语言学教程期末考试笔记整理

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《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)

语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。

胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events;(4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions: According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily tochange the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. 1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to tal k about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the languageof all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say thatthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronicstudy. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competenceis stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis ofseveral factors. The most important of these factors are: 1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford E nglish” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.] Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced withoutany noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change ofquality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as onedistinctive vowel of a particular language but really involvestwo vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel []high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel [] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulationof two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more likethe following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays theinfluence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, itis perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonantsbecome nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a languagesystematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it isaspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation. Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change isconditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used todescribe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different formsin actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “theminimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are usedbefore the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that partof the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root anda derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tellthe difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Infle ctional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. Butderivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb.。

语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

语言学教程[第一章语言学导论]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第一章语言学导论复习笔记Ⅰ．语言的定义语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。

该定义揭示了语言的五个要素：系统，任意，口头，符号，人类。

Ⅱ．语言的定义特征语言的定义特征是人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点。

1．任意性二重性是指拥有两层结构的这种属性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。

二重性只存在于这样的系统之中，既有元素又有它们组合成的单位。

3．创造性创造性指语言的能产性，它能够使人造出和理解无穷的长句，其中很多句子是以前从未听过的。

4．移位性移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、事件和观点。

移位性赋予人们的概括和想象力使人类受益无穷。

5．文化传递性语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6．互换性互换性是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

Ⅲ．语言的起源1．圣经的记载语言是上帝的恩赐。

2．“汪汪”理论语言是模仿自然的声音，例如动物的叫声，如(鸭子)的刮刮声，嘎嘎声，布谷鸟的叫声。

3．“噗噗”理论语言起源于原始人共同劳动时发出的有节奏的哼哟声。

5．进化理论语言起源于劳动的过程，满足了社会的需求。

Ⅳ．语言的功能1．信息功能语言用来陈述某件事情，提供信息或用作推理。

信息功能是语言最重要的功能，一般出现在陈述句中。

2．人际功能人际功能是语言最重要的社会功能。

人们由此建立和维持他们的身份和社会地位。

3．施为功能语言的施为功能主要是用来改变人的社会地位，例如在婚礼、判刑，为孩子祈福和在首航仪式上为船命名、诅咒敌人。

在这些言语行为中，语言通常是非常正式的，甚至是仪式化的。

4．感情功能语言的感情功能是语言最有用的功能之一，因为它在改变听者赞成或反对某人、某物的态度上作用非常关键。

5．寒暄功能寒暄功能是指那些有助于确立和维持人际关系的表达，例如俚语、玩笑、行话、礼节性的问候、社会方言或地域方言的转用等。

语言学教程[第三章词汇]山东大学期末考试知识点复习.

第三章词汇复习笔记I.词词是个语言表达单位,无论是在口语还是在书面语中,说母语的人都能够凭直觉识别这个语言单位。

1.词的三种含义(1词是自然的有界限的对立单位;(2词既是一个普通术语又是一个专门术语;(3词是一个语法单位。

2.词的识别(1稳定性就词的内部结构而言,词是所有语言单位中最稳定的。

(2相对连续性连续性指的是一个词的几个成分之间不可介入新的成分,即使这个词由多个成分构成。

(3最小的自由形式词是能够独立构成一个完整语句的最小单位。

3.词的分类(1可变词和不变词可变词有形态变化,即词的一部分保持不变,另一部分有规则地变化以实现不同的语法功能。

小变词没有形态变化。

具有词汇意义 (指代物质、动作和性质的词称为词汇词,例如名词、动词、形容词和副词。

表达语法意义的词是语法词,例如连词、介词和代词。

(3封闭类词和开放类词封闭类词的成员数目固定,数量有限。

像代词、介词、连词和冠词都属于封闭类词,一般不能轻易增加或衍生新的成员。

相比之下,开放类词的成员数目基本上是无限的,其数目会随着社会发展不断地、经常地增加。

名同、动词、形容词和副词属于开放类词。

(4词类在传统的名词、代词、形容词、动词、副词、介词、连词、感叹词和冠词的基础上,可新增助词、助动词、代词形式、限定词。

Ⅱ.语素和形态学1.定义语素是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。

形态学研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则,包括屈折变化和词的形成两个领域。

2.语素的类型(1自由语素和粘着语素①自由语素指能够单独出现或独立成词的语素。

所有的单语素词都是自由语素,由自由语素构成的多语素词为复合词。

②粘着语素指不能单独出现,必须跟至少一个其他语素共同出现的语素。

①词根是构成词的基础成分,不能再做进一步分析而不破坏其意义。

每个词都包括一个词根语素.它可以是自由语素或粘着语素。

②词缀是那些只能附着于另一个语素 (词根或词干上的一类语素的总称。

语言学教程[第九章语言与文学]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

语言学教程[第九章语言与文学]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第九章语言与文学复习笔记I.文体学1．定义文体学作为语言学的分支，主要研究特殊语境中语言的特征 (即语言的多样性)，并试图建立一些规则，以解释个体和社团在语言使用过程中的特殊选择。

