英语的语素、词

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英语语言学词汇汇总

现代语言学术语总结Aabbreviation缩写法acculturation语言文化移入acoustic phonetics声学语言学acronym词首字母缩略词address term称谓语addresser发话人addressee受话人adjacency毗邻Adjacency Condition毗邻条件Adjacency Parameter毗邻参数Affix词缀Affixation加词缀法Affricate塞擦音Afroasiatic非亚语系agreement rule一致关系规则allophone音位变体alveolar齿龈音alveolus齿龈angular gyrus角形脑回antonymy反义现象antonym反以词apocope词尾音脱落aphasia失语症aphasic失语症患者applied linguistics应用语言学arbitrariness任意性argument论元articulatory phonetics发音语音学articulatory variable发音变项aspiration送气assimilation同化approximation近似化auditory phonetics听觉语音学Austronesian…语系BBabbling咿呀学语back-formation逆向构词法back vowel后元音Behaviorism行为主义Behaviorist learning theory行为主义学习理论Behaviorist Psychology行为主义心理学Bilabial双唇音Bilingualism双语现象Black English黑人英语Blending混合法Borrowing借用bound morpheme黏着语素brain lateralization大脑左右半球侧化branching node分叉点broad transcription宽式音标Broca’s area布罗卡区Ccaretaker speech保姆语case格Case Condition格条件case marking格标志causative verb使役动词central vowel中元音cerebral cortex大脑皮层cerebral plasticity大脑弹性channel渠道classical language古典语言clipping略写法closed class word封闭类词code代码code-switching代码切换cognate同源词co-hyponyms并列下义词coinage创新词color word色彩词combinational rule组合规则commissives承诺类communicative competence交际能力comparative reconstruction比较重建法competence语言能力complement补语complement construction补足语complementarity互补性反义现象complementary distribution互补分布complex sentence复合句componential analysis成分分析法components of meaning意义成分compound word复合词compounding复合法computational linguistics计算语言学conceptualist view意念观consonant辅音constituent成分constituent structure成分结构constraint制约construction结构content word实词context语境;上下文contextualism语境论Contrastive Analysis对比分析法conversational implicature会话含义co-operative principle合作原则coordinate sentence并列句creativity创造性critical period关键期;临界期cultural transmission文化传播Ddeclaration宣告类deep structure深层结构dental齿音derivation派生法derivational morpheme派生语素derivative派生词descriptive linguistics描写语言学design feature识别特征determiner限定词diachronic linguistics历时语言学diacritics变音符号dialect方言dialectal synonym方言同义词dichotic listening test两耳分听测试diglossia双言现象diphthong复合元音Directionalilty Parameter方位参数Directives指令类Displacement不受时空限制的特性distinctive feature区别性特征D-structure深层结构duality of structur结构二重性e double articulation结构二重性Eembedded clause子句emotive meaning表情意义entity实体epenthesis插入音Error Analysis错误分析法euphemism委婉语evaluative meaning评价意义expressives表达类Ffactive predicate叙述性谓词family tree谱系树feature symbol特征标记features of meaning意义特征finite clause定式字句finite verb定式动词formalize形式化fossilization语言僵化framework框架free morpheme自由语素fricative擦音front vowel前元音function word虚词functional shift功能性转换functor element起功能作用成分Ggender性Generative Grammar生成语法Generative Semantics生成语义学genetic predispotion基因先天条件genetic relationship亲缘关系glide滑音glottal喉音glottis声门graddabl opposites可分等级的反义词grammaticality语法性grammatical meaning语法意义Great V owel Shift元音大变位Hhard palate硬腭head核心词hemispheric dominance for language大脑半球的语言优势hierarchical structure层次结构high variety高层次变体historical comparative linguistics历史比较语言学historical linguistics历史语言学holophrastic sentence独词句homography同形homonymy同音异义；同形异义homophony同音异义hyponymy下义关系hyponym下义词Iidiolect个人语言特点illocutionary act言外形为inconsistency自相矛盾Indo-European印欧语系infinitive marker不定式标记inflection曲折变化inflectional morpheme曲折语素input输入instrumental motivation工具性学习动机intake接受integrativ emotivation介入性学习动机interference干扰interlanguage语际语internalize内在化International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标interpersonmal communication人际交际intuition语调Llabeled (unlabeled) tree diagram加标记树形图labial唇音LAD语言习得机制language acquisition语言习得language behavior语言行为language center语言中枢language faculty语言机制language family语系language perception语言感知language planning语言规划language variation语言变异larynx喉lax vowel松元音level层；平面level of language语言层次lexical category词类lexical structure词汇结构lexicology词汇学lexicon词汇linear structure线性结构linguistic competence语言能力linguistic determinism语言决定论linguistic lateralization语言侧化linguistic performance语言运用linguistic relativism语言相对论linguistic repertoire全部语言变体linguistic taboo禁忌语linguistics语言学liquid流音loan word外来词localization定位locutionary act言内行为low variety低层次变体Mmanner of articulation发音方法matrix clause主句maxim of manner方式准则maxim of quality质量准则maxim of quantity数量准则maxim of relation关联准则meaning意义meaningfulness有意义meaning relation意义关系mentalism心理主义mentalistic theory精神论message信息metathesis语音变位Middle English中世纪英语minimal pair最小对立对Modern English现代英语Monophthong单元音Morpheme词素morphlogical rule形态学规则morphology形态学mother tongue母语Move α移动α规则movement rule移位规则Nnaming theory命名论narrow transcription严式音标narrowing of meaning词义缩小nasal cavity鼻腔nasality鼻音化nasalize鼻音化natural route of development自然发展轨道negator否定词neurolinguist神经语言学家neuron神经元no-place predication空位述谓结构Oobject宾语Old English古英语one-place predication一位述谓结构optimum age最佳学习年龄oral cavity口腔overextension扩展过度overgeneralization概括过度overt thought有声思维Ppalatal腭音paralinguistic副语言学的parameter参数performance语言运用performance error语言运用错误perlocutionary act言后行为pharyngeal cavity咽腔phone音素phoneme音位phonemic contrast音位对立phonetic feature语音特征phonetics语音学phonological rule音位规则phonology音位学phrasal category词组类phrase structure rule短语结构规则pidgin洋泾浜语place of articulation发音部位plosive爆破音polysemy多义性postpone后移prepose前移postvocalic元音后的pragmatics语用学predicate谓语predication述谓结构predication analysis述谓结构分析prefix前缀presprictive (grammar)规定语法presupposition前提proposition命题prepositional content命题内容protolanguage原始语psycholinguistics心理语言学puberty青春期Qqualifying predication修饰性述谓结构RReceived Pronunciation标准发音Recursiveness循环性Reference所指语义referring expression所指名词register语域relational opposites关系反义词representation表达；呈现representatives阐述类response反应retroflex卷舌音rewrite rule重写规则rounded vowel圆唇元音SSAE标准美国英语sapir-Whorf hypothesis…假设second language acquisition第二语言习得segment切分成分semantic anomaly语义异体semantic deviation语义变异semantic broadening语义广义化semantic narrowing语义狭义化semantic shift语义演变semantics语义学semantic structure语义结构semantic triangle语义三角sense意义sequential rule序列规则setting背景；环境sexist language性别歧视语sibilant咝音simple sentence简单句Sino-Tibetan汉藏语系situational dialect语域方言sociolect社会方言sociolinguistics社会语言学soft palate软腭species-specific capacity物种特有能力specifier指示语spectrograph频谱仪speech act言语行为speech community言语社区speech variety言语变体S-structure表层结构standard language标准语stem词干stimulus刺激stop爆破音stress重音structural constituency结构成分性structural linguistics结构主义语言学subject主语subordinate predication主从述谓性结构subscript下标subvocal predication无声言语suffix后缀superordinate上坐标词suprasegmental feature超切分特征surface structure表层结构synchronic linguistics共时语言synonymy同义词syntactic ambiguity句法歧义syntactic category句法类型syntactic rule句法规则syntax句法Ttaboo word禁忌词target language目标语tautology同义反复teeth ridge齿龈隆骨telegraphic speech电报式言语tense and aspect时和体tense vowel紧元音tone音调；声调tone language声调语言topic话题；主题transfer转移Transformational-Generative Grammar转换生成语法transformational rule转换规则tree diagram树形图two-place predication双位述谓结构Uunaspirated不送气underextension扩展不足Universal Grammar普遍语法Utterance话语utterance meaning话语意义uvula小舌Vvalidity有效性variable变项velar软腭音velum软腭vernacular本地话；本国语vocal cord声带voiced浊音化的voiceless不带音的，清音的voicing带音化，浊音化vowel元音WWernicke’s area韦尼克区widening of meaning词义扩大XX-bar theory X标杆理论。

