程,考查人类语言中的声音音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构,词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义,还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological linguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics5语言学中的重要区别规定式和描写式:规定式:prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的描写式:descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究:共时:synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言历时:diachronic 研究语言发展规律语言和言语:语言:langue指语言系统的整体言语:parole指具体实际运用的语言语言能力和语言运用:乔姆斯基(chomsky提出)能力:competence用语言的人的语言知识储备运用:performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA(国际音标)是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对立体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3 音位变体allophones4 互补分布complementary distribution6 区别特征distinctive features5 自由变体free variation7 超音段特征suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音stress 语调tone 声调intonation四形态学1 词的构成语素morpheme 自由语素free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix 词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化lexical change proper新创词语invention 混拼词blending 缩写词abbreviation首字母缩写词acronym 逆构词汇back-formation例:editor—edit类推构词analogiacal creation 例:work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词borrowing五句法学1 范畴category 数number 性gender 格case 时tense 体aspect一致关系concord 支配关系govenrment2 结构主义学派the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 具有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents :句子不仅是线性结构liner structure还是层级结构hierarchical structure (句子或短语被称为结构体,而构成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分分析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分-短语,再把这些短语依次切分,得到下一集直接成分,这样层层切分,直到不能再分4向心结构和离心结构endocentric and exocentric constructions 向心:指一个结构中有中心词,例an old man ,中心为man离心:指结构中没有明显的中心词。
例:on the shelf5生成学派the generative approach深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage6功能学派the functional approach主位与述位 theme and rheme主位:谈话中已知的信息,说话者从它谈起known,述位:与说话者内容有关的内容what the speaker states about7交际力communicative and dynamism简称CD指句子成分对交际发展所作的贡献的程度六、语义学1 利奇的意义七分法Leech and his 7 types of meaning概念意义conceptual meaning 字面意义内涵意义connotative meaning 实际交往过程中所指的事物社会意义情感意义 affective meaning反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义搭配意义 collocative meaning主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义2指称论 referential theory指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论3语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出Symbol或form指语言要素(如词和语素),the linguistic elements能指thought指概念concept所指reference指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience涵义sense语言形式的意义4主要涵义关系○同义关系synonymy地域同义词dialectal synonymy风格同义词 stylistic synonyms感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同,但内涵不同,有褒有贬○反义关系antonymy等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B,否定B 就肯定A,例dead-alive反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship between 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。
例:花-水仙、玫瑰、百合补充:同音同形异义关系homonymy一词多义 polysemy七、语用学1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作○施为句和叙事句performative and constative施为句:实施某种行为。
叙事句:描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。
○行事行为理论a theory of the illocutionary act言内行为:locutionnary act表述字面意思言外行为:illoutionary act 因为言语本身的习惯力量随之产生的其他一些行为言后行为:perlocutionnary act 话语在听者身上产生的效果2会话含义理论 the theory of conversational implicature格赖斯提出Herbert Paul Grice○合作原则:说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的,都有一种默契,一种都遵循的原则○四个准则four categories of maxims数量、质量、关系、方式(manner)准则3后格赖斯时期的发展○关联理论:relevance theory:交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为every act of ostensive(直接表明的) communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance○数量关系和关系原则the Q-and R-principles由霍恩Laurence Horn 提出八现代语言学理论和流派1 索绪尔Saussure瑞士语言学家,“现代语言学之父”或者“使语言学科走向现代的大师”2 布拉格学派Prague School贡献:共时语言学研究,从“功能”角度看待语言,强调语言的系统性,把语言看做一种功能突出贡献:语音学说,及其划分语音学和音位学突出:Trubetzkoy特鲁别茨柯依:提出语音学属于言语,音位学属于语言,提出音位概念4伦敦学派 the Lundon School:系统语言学和功能语言学创始人:弗斯Firth.人物:弗斯受马林诺夫斯基影响。
韩礼德为新弗斯派领袖三人都强调语言环境和语言系统的重要性韩礼德和系统功能语法:由系统语法和功能语法构成。
把实际使用的语言现象作为研究对象5美国结构主义American Structuralism共时语言学分支,由博厄斯提出F.Bos.○撒皮尔-沃尔夫假说Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis语言相对论-语言决定论○布隆菲尔德Bloomfield《语言论》-20世纪被大西洋两岸同时奉为科学的方法论典范和语言学领域的杰出代表。
描述语言学的代表人物6 转换生成语法transformational–generative grammar乔姆斯基提出Chomsky.认为语言是某种天赋,语言习得机制Language Acquisition device。