2．文学文体学文学文体学是研究语言与文学关系的学科，其研究焦点是与文学文体相关联的语言特征。

(1)前景化前景化的概念来源于视觉艺术，与“背景”一词相对应，已经成为文体学的常用术语。

俄国形式主义语言学家、布拉格学派学者和现代文体学家都曾在文体研究中使用这一术语。

它被定义为“以艺术手法为动机的偏离”。

这种偏离，或非常规用法，覆盖了语言的所有层面；词汇、语音、句法、语义，笔迹等。

(2)字面语言和比喻语言词典定义中所提供的一个词的第一个意义通常是它的字面意义。

比喻语言是为了达到对比、强调、明确或标新的目的而使用的不同于日常常规语言的词句。

语言中表示比喻用法的另一个词是Trope (修辞、比喻)。

它是指为了修辞目的而通过比喻途径来使用的语言。

比喻在语言运用中频繁出现，并且采用许多不同形式。

明喻：明喻是把一种事物和另一种事物作比较，并通过展现一种事物如何与另一事物相似来解释这种事物是什么样子的方法。

它用as或like等词在文本中作为明确标志。

暗喻：像明喻一样，暗喻也是对两个并不相像的要素作出对比，这种对比是隐含的而不是直接表达的。

转喻：一种一个词或词组被另一个与之有紧密联系的词或词组替换的修辞方法。

提喻：提喻是用事物的一部分名称来指代整个事物，反之亦然。

II．诗歌语言1．语音模式押韵尾韵：每行结尾的押韵。

2．不同形式的语音模式头韵：在头韵里，句首的辅音是一致的。

准押韵：准押韵通过一个共同的元音来描述音节。

辅音韵：以相同辅音结尾的音节反韵：指音节拥有共同的元音和首辅音，而不是元音和末辅音押韵。

押副韵：当两个音节具有相同的首辅音和尾辅音。

反复：音节的重复。

3．韵律模式当重读被组织成有规律的节奏时，就形成了韵律。

语言学教程[第五章意义]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

第五章意义复习笔记I．语义学语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。

II.意义1．意义在语言学中，意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。

2．内涵按照哲学界的用法，内涵和外延相对，指的是一个词所指称的实体的特性。

3．外延外延涉及语言单位跟非语言实体之间的关系。

在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。

4．意义的不同类型(1)概念意义逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容。

(2)联想意义①内涵意义：通过语言所指所传达的意义。

②社会意义：所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义。

③感情意义：所传达的关于说话人／整理感情、态度方面的意义。

④反射意义：通过同一表达方式的其他意思所传达的意义。

⑤搭配意义：通过词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。

(3)主位意义通过顺序和重音这种组织信息的方式所传达的意义。

主位意义是最边缘的意义，因为它只由语序及重音所决定。

5．语境论语境论是建立在如下假设之上：意义源于语境，存在于语境。

语境有两种：情景语境和上下文。

所有的话语都是在特定的时空情景下产生的，除了话语产生的时间地点以外，情景因素还包括说话人和听话人、他们当时的行为以及情景中所存在的物与事。

上下文不仅涉及词与其他词的搭配，这种搭配构成词义的一部分，即搭配意义，它也涉及特定话语的前后部分。

6．行为主义行为主义理论把意义定义为说话者说话的环境以及听者的反应。

Ⅲ．指称理论1．定义把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物了解起来的理论，叫做指称理论。

2．语义三角奥格登和理查兹在《意义的意义》一书中提出了语义三角的理论。

他们认为词与所指事物之间没有直接的关系。

它们是以概念为中介的。

概念是抽象的，没有物质存在，只能通过我们的思维来感知。

3．涵义与指称涵义与指称的区别类似于内涵和外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。

换句话说，Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。

然而涵义和指称还有其他的不同。

在某种程度上，我们可以说每个单词都有涵义，即概念内容；但并非每个单词都有指称。

语言学教程[第六章语言与认知]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

第六章语言与认知复习笔记I.认知的定义“认知”一词既可用于不同学科也可用于相关学科。

在心理学中，“认知”是指个人的心理过程，即心智具有内部心理状态 (比如信念、意志和意愿)。

特别是在许多具象和抽象交织在一起时，如知识、技能和学习共同作用时，采用信息处理的方法可以理解心理过程。

另外一种对“认知”的定义是指心理过程或知识的能力，包括意识、知觉、推理和判断等。

II．心理语言学的定义心理语言学是对语言心理方面的研究，通常研究的是与语言行为相关的心理状态和思维活动。

心理语言学的一个重点是研究能够使人理解和产出可理解句子的语法规则的无意识运用。

心理语言学家研究语言与思维的关系，心理语言学同时也还关注语言是如何习得的以及语言在思维运用中所发挥的作用。

Ⅲ．语言习得语言习得指的是一个人语言的学习和发展。

第一语言习得即一个人母语的学习和发展。

语言学家、心理语言学家和应用语言学家通过研究语言习得来理解其形成和发展的全过程，更好的理解语言的本质。

对于第一语言习得的问题存在两种说法：行为主义方法和天赋论。

1．行为主义方法语言是一个学习的行为，是一个通过学习形成习惯的过程。

对语言学习的这种观点称作行为主义或行为主义观点。

根据这种观点，孩子的语言习得是一个“刺激一反映一模仿一强化”的过程。

个人的内部语言知识是其对所观察的语言事件进行结合的直接结果。

2．天赋理论天赋论是说获取人类语言的能力是人类自身内在的机能之一，刚出生的婴儿就具备这种能力。

Ⅳ．语言的理解1．发音理解发音的理解不是一个被动的过程。

它通常依赖于听话者所处的语境。

人们需要从整体上来理解意思，而不是孤立地将其分开。

并不是单独去听每一个词。

对发音的成功理解要求人们具有区分细小的发音差别的内在能力，以及适应语言听觉种类的能力。

2．词语的识别词语的理解是一个非常复杂的心理过程，远比处理发音复杂得多。

词汇由于其在传达意义过程中的极端重要作用而在语言理解中居于核心地位。

单词辨识是指对口头词语和书面词语的识别。

语言学教程[第八章语言的使用]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

语言学教程[第八章语言的使用]山东大学期末考试知识点复习语言学教程山东大学期末考试知识点复习第八章语言的使用在语言学的学习中，了解语言的使用是非常重要的一部分。

语言的使用即指语言在日常生活中的应用和运用，研究语言的使用可以帮助我们理解语言的功能和作用，以及影响语言使用的因素。

本章将重点介绍语言的使用以及相关的知识点。

一、交际行为与语言使用交际行为是人类社会中的一种基本行为，通过交际行为可以实现人际关系的建立、信息的传递和社会化的发展。

而语言正是人们进行交际行为所必需的一种工具。

语言使用包括语言的产生、理解和运用。

语言的产生是指人们根据特定的语言规则和环境，将思维转化为语言形式；语言的理解是指人们通过对语言信息的解码，理解并把握他人所表达的含义；语言的运用是指人们在交际情境中运用语言，实现交流的目的。