Morpheme, Morph and Allomorph

2292018年29期总第417期ENGLISH ON CAMPUSMorpheme, Morph and Allomorph文/王雨霄【摘要】本文从语素的定义、类型出发，具体阐释了Morpheme，Morph和Allomorph三者之间的关系。

【关键词】Morpheme; Morph; Allomorph 【作者简介】王雨霄，延边大学。

一、什么是语素(Morpheme)语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步划分为更小的语言单位而不破坏或彻底改变其词汇或语法意义。

b o y 和-s(boys)，check和-ing(checking)，及dis-，appoint和-ment(disappointment)，都不能再进一步拆分。

再如，decontextualization可拆分为6个部分：de-, con-, text, -al, -iz(e), -ation. 每一部分都有各自的意义，都不能再进一步被拆分。

否则，每个部分都没有意义。

二、语素的类型Morpheme(语素)可分为不同类型，自由语素和黏着语素，屈折语素和派生语素，词汇语素和语法语素。

自由语素能够单独出现，如bird，red，hot，pull，常被称为单语素词。

所有单语素词都是自由语素。

而多语素词分两种：一种仅有自由语素构成，又被称为复合词(compounds)，如sunflower，babysit，moonwalk，godfather。

另一种是有黏着语素参与的词，如boys，checking，friendly。

语素-s，-ing，-ly都不能单独出现，必须依附在另一个语素上。

这样的语素被称为黏着语素。

Boys中的-s(复数)，wants中的-s(动词的第三人称单数)，Tom’s 中的-’s(所有格)，均为屈折语素。

屈折语素不改变词干的意义和词类，揭示一个句子中不同词之间的句法或语义关系，常出现在词尾。

-ing(checking)，-ly(friendly)，都是派生语素。

汉语的“字”与英语的“词”的联系与区别

汉语的“字”与英语的“词”的联系与区别作者：王小峰来源：《中小企业管理与科技·上旬刊》2015年第03期摘要：每一种语言的研究，必有一个单位是基本单位，它是从事语言研究的出发点，在英语中是“词”，而在汉语中则是“字”，汉语的“字”与英语的“词”既有区别又有联系，他们主要体现在下面几个方面。

关键词：汉语的“字” 英语的“词” 联系区别1 汉语的“字”与英语的“词”的联系汉语的“字”与英语的“词”存在一定的对应性，即他们都是各自语言研究的基本单位，但是只有在他们各自语言中的地位才有对应性，具体来说他们都具有四个特点：①是语言的天然单位。

②是本民族认识世界的基本点。

③是语言各平面的交汇点。

④在语言组织（语法）研究中起承上启下作用。

2 汉语的“字”与英语的“词”的区别“字”是汉语的基本单位，而“词”则是英语的基本单位。

The word is the unit par excellence of traditional grammatical theory. （Lyons，1968：194）“In the beginning，there was the word.”太初有道（logos）词是英语民族认识世界的基本单位。

