霍布斯、洛克和卢梭之比较

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The Sovereign and Citizens

Rights of the sovereign:
Enforcement of Law Legislative power Judicial power

Sovereign is not subject to the laws. Citizens retain certain “inalienable rights” or “retained rights”

Overall Objectives:

To put moral and political philosophy on a scientific basis Contribute to the stability, peace, and welfare of mankind
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Approach
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The State of War



It is the use of force without right. In peace, there is no use of force without right. Allows that there are “inconveniences” in the state of nature in which people may need to be judges in their own case. It such situations, the state of nature may be indistinguishable from the state of war.


All government is limited in its powers and exists only by the consent of the governed. All people are born free.
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Great Works
Two Treatises on Government (1690) A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) Some Considerations of the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and Raising the Value of Money (1691)
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Social Contract



Biblioteka Baidu
The social contract is not between the citizens and the ruling power. It is a contract citizens make with each other to accept the rule of central authority. The minority accepts the majority decision. A society so united forms a single body, a commonwealth, a leviathan.
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Self-Preservation


Everyone should pursue their own preservation, but is also obligated to pursue the preservation of the rest of humankind. What if these duties conflict? Aggression against others if a violation of the law of nature. A course of conduct that tends toward self-preservation is in accord with nature, which is the law of nature.

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Implications



To prevent chaos, society, though political and economic organization use the force and coercion to hold society together. People ought to be willing to give up the same rights as they expect others to give up, and out to be satisfied with just as much liberty with respect to others as others have with respect to them. Agreement to this by the members of society forms the social contract.
Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau
ECON 205W Summer 2006 Prof. Cunningham
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Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)


Personal Background Most Important Writings:



The Elements of Law (1640) De Cive (The Citizen, 1642) Leviathan (1651)
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Locke on Property



Natural distribution Theory of private property rights Begins with the assertion that every person owns themselves and their labor. This is the foundation of all other property. Property acquired through just acquisition, earned through use of self and labor. Means of limiting accumulation is only required if there is less than a superabundance. Only labor can create property. Transfer does not create property.
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Answers:

The State of Nature




Contrast with Hobbes‟ view. The state of nature is a state of perfect freedom and equality. The world was never without political or social structure. Political and social structure arise naturally with humankind. People “… living together according to reason, without a common superior on earth with authority to judge between them, is properly the state of nature.”
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Social Contract (2)
The ruler is the absolute authority. Parts of the social contract process. Validity of the contact. The contract is binding only if its purpose is fulfilled—i.e., that the citizens are secure.


Felt that earlier thinkers (excluding Machiavelli and certain others) had failed because they attempted to base their theories of society on mankind‟s highest aspirations. Created a code of natural law as morally binding and determining the purpose of society. Separated his notion of natural law from human perfection. Develops a psychology of human passions or interests.
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Distributive Justice
In the state of nature, people share a kind of equality. Inequality is a product of civil law. Regardless, people perceive themselves as equal, and will enter into contracts willingly only under equal terms. Doctrines of inequality don‟t work.

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Two Treatises on Gov‟t

Begins with the questions:

“What is political power? What is the appropriate end and objective of civil government? Political power is the right to make laws, enforcing them at penalty of death. Establishment of penalties related to regulating and preserving property and defending the commonwealth from foreign attack, all for the public good.

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Hobbes‟ Economic Contributions
Focus on people as they are. Predecessor to Theory of Moral Sentiments (Smith) Entitlement theory of justice Basic of all justice is enforcement of property rights Social contract with retained rights Equality opportunity

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John Locke (1632-1704)


Background Basic ideas:


Rational agent model Coincidence of self-interest and general interest

Reacts more to Sir Robert Filmer than to Hobbes. Locke‟s message:
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Approach (2)
Believed he had uncovered the basis of human behavior and human nature. Used these as assumptions to build his theory. Believes people have competing interests, and this has implications. The “State of Nature.”

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Entitlement Theory




Distributive justice. The guarantee of performance on contracts is the basis of all justice. Without respect for (private) property rights, everyone has a claim on everything, and chaos reigns. Justice is not equal outcomes, but rather equality of process and equality of opportunity.