二、语言交际的特点语言交际具有以下几个特点：第一，语言交际是双向的。

在交际过程中，既有信息的发送者，也有信息的接收者；第二，语言交际是有目的性的。

人们在交际中常常有明确的目的，希望通过语言来实现某种目标；第三，语言交际是依赖语言系统的。

语言系统是指一种特定的语言结构和规则，人们在交际中依据语言系统来组织语言的表达；第四，语言交际是情境依存的。

语言的使用是受到情境的制约的，包括交际环境、社会背景、语言参与者的身份等。

三、语用学与语言使用语用学是研究语言使用的学科，它探讨人们在交际中如何通过语言来表达意义和实现交流。

语用学研究的内容包括意义的构建、上下文的作用、会话结构、言语行为等。

语用学从很多方面拓展了我们对语言的理解，使我们能够更好地理解语言在交际中的功能和运作方式。

四、言语行为与言外行为在日常生活中，人们的言语行为常常不仅仅是字面上的意思，还包含了其他一些含义，这就是言外行为。

言语行为指的是人们通过言语来传递信息和表达意思；言外行为则是言语行为之外的非语言行为，例如语调、肢体语言、眼神表情等。

言外行为在交际中起到了非常重要的作用，可以帮助我们更好地理解他人的意图和情感。

(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点,自己整理的)

英语专业的，自己整理的，期末考试完了，把这个放在网上给大家分享一下。

希望对大家有所帮助！Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can becalled design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker andthe hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events; (4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is ano ther aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing ofchildren, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling ora chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, butthe language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded ina language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to saythat the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time wouldbe synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language inconcrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s p erformance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics –the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system ofsymbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows noregional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant [h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. –icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel [] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel [] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units. Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as anarrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation. 2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are bothallophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules The changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we cansay that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binaryfeatures are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of alanguage that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected.E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that canconstitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. T ake the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of aword: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow –follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, actionand quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class words Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis. (1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in p hrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded asverbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is,those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite,citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. (3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. Inflection。

语言学教程第五版重点笔记

语言学教程第五版重点笔记语言学是研究语言的科学，它涉及到语言的结构、发展、使用和功能等方面。

本篇笔记将重点总结语言学教程第五版的内容，包括语言学的基本概念、语音学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学等。