《圣经》创世纪第一章：Word=reason （logos）词是语言各平面研究的交汇点：Phonological/orthographical wordGrammatical wordLexeme词在语法上处于承上启下的枢纽位置，是词法和句法交汇点。

《老子》：道可道，非常道；名可名，非常名。

英语的word即“词”，可以分为morpheme即“词素”，而morpheme又可以分为自由词素（free morpheme）和粘着词素（bound morpheme），自由词素可以独立成词，例如，bed，tree，sing，etc.而粘着词素则必须依赖一定的词根才能成词，例如，s在dogs，al在national，以及dis在disclose中。

英语中的词素探析

一
础。
词素具有词素变体（ｌａｌｏｍｏｐｈｒ），Ａｎａｌｌｏｍｏｐｈｒｉｓ
ａｐｈｏｎｅｍｉｃａｌｌｙｄｉｆｅｒｅｎｔｆｏｒｍｏｆｔｈｅｓａｎｌｅｍｏｐｈｒｅｍｅ
ＮＯ．５２０１６
ＧｅｎｅｒａｌＮｏ．１０７
英语中的词素探析
郝英丽
（营口职业技术学院，辽宁营口１１５０００）
摘篓：词是语句的基本架构单位，而词素是不可再分的最小的有意义的结构单位，从词素的定义及分类入手，着重阐述了词
ｍｅａｎｉｎｇｆｕｌｕｎｉｔｏｆａｌａｎｕａｇｇｅ．（词素是最小的语言单位，是从词或词干的直接成分的角度来确定的音义结合体。它不一定是最小的音义结合成分；而词内的语素只从是否最小的音义结合成分来确定。）词素可分为两种，一种叫独立词素（ｉｎｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔｍｏｌ＂一ｐｈｅｍｅ）或自由词素（ｆｒｅｅｍｏｒｐｈｅｍｅ），另一种叫附着词素（ｂｏｕｎｄｍｏｒｐｈｅｍｅｏｒｄｅｐｅｎｄｅｎｔｍｏｐｈｒｅｍｅ）。顾名思义，独立词素可以单独使用成为一个词，如ｇｅｎ — ｄｅｍａｎ中ｇｅｎｔｌｅ，表示了这个词的核心意义，同时又能独立地作为词使用。它可以自由存在，作为句中的基本结构单位使用，所以又名ｍｏｐｒｈｅｍｅ，这种词素相当于词根（ｒｏｏｔ）。附着词素与独立词素不同，它不能独立存在，只能依附于其它词素与之结合成为词才可使用。它只表示附加意义或语法意义，且不能单独使用。这种词素相当于词缀（ａｆＬｘｉｅｓ），如ｂｅａｕｔｉｆｕｌ和ｄｉｓｌｉｋｅ中，ｄｉｓ和一ｆｕｌ具有附加意义但并不构成词的语义基

语言学概论第五讲

第四章语法第一节语素和词一、语素（一）语素及语素变体语素是最小的有意义的语言单位，也即是最小的音义结合体。

我们对人们说的话进行切分，分到最后还有意义的单位便是语素，再往下分便没有意义了。

如，“吃葡萄不吐葡萄皮”中的“吃、葡萄、不、吐、皮”。

从语流中切分出来的最小音义结合体，也需要经过归并的过程。

那些相互对立的最小音义结合体当然是不同的语素。

但是也有一些相互不对立，在语音、语义上极为近似的单位，也应该归并为一个语素。

这就形成了语素变体。

语素变体指同一语素内部略有差异的单位。

如，1.生辰、生日（出生），2.生根、生芽（发展长大），3.生病、生气（产生），4.谋生、营生（生计），5.杀生、众生（生命）等中的“生”就是“生”的语素变体。

语素变体可分为语音变体和语义变体。

语音相近的同一语素的变体叫语素的语音变体。

可分为条件变体和自由变体两种。

有些语素在不同的语言环境里语音（包括音质、声调、轻重音等）可能不同，由此形成互补关系。

在语音方面形成互补关系具有相同或相近的意义的结合体往往便是同一语素的语音条件变体变体。

如，英语里的s有变体[s][z][iz]，“一”“不”变调。

再如，“蝴蝶”、“蝶泳”、“化蝶”、“蝶恋花”等。

这些变体出现在不同的语言环境中，是条件变体。

自由变体如汉语里的“秘”即可读为bi，也可读为mi，口语中的熟（shu\shou）悉(xi)。

这类变体是规范的对象。

语素的语义变体指同一语素在不同的语言环境里语义也可能有一些变异，这就是语素的语义变体。

如以上所举的“生”。

语素的语义变体没有自由变体，只有条件变体。

（二）语素的确定语素的确定一般可以采取替换和比较的方法。

例如比较现代汉语中的“沙场”、“沙丘”、“沙田”、“沙土”，可以看出这几个单位里的“沙”有着共同的语音形式和共同的意义（细小的石粒），而且可以单独拿出来与别的单位替换，如与“广”、“土”、“水”、“泥”替换组成“广场”、“土丘”、“水田”、“泥土”，而且“沙”也不能再分割了。

英语词汇学总结

Chapter 3Word Formation I词语结构13.1 Morphemes词素1. the morpheme is ‘ the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’词素是“词语中最小的功能单位”。

2.Suffix：-ation：-tion, -sion, -ion.后缀：ation 的多变体，当它们有同样的意义和语法功能时它们属于同一个后缀3.Owing to different sound environment 因为存在不同的发生环境。

3.2 Allomorphs （语素变体）同质异晶，同质异象变体1.Morphemes are abstract units.‘They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning’语素是抽象的单位,它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体.The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone:语素是一个音素发音的形素①single morphs单一语素词：bird, tree, green, sad, want, desire,Most morphemes are realized by single morphs,Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.大多数语素通过单个的形素实现，语素与词相同叫做单一语素词.These morphemes coincide withe words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence.Words of this kind are called monomorphemic words.这些语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。

