语言学第一单元

Chapter 1 Linguistics
考点1：定义（选择题或填空题）
Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
▲Language distinguishes human beings from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.
Linguistics: the scientific study of human languages.
It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings.（判断题）
★注：语言学研究的是所有人类的语言，并不是局限于如英语等某一门语言。
Language is vocal
1) The primary medium for all languages is sound.
2) Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.
Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance.
词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位
考点2：Design features 语言的定义特征 （分析大题）
Design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. （定义填空题）
▲ 语言的四个Design features 也是区别人类语言好动物语言的特征
A、Arbitrariness 任意性
There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
语言形式的符号与所表示的意义无天然的联系。
Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.
（语素音义关系的任意性）
Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.
（语言在句法层面是非任意性）【判断题】
The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.
语言的形式和意义的连接是约定俗成，即规约性
★ 任意性具有两个层面，而非any level !!! (判断题)
Arbitrariness → Makes language potentially creative
language
convention → Makes language systematic

B、Duality 双重性，二元性
Human language is productive or creative due to duality and recursiveness(递归性).（填空题）
The structural organization of language into two abstract levels:
? At the lower level (the secondary level) : meaningful units
? At the higher level (the primary level) : meaningless segments
Expression of duality:
? 1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic units
? 2. Combine small units into big units
C、Creativity 创造性
Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. （recurse sentence）
Recursiveness：it refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without definite limit.
D、Displacement 移位性
Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. （定义填空题）
移位性指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体，时

间或观点。
动物
语言与人类语言移位性的表现 (判断题)
Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, on the contrary, stimulus free.(动物语言会受到直接刺激控制)
Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.
考点3：Functions of Language 语言的功能
A、The informative function (信息功能)
Informative function: the major role of language; language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.
B、Interpersonal Function (人际功能)
Interpersonal Function: the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.
eg: Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant…等表称呼的
C、The performative function (施事功能):
The performative function: This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions.
用说话表示行为
D、The emotive function (情感功能):
The emotive function: one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.
□ 标志性语句：swear word(誓言)、obscenities(侮辱之词)、involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery、conventional words/phrases,eg:
– God, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh 我的妈呀，老天爷啊，晕
E、Phatic communion （寒暄功能）
The use of language to establish an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.
? E.g. Greetings, Farewells, and Comments on the weather, etc.
F、The recreational function （娱乐功能）
The use of language for the sheer joy of using it
– such as a baby‘s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.
G、Metalingual function (元语言功能)
Metalingual function：our language can be used to talk about itself, talking about talk and thinking about thinking.
– To be honest; on second thought; to tell you the truth; as a matter of fact; that is to say;
– Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in another way in argumentation.
? It makes the language infinitely self-reflexive (自我反身性)
考点4：Main branches of Linguistics (考查定义！！！)
? 1. Sound → phonetics 语音
? 2. Sounds → phonology 音系学
? 3. Word → morphology 形态学
? 4. Words/sentence → syntax 句法学
? 5. Meaning → semantics 语义学
? 6. Meaning in a context → pragmatics 语用学（language in use）
Macrolinguistics （微观语言学）
Psycholinguistics 心里语言学 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学
考点5：distinctions in linguistics
A、Descriptive vs. Prescriptive 描述性与规定性
People say X. Descriptive（To describe the linguistic facts observed）
Don’t’ say X. Prescriptive （To lay down rules for “corr

ect” linguistic behavior）
Modern linguistics is mostly Descriptiv
e. 现代语言学更多的是描述某些现象
Tradition English belongs to Prescriptive. 古代英语则有许多条条框框
B、Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性 （判断题）
A synchronic (共时的) description, the description of a language at some point in time, takes a fixed instant as its point of observation (static state).
? A Grammar of Modern Greek;
? The Structure of Shakespeare’s English
? English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.
? Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.
? The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.
Diachronic (历时的): the description of a language as it changes through time. (dynamic state)
? Pejorative (轻蔑语) Sense Development in English
? Pejorative Sense Development in English.
C、Langue & parole 语言和言语
Langue (language): 说话者的语言能力the generalized rules of language
Parole (speaking):语言上的实际表现 the application of rules
D、Competence and performance
Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language (语言能力)
Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations (语言运用)
Langue-parole Competence-performance
Langue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community
Saussure looks at language from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view Competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual
N. Chomsky deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.

Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.
就词的内部结构而言，词是所有语言单位中最稳定的。