商务英语复习题8

Organizational citizenship behaviors are behaviors that make a positive overall contribution to the organization; such behaviors are often observed when employees go above and beyond what is expected of them. Counterproductive behaviors detract

can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy for others, and

concerning what they will contribute to an organization and what the organization will

workplace that affect motivation and satisfaction only if they are absent or fail to meet expectations; hygiene factors usually refer to the environment in which an employee

Theory X managers tend to view people as being lazy, lacking ambition, being

self-centered, and resisting change. Theory Y managers tend to believe that people are energetic, seek responsibility, are intelligent, and want to contribute to business growth.

With equity theory, one employee compares his or her ratio with another employee's

activities. Job rotation, for example, expands growth opportunities by rotating employees through various positions in the same firm. Job redesign is restructuring work to achieve a more satisfactory fit between workers and their jobs. Job redesign

sharing programs and flextime programs, such as telecommuting, give employees

benefits. Studies have shown that the increased sense of freedom associated with flextime reduces stress and improves individual productivity. In urban areas, flextime programs can reduce traffic congestion and similar problems that contribute to stress and lost work time. Employers also benefit from higher levels of commitment and job

solely by money. Taylor reasoned that if workers are motivated by money, then paying them more should prompt them to produce more. Researchers studying the Hawthorne Works of Western Electric found unexpected results. In this study, increase pay failed to increase productivity. The researchers found that productivity rose in response to almost any management action that workers interpreted as special attention. Known as the Hawthorne effect, this finding had a major influence on

importance. Lower-level needs must be met before a person will try to satisfy higher-level needs. Maslow's theory recognizes that because people have different

enhance motivation. First, managers must ensure that hygiene factors are acceptable, reducing dissatisfaction. Then they must offer motivational factors as a means of

Answer: The expectancy theory suggests that people are motivated to work towards rewards that they want and that they believe they have a reasonable chance, or expectancy, of obtaining. Expectancy theory states that a number of issues must be considered for individuals to exert high effort. The individual must expect that high effort will result in high individual performance, and thereby organizational rewards. Finally, the individual must expect that the organizational reward will meet their

an organization to the bottom. MBO involves both managers and subordinates in setting goals and evaluating progress. MBO can serve as a program for improving

addition, participation on teams enhances companywide communications and

always appropriate. Work teams may not be appropriate when workers perform repetitive, highly specialized tasks. Paying workers based on team productivity could result in resentment on the part of faster workers when slower workers reduce the group's total output. Slower workers might resent the pressure put on them by faster

distinguish one person from another. The "big five" personality traits that are especially fundamental to organizations are agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotionality, extraversion, and openness. Agreeableness is a person's ability to get along with others. Conscientiousness is a reflection of the number of things a person tries to accomplish. Emotionality reflects the extent to which people are poised, calm, resilient, and secure versus excitable, insecure, reactive, and subject to extreme mood swings. Extraversion reflects a person's comfort level with relationships in the workplace. Finally, openness reflects how open or rigid a person is in terms of their

he or she will contribute to the organization and what it will provide in return. An individual makes a variety of contributions to the organization; contributions can include effort, skills, ability, time, and loyalty. In return for these contributions, the organization provides inducements to the individual; these inducements can include pay, career opportunities, job security, status, etc. All organizations face the basic challenge of managing psychological contracts: They want value from their