英语语法——词性

五、感叹词
感叹词是用来表示说话时表达的喜怒哀乐等情感的词。它不构成后面句子的一个语法成分，却在意义上与它有关连，后面的句子一般说明这种情绪的性质、原因。感叹词是英语口语中最富于表现力的词语之一，用途甚广。学会它，对于提高英语的交际能力，表达复杂的思想起着举足轻重的作用。英语中的感叹词很多，但目前的语法著作中却很少对它进行归纳总结，致使许多人对含有感叹词的句子理解不透。现将部分感叹词的用法进行小结：一、Oh 表示惊讶、指责、痛苦、称赞、懊恼等，可译为“哦”、“哎呀”、“噢”“啊”、“呀”等。 1. "Oh, who was that?" Mr. Black asked.“哦，是谁？”布莱克先生问。 2. "Oh, how blind you are!" he cried.“哎呀，你们真瞎！”他大声道。 3. "Oh, oh!" he cried. "My stomach! My head! oh! oh!“哎呀，哎哟！”他大声道，“我的肚子！我的头！哎哟！哎哟！” 4.Oh, learned judge! Oh, wise young man. 噢，博学的法官！噢，聪明的年轻人！
句子成分
一个句子一般皆由两部分组成，即主语部分（subject group）和谓语部分（predicate group）。如：（1） Professor Ward teaches Engilsh to university students. 沃德教授给大学生教英语。句中的 Professor Ward即是主语部分，teaches English to university students 即是谓语部分。句子成分（members of the sentence ）是句子中起一定功用的组成部分。句子由各个句子成分所构成。句子的组成部分,包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、补语、状语、表语七种。主语是句子叙述的主体，可由名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、不定式、动名词和主语从句等来承担。谓语说明主语所发出的动作或具有的特征和状态。谓语由动词来承担。宾语是动作的对象或承受者，常位于及物动词或介词后面。宾语可由名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、不定式、动名词、宾语从句等来担任。主语和谓语是英语句子的两大成分，除少数句子（如祈使句和感叹句等）外，一句话必须同时具有主语和谓语所表达的意思才能完整。主语是针对谓语而言的，是一句话的主题，谓语用来说明主语的情况，为主语提供信息。例如：They are working.主语是they(他们)，那么他们在做什么呢？看来没有谓语are working 是不行的。在正常情况下，英语的主语和谓语的位置与汉语一致，也就是说主语在前，谓语紧跟其后。那么，哪些词语可以做主语，谓语，何时主谓倒置，主语与谓语的一致情况如何，我将一一讲述。

英语口语发音技巧总结(GOOD)

英语口语发音技巧总结练习口语发音顺序：1.单词（音标）→2.语素（词之间的连读、弱读等）→3.句子（节奏和语调）口语发音原则：自然、轻松、流畅一、单词音标补充词汇：Measure pleasure二、语素连读1. 连读：快读≠连读。

连读是将短语、习语或属于同一个意群的2个及以上单词平滑的串接起来发音，听起来像是一个长音单词，甚至可以将一个完整的句子连读成一个超长音。

★1）词尾辅音+词首元音Stand up hold on turn over tell her I miss her read only fall off follow up on come in knock at take a chance look into take up take a back seat take a message to take a nap take advantage of take air look out of look over look up get out of get off get into get in get away call him sell it take out fade away 6-0 MA(Master of Arts)build up come over called up for a while where is what if hold on a minute a cup of coffee it felt in need for a while just a moment does everybody here work out? can I think it over?音标＋口语技巧＝口语（音标是发音的基础，但音标≠口语）有气流无气流破擦音是★2）词尾原本不发音的r或re+词首元音，词尾r重新发音[r]。

如：far away。

2. 加音：1）一般当前面单词以敞口元音（[i]，[e]，[ai]，[oi]，[i]）结尾，其后单词以元音开头时，在两个单词之间加一个半元音j，因为半元音j既与前面的元音音似，又因为具有辅音特质（即携带元音），所以非常有利于连接两个单词（或同一单词中两个相连的元音音节）的发音，例如radio，或I (y)also need the (y)other one.2）当前面单词以合口元音[u]、[o]、[au]结尾，其后单词以元音开头，这时在两个单词之间加一个半元音w，因为半元音w既与前面的元音音似，又因为具有辅音特质，非常有利于连接两个单词的发音，例如how are you doing?，或Go(w)away. 3）为了避免让两个意义相关的相邻词的尾首元音分开读，通常在尾首元音之间加上一个轻微的[r]。

英语基本词性

基本词性一、实词1.名词（nouns）n.：名词是词性的一种，也是实词的一种，是指代人、物、事、时、地、情感、概念等实体或抽象事物的词。

名词可以独立成句。

在短语或句子中通常可以用代词来替代。

名词可以分为专有名词（Proper Nouns）和普通名词(Common Nouns），专有名词是某个（些）人，地方，机构等专有的名称，如Beijing，China等，专有名词的首字母要大写。

普通名词是一类人或东西或是一个抽象概念的名词，如：book，sadness等。

2.代词（pronoun）pron.：代词是代替名词的一种词类。

大多数代词具有名词和形容词的功能。

英语中的代词，按其意义、特征及在句中的作用分为：人称代词、物主代词、指示代词、反身代词、相互代词、疑问代词、关系代词、连接代词和不定代词九种。

3.数词（numeral）Num.：表示“多少”和“第几”的词，叫数词。

其用法相当于名词或者形容词。

数词分为基数词和序数词两种。

4.形容词（adjective）adj.或a.：很多语言中均有的主要词类中的一种。

主要用来修饰名词的词，表示事物的特征。

形容词用来修饰名词或代词，表示人或事物的性质、状态，和特征的程度好坏，与否。

5.副词（adverb)adv.：是一种用来修饰动词、形容词、全句的词，说明时间、地点、程度、方式等概念的词。

副词是一种半虚半实的词。

副词可分为：时间副词、地点副词、方式副词、程度副词、疑问副词、连接副词、关系副词、频率副词和说明性副词等。

6.动词（Verb）v.：动词，就是用来形容或表示各类动作的词汇。

基本上每个完整的句子都有一个动词，要表示第二个动作时可使用不定词、动名词、对等连接词、从属连接词或增加子句等方法连结。

二、虚词7.冠词（article) art.：冠词是虚词，本身不能单独使用，也没有词义，它用在名词的前面，帮助指明名词的含义。

冠词可以说是名词的一种标志，它不能离开名词而独立存在。

比较分析英语词汇学研究中的形态结构术语

- 229 -校园英语 / 语言文化研究责人进行相关事务的洽谈而已。

然而，根据霍夫斯泰德的研究结果表明，中国的权力距离是80，是一个高权力距离文化倾向的国家。

在一个企业里面，等级分布十分明显，部分负责人没有关键的决策权，大部分决策都需要企业最高领导的批示。

美方显然是忽略了中国的文化，将两方的合作陷入了一个很尴尬的位置。

综上二个案例分析，我们能够看出他们都是不了解不同国家之间的文化价值体系，特别是不理解各国之间的权力距离是不一样的，并不是每一个国家都是民主自由的，崇尚平等。

有些国家他们遵从传统，是高权力距离的国家，上下级之间的界限是非常明显的，管理层拥有决策权，下属员工一般只是执行。

因此，在跨国企业管理中以及跨国文化商务的交流中，了解不同国家的文化价值体系，尊重本土文化是商务交流中的一个重要的因素。

结论通过上述案例的分析，我们看到了解不同国家文化价值体系对于跨国商务的交流十分重要。

案例一强调的是企业的管理问题，美国崇尚自由平等，上下级之间的界限不是特别明显，下级对于上级没有太多的依赖，而秘鲁刚好相反，上下级界限明显，下级对于上级的依赖性也强，一般执行上级的决策。

当从美国来的经理忽略秘鲁的文化，而对下级采取民主的管理方式显然不能奏效。

案例二着重于商务沟通的时候因为不了解当地文化而使双方陷入了尴尬的境地，使交流不顺畅。

对此，对于跨国公司的员工特别是管理层有着很高的要求，在管理公司的时候应该多学习一些跨文化方面的一些知识，在将某一类产品推销到国外的时候，一定要了解当地文化价值体系，从而制定出合理的营销策略。

在几个国家比较分析英语词汇学研究中的形态结构术语郑州大学西亚斯国际学院/樊晓培【摘要】英语词汇学的学习是英语专业本科阶段的必修科目。

但学生普遍反映，词汇学中形态结构方面的几个术语很难区分和理解。

研究发现，不同著作和教材中对这些术语的分析解释都不同。

因此，笔者拟对这些不同研究进行比较分析，总结出相对合理易于理解的术语框架。

现代英语词汇学概论2

Review
2.Morphological Structure of English Words 英语词汇的形态结构 2.1 Morphemes词素 1.The Definition of “Morphemes” 词素的概念 2. Allomorphs 词素变体 2.2 Classification of Morphemes 词素分类 1. Free Morphemes and Bound Morphemes 自由词素与粘着词素 2. Roots and Affixes 词根与词缀 free root and bound root inflectional affixes and derivational affixes
派生词缀分类（derivational morphemes）: Prefixes and suffixes 1) By linguistic origin: Native affixes Foreign affixes 2) By productivity: Productive/living affixes Unproductive/dead affixes
Bound morpheme: cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound E.g. receive re-ceive
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How does a free morpheme or a bound morpheme form a word? E.g. green, greenhouse, greenness, disagreeable, receive, encyclopedia green (free) green-house (free + free) green-ness (free + bound) dis-agree-able (bound + free + bound) re-ceive (bound + bound) en-cyclo-pedia (bound + bound + bound) Note: A free morpheme is a word. back

英语十大词性

目录英语十大词性 (1)一、十大词性概述 (1)二、十大词性分类 (2)三、十大词性详述 (2)（一）实词 (2)1. 名词(nouns）n (2)2. 代词（pronoun）pron. (2)3. 数词（numeral）Num.： (3)4. 形容词(adjective）adj.或a. (3)5. 副词（adverb)adv.： (3)6. 动词（Verb）v.： (3)（二）虚词 (3)7. 冠词（article) art.： (3)8. 介词（preposition）prep.： (4)9. 连词（conjunction）conj： (4)10. 助词： (4)11. 叹词：（interjection）interj.： (4)（三）判断词 (4)（四）其他 (5)英语十大词性一、十大词性概述英语里的词汇分为10种词性，分别是：n. 名词v. 动词pron. 代词adj. 形容词adv. 副词num.数词art. 冠词prep. 介词conj. 连词int. 感叹词除这十大类词之外，英语还另有判断词yes和no。

二、十大词性分类实词：表示实在意义的词，有名词、动词、形容词、数词、量词、代词、副词。

虚词：不表示实在意义而表示语法意义的词，有：介词、连词、助词、叹词。

三、十大词性详述（一）实词1.名词(nouns）n.(1)名词是词性的一种，也是实词的一种，是指代人、物、事、时、地、情感、概念等实体或抽象事物的词。

(2)名词可以独立成句。

在短语或句子中通常可以用代词来替代。

(3)名词可以分为专有名词（Proper Nouns）和普通名词(Common Nouns）。

专有名词是某个（些）人，地方，机构等专有的名称,如Beijing，China等。

普通名词是一类人或东西或是一个抽象概念的名词，如book，sadness等。

2.代词（pronoun）pron.(1)代词是代替名词的一种词类。

(2)大多数代词具有名词和形容词的功能。

《英语词汇学》重要术语中英文对照

1. Native words 本族词Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words.2. Loan words 借词Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words.3. Slang words 俚语Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.4. Function words 功能词Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else.5. Content words 实义词Content words are usedtoname objects, qualities, actions, processes or states,and have independent lexical meaning.6. Free forms 自由形式Forms which occur as sentences are free forms.1. Morphemes 语素Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language,not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.2. Allomorphs 语素变体position or adjoining sounds.3. Free morpheme 自由语素Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素Bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.5. Root 词根Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.6. Affix 词缀Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree.8. Derivational affix 派生词缀Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has specific lexical meaning handcan derive a word when it is added to another morpheme.9. Prefixes 前缀Prefixes are affixes added before words.10. Suffixes 后缀Suffixes are affixes added after words.1. Word-formation rules 构词规则Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of alanguage may create new words.2. Stem 词干Stem is the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixeshave been removed.3. Base 词基Base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.4. Compounding 合成法Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit.5. Derivation 派生法Derivation or affixation is a word-formation process by which new words arecreated by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.6. Conversion 转化法Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.7. Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the addition of a prefix to the base.8. Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation refers to the addition of a suffix to the base.1. Initialism 首字母连写词Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term or a phrase and it is pronounced letter by letter.2. Acronyms 首字母拼音词Acronyms are word formed from the initial letters of the name of anorganization or a scientific term, and they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters.3. Clipping 截短法The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.4. Blending 拼缀法Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its fullform or both of which are not in their full forms.5. Back-formation 逆成法Back-formation is a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.6. Reduplication 重叠法Reduplication is a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition of one word or of two almost identical words with achange in the vowels or of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants.7. Neoclassical formation 新古典词构成法Neoclassical formation is the process by which new words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek.1. Conventionality 约定俗成It is the characteristics of relation between the sound-symbol and its sense:there is no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol has this or that meaning beyond the fact that the people of a given community have agreed to use one to designate the other.2. Motivation 理据Motivation refers to the direct connection between word-symbol and its sense.3. Echoic/ onomatopoeic words 拟声词Echoic words or onomatopoeic words are words motivated phonetically whose pronunciation suggests the meaning.4. Morphological motivation 语素结构理据A word is morphologically motivated if a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.5. Semantic motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factors and it isusually provided by the figurative usage of words.6. Grammatical meaning 语法意义Grammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm.7. Inflectional paradigm 词形变化The set of grammatical forms of a word is called its inflectional paradigm. Nouns are declined, verbs are conjugatedandgradable adjectives have degrees of comparison.8. Denotative meaning 外延意义The denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary.9. Connotative meaning 内涵意义Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or aphrase suggests in one ’s mind.10. Social or stylistic meaning 社会意义Social meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.11. Affective meaning 情感意义Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudesof the speaker or writer.12. Componential analysis 语义成分分析The conceptual meaning or denotative meaning can be broken down into its minimal distinctive components which are known as semantic features. Such ananalysis is called componential analysis.1. Polysemy 一词多义Polysemy happens when more than one meaning is attached to a word.2. Radiation 词义辐射Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every directionlike rays.3. Concatenation 语义的连锁、联结Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word movesgradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain,until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and theprimary meaning.4. Homonymy 同音异义、同形异义Homonymy is the relation between pairs or groups of word which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike, or spelled alike or both.5. Perfect homonyms 完全同音同形异义词Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called perfect homonyms.6. Homophones 同音异义词Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.7. Homographs 同形异义词Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographs.8. Phonetic convergence 音变的汇合Phonetic convergence is the kind of phenomenon where two or more wordswhich once were different in sound forms take on the same pronunciation.9. Semantic Divergence 词义分化When two or more meanings of the same word drift apart to such an extentthat there will be no obvious connection between them, the word has undergone the process of semantic divergence.1. Synonyms 同义词A synonym may be defined as a word having the same meaning as anotherword: as one of two or more words of the same language and grammatical category having the same essential or generic meaning and differing only in connotation, application, or idiomatic use.2. Complete synonyms 完全同义词Two words are totally synonymous only if they are fully identical in meaningand interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotative, affective and stylistic meanings.3. Relative synonyms 相对同义词Relative synonyms are words that are not fully identical but may differ in shades of meaning, in emotional colouring, in level of formality, in collocation, and in distribution.4. Antonymy 反义关系In its general sense, antonymy refers to all types of semantic oppositeness.5. Contraries/gradable antonyms 相对性反义词Contraries or contrary terms display such a type of semantic contrast that theycan be handled in terms of gradability, that is, in terms of degrees of the quality involved.6. Complementaries/contradictory terms 互补性反义词Complementaries or contradictories represent a type of binary semantic opposition sothat the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other.7. Conversives/converses/relational opposites 换位性反义词Conversives represent such a type of binary semantic opposition that there is an interdependence of meaning, or say, one member of the pair presupposes the other.8. Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter.9. Superordinates 上义词The general term in a hyponymy pair is called a superordinate linguistically.10. Hyponyms 下义词The specific term in a hyponymy pair is called the hyponym or subordinate.11. Semantic field 语义场Semantic field theory is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks. The words of a semantic field arejoinedtogether by a common concept, and they are likely to have a number of collocations in common.1. Context 语境Context in its narrowest sense consists of the lexical items that come immediately before andafter any wordin an act of communication. But, in broadersense, it may cover the whole passage and sometimes the whole book in which a word occurs, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.2. Linguistic context 语言语境Linguistic context is lexical, grammatical and verbal context in its broad sense.3. Extra-linguistic context 语言之外的环境Extra-linguistic context refers not only tothe actual speech situation in whichawordis usedbut alsotothe entire cultural backgroundagainst which a word, or anutterance or a speech event is set.4. Lexical context 词汇语境Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemousword.5. Grammatical context 语法语境In grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word.6. Verbal context 言语语境The verbal context, in its broadest sense, may cover an entire passage, or evenan entire book, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.7. Ambiguity 歧义Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or groupof sentences with morethan one possible interpretation or meaning.8. Lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义Lexical ambiguity is caused by polysemy.9. Structural ambiguity 结构歧义Structural ambiguity arises from the grammatical analysis of a sentence or aphrase.1. Change of word meaning 语义变化When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of word meaning. Broadly speaking, change of meaningrefers tothe alteration of the meaningof existingwords as wellas the addition of new meaning to establish words.2. Restriction of meaning 语义专门化Restriction of meaningor specialization of meaningmeans that a wordof widemeaning acquires a narrower, specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.3. Extension of meaning 词义扩展化Extension of meaning or generalization means the widening of a word ’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.4. Degeneration of meaning 词义降格There are two main forms of degeneration or pejoration.One refers to the process where words once respectable or neutral may shift toa less respectable, oreven derogatory meaning. The other refers to the weakeningof meaningresultingfrom habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.5. Elevation of meaning 词义升格It refers to the process that the meaning of a word goes uphill.6. Metaphor 暗喻Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing is applied to another.7. Metonymy 转喻It is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it.1. Idiom 习语An English idiomis a groupof words with a special meaningdifferent fromthe meanings of its constituent words. It is a combination of two or more words whichare usually structurally fixedandsemantically opaque, andfunction as a single unitof meaning.2. Phrase idioms 惯用短语All phrase idioms have a noun, verb, adjective, preposition or an adverbas thecentral word and correspond to the familiar parts of speech, and are capable of a given syntactic function.3. Clause idioms 从句成语Clause idioms or subject-less clause patterns contain objects and / or complements.4. Sentence idioms 句子成语The two major types of sentence idioms are proverbs or sayings and typical conversational expressions.5. Proverbs 谚语Proverbs are sentences accepted by the people and handed down to the present day because they express some obvious truth or familiar experience in aconcise and witty style.。

英语词汇学基本概念汇总

英语词汇学基本概念汇总《英语词汇学》重要术语One:1. Native words 本族词Words of Anglo-Saxon origin or of Old English are native words.2. Loan words 借词Words borrowed from other languages are loan words or borrowed words.3. Slang words 俚语Slang words are those words of a vigorous, colourful, facetious, or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.4. Function words 功能词Function words are often short words such as determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries that serve grammatically more than anything else.5. Content words 实义词Content words areused to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning.6. Free forms 自由形式Forms which occur as sentences are free forms.Two:1. Morphemes 语素Morphemes are the smallest meaningful linguistic units of English language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.2. Allomorphs 语素变体Allomorphs are any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.3. Free morpheme 自由语素Free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.4. Bound morpheme 粘着语素Boundmorpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance and must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound.5. Root 词根Root is the basic unchangeable part of a word and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.6. Affix 词缀Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.7. Inflectional affix 屈折词缀Inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree.8. Derivational affix 派生词缀Derivational affix is the kind of affixes that has specific lexical meaning hand can derive a word when it is added to another morpheme.9. Prefixes 前缀Prefixes are affixes added before words.10. Suffixes 后缀Suffixes are affixes added after words.Three1. Word-formation rules 构词规则Word-formation rules define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words.2. Stem 词干Stem is the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed.3. Base 词基Base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.4. Compounding 合成法Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit.5. Derivation 派生法Derivation or affixation is a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base.6. Conversion 转化法Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.7. Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the addition of a prefix to the base.8. Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation refers to the addition of a suffix to the base.Four:1. Initialism 首字母连写词Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term or a phrase and it is pronounced letter by letter.2. Acronyms首字母拼音词Acronyms are word formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, and they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters.3. Clipping 截短法The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.4. Blending 拼缀法Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.5. Back-formation 逆成法Back-formation is a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of asupposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.6. Reduplication 重叠法Reduplication is a minor type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by therepetition of one word or of two almost identical words with a change in the vowels or of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants.7. Neoclassical formation 新古典词构成法Neoclassical formation is the process by which new words are formed from elements derived from Latin and Greek.Five:1. Conventionality 约定俗成It is the characteristics of relation between the sound-symbol and its sense: there is no way to explain why this or that sound-symbol has this or that meaning beyond the fact that the people of a given community have agreed touse one to designate the other.2. Motivation 理据Motivation refers to the direct connection between word-symbol and its sense.3. Echoic/ onomatopoeic words 拟声词Echoic words or onomatopoeic words are words motivated phonetically whose pronunciation suggests the meaning.4. Morphological motivation 语素结构理据A word is morphologically motivated if a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.5. Semantic motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factors and it is usually provided by the figurative usage of words.6. Grammatical meaning 语法意义Grammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm.7. Inflectional paradigm 词形变化The set of grammatical forms of a word is called its inflectional paradigm. Nouns are declined, verbs are conjugated and gradable adjectives have degrees of comparison.8. Denotative meaning 外延意义The denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary.9. Connotative meaning 内涵意义Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind.10. Social or stylistic meaning 社会意义Social meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the socialcircumstances of its use.11. Affective meaning 情感意义Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.12. Componential analysis 语义成分分析The conceptual meaning or denotative meaning can be broken down into its minimal distinctive components which are known as semantic features. Such an analysis is called componential analysis.Six:1. Polysemy 一词多义Polysemy happens when more than one meaning is attached to a word.2. Radiation 词义辐射Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primaryor central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.3. Concatenation 语义的连锁、联结Concatenation is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.4. Homonymy 同音异义、同形异义Homonymy is the relation between pairs or groups of word which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike, or spelled alike or both.5. Perfect homonyms 完全同音同形异义词Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called perfect homonyms.6. Homophones 同音异义词Wordsidentical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones. 7. Homographs 同形异义词Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographs.8. Phonetic convergence 音变的汇合Phonetic convergence is the kind of phenomenon where two or more words which once were different in sound forms take on the same pronunciation.9. Semantic Divergence 词义分化When two or more meanings of the same word drift apart to such an extent that there will be no obvious connection between them, the word has undergone the process of semantic divergence.Seven: 1. Synonyms 同义词 A synonym may be defined as a word having the same meaning as another word: as one of two ormore words of the same language and grammatical category having the same essential or generic meaning and differing only in connotation, application, or idiomatic use. 2. Complete synonyms 完全同义词Two words are totally synonymous only if they are fully identical in meaning and interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotative, affective and stylistic meanings. 3. Relative synonyms 相对同义词Relative synonyms are words that are not fully identical but may differ in shades of meaning, in emotional colouring, in level of formality, in collocation, and in distribution. 4. Antonymy 反义关系In its general sense, antonymy refers to all types of semantic oppositeness. 5. Contraries/gradable antonyms 相对性反义词Contraries or contrary terms display such a type of semantic contrast that they can be handled in terms of gradability, that is, in terms of degrees of the quality involved. 6.Complementaries/contradictory terms 互补性反义词Complementaries or contradictories represent a type of binary semantic opposition so that theassertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other. 7. Conversives/converses/relational opposites 换位性反义词Conversives represent such a type of binary semantic opposition that there is an interdependence of meaning, or say, one member of the pair presupposes the other. 8. Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical items, such that the former is included in the latter. 9. Superordinates 上义词The general term in a hyponymy pair is called a superordinate linguistically. 10. Hyponyms 下义词The specific term in a hyponymy pair is called the hyponym or subordinate. 11. Semantic field 语义场Semantic field theory is concernedwith the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrelated lexical networks. The words of a semantic field are joined together by a common concept, and they are likely to have a number of collocations in common. Eight: 1. Context 语境Context in its narrowest sense consists of the lexical items that come immediately before and after any word in an act of communication. But, in broader sense, it may cover the whole passage and sometimes the whole book in which a word occurs, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting. 2. Linguistic context 语言语境Linguistic context is lexical, grammatical and verbal context in its broad sense. 3. Extra-linguistic context 语言之外的环境Extra-linguistic context refers not only to the actual speech situation in which a word is used but also to the entire cultural background against which a word, or an utterance or a speech event is set. 4. Lexical context 词汇语境Lexicalcontext refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemous word. 5. Grammatical context 语法语境In grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word. 6. Verbal context 言语语境The verbal context, in its broadest sense, may cover an entire passage, or even an entire book, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting. 7. Ambiguity 歧义Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning. 8. Lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义Lexical ambiguity is caused by polysemy. 9. Structural ambiguity 结构歧义Structural ambiguity arises from the grammatical analysis of a sentence or a phrase.Nine: 1. Change of word meaning 语义变化When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of wordmeaning. Broadly speaking, change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words as well as the addition of new meaning to establish words.2. Restriction of meaning 语义专门化Restriction of meaning or specialization of meaning means that a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower, specialized sense which is applicable to only one of the objects it had previously denoted.3. Extension of meaning 词义扩展化Extension of meaning or generalization means the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed.4. Degeneration of meaning 词义降格There are two main forms of degeneration or pejoration. One refers to the process where words once respectable or neutral may shift to a less respectable, or even derogatory meaning. The other refers to the weakening of meaning resulting from habitual use of particular words on unsuitable occasions.5. Elevationof meaning 词义升格It refers to the process that the meaning of a word goes uphill. 6. Metaphor 暗喻Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity, in which a word or a phrase ordinarily and primarily used for one thing is applied to another. 7. Metonymy 转喻It is a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it. Ten: 1. Idiom 习语An English idiom is a group of words with a special meaning different from the meanings of its constituent words. It is a combination of two or more words which are usually structurally fixed and semantically opaque, and function as a single unit of meaning. 2. Phrase idioms 惯用短语All phrase idioms have a noun, verb, adjective, preposition or an adverb as the central word and correspond to the familiar parts of speech, and are capable of a given syntactic function. 3. Clause idioms 从句成语Clauseidioms or subject-less clause patterns contain objects and / or complements. 4. Sentence idioms 句子成语The two major types of sentence idioms are proverbs or sayings and typical conversational expressions. 5. Proverbs 谚语Proverbs are sentences accepted by the people and handed down to the present day because they express some obvious truth or familiar experience in a concise and witty style.。

英语语法词性概念

英语里的词汇分为10种词性,分别是：n. 名词v. 动词pron. 代词adj. 形容词adv. 副词num.数词art. 冠词prep. 介词conj. 连词int. 感叹词,除这十大类词之外,英语还另有判断词yes和no.分类实词：表示实在意义的词,有名词、动词、形容词、数词、量词、代词、副词.虚词：不表示实在意义而表示语法意义的词,有：介词、连词、助词、叹词. 词性反身代词一、定义反身代词是一种表示反射或强调的代词。

它的基本含义是：通过反身代词指代主语，使施动者把动作在形式上反射到施动者自己。

因此，反身代词与它所指代的名词或代词形成互指关系，在人称、性质、数上保持一致。

二、构成1、第一、二人称的反身代词是由形容词性物主代词加上-self或-selves构成的。

如：I--myself we--ourselves you（单数）-- yourself you（复数）-- yourselves2、第三人称的反身代词是由人称代词的宾格加上-self或-selves构成的。

如：she--herself he --himself it--itself they--themselves one--oneself三、用法口诀反身代词表自身，句中可作三成分；动介后面用作宾，表示动作回自身。

句中强调同位语，主语宾语后变跟；系动be后作表语，这个用法要牢记。

四、具体解析1、作宾语，此时的宾语指的就是主语。

a. 有些动词需有反身代词，如：dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduceWe enjoyed ourselves very much last night.翻译：我们昨晚玩得很开心。

b. 用于及物动词+宾语+介词，如：take pride in, help oneself to sth.I could not dress (myself) up at that time.翻译：那个时候我不能打扮我自己。