1.语言学的基本概念-语言：人类沟通的主要方式，具有符号性、规则性和交际性。

-语言的属性：可描述为音、形、意的体系，通过语音、文字等媒介来传递信息。

-语言与方言：方言是指在某个地区或群体中使用的语言变体，而语言是方言的高级别组织。

-语言的历史演变：语言随着时间推移会发生变化，并分化成不同的语言家族和亚族。

2.语音学-语音：语言中最小的语言单位，由音素构成。

-音位和音素：音位是在特定语言中具有区别词义的最小音段，而音素是语音学上对音位的理论概念。

-发音：语音的实际发声过程，包括发音器官的运动和声带的振动。

-音系：特定语言中的音位组合，反映了该语言中的音素系统。

3.形态学-形态：语言中用来构成词的基本单位。

-词的形态结构：词根、词缀和词尾等构成词的部分。

-词的形态类型：自由词和词素词。

-词类：词根或词素所属的语法类别，如名词、动词、形容词等。

4.句法学-句子：语言中最小的完整意义单位。

-短语：句子的组成部分，由词汇构成。

-句法关系：短语之间的语法关系，如主谓关系、动宾关系等。

-句法结构：句子的组织方式，包括短语结构和依存结构。

5.语义学-语义：语言中词、短语和句子所表达的意义。

-词义学：研究词汇的意义，包括词义分类、词义变化等。

-句义学：研究句子的意义，包括句子的真值条件、逻辑关系等。

6.语用学-语用：语言使用的实际情境。

-言外之意：在语言表面之下所包含的意义。

-会话分析：研究对话和交际行为的学科。

以上是《语言学教程》第五版的重点内容。

通过学习这些知识，我们可以更深入地了解语言的结构和使用规律，从而更好地理解和运用语言。

语言学教程[第四章句法：从语词到篇章]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

第四章句法：从语词到篇章复习笔记I.句法1.定义句法就是研究语言不同成分组成句子的规则或句子结构成分之间的关系。

2．句法关系(1)位置关系位置关系或词序指的是一门语言中词语的排列顺序。

位置关系是任何人类语言中的基本句法关系，也是语言的句法可接受性和语义可理解性的要求。

(2)替代关系替代关系指在相同的句子结构中，语法上可以互相代替的词类或语词的集合，它还可指由多个词组成的词组，语法上代替特定集合中的单个语词。

(3)同现关系共现关系指不同词类的不同词汇集合允许另一个词类或集合的词出现构成一个句子或句子的某一特定成分。

II.传统语法学派传统语法认为句子是词的序列。

因此句子构造的研究涉及了对词的大量研究，例如词类是对词进行的分类，主语、谓语是对词的功能的描写等。

这些词类和功能有时叫做范畴。

1．数、性和格(1)数是用来分析词类的语法范畴，有单数、双数和复数等。

在英语中，数主要是名词的范畴，包括两种形式：单数和复数。

数还体现在代词和动词的屈折变化上。

(2)性指的是依照性别把名词分成不同类别的语法范畴。

性主要也是名词和代词的范畴。

在英语中，性的差别是自然的，由动物本身的生理性别决定。

然而准确地讲，性在这里指的是语法性，语法性主要有阴性、阳性和中性三种。

(3)格主要是名词的屈折范畴，它典型地标识着它们和句子其他部分之间的关系。

在英语中，代词一般有三种格。

即：主格、宾格和属格；名词只有两种格：普通格和属格。

2．时态与体时态与体是动词的两个重要范畴，传统语法没有对它们加以区分。

时态与体之间的区别在于：时态是指示性的，也就是说指明的时间与说话的时间相关；体则不是指示性的，指明的时间与说话的时间没有关系，却与叙述中描写或暗示的另一个事件的时间相关。

3．一致关系与支配关系一致关系是指在一个给定的语言结构中，词和短语之间利用至少它们中的一个所携带的屈折形式互相匹配的句法关系。

支配关系是指句法结构中某些词的形式受另一种其他类型词的控制。

[训练]语言学笔记-用于专八及一般期末考试

第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1. 任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2. 层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（thestructure of sounds and meaning）3. 多产性productive：语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and createunlimited number with sentences）4. 移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5. 文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1. 传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2. 人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain theiridentity3. 行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4. 表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5. 寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等6. 元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic（1）语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。

语言学期末整理

语言学期末整理导言1.语言学的三大发源地以及各自研究的重点P2中国、印度、希腊—罗马：语言学的三大发源地印度：梵语研究，语音和语法研究很有成就。

西欧：印欧语言的研究，早期有希腊语，后来是拉丁语。

主要研究语法。

中国：小学（文字、音韵、训诂）2.什么叫传统语言学研究，特点P23.索绪尔：现代语言学之父奠基人《普通语言学教程》P34.语言进行交际的过程：编码—发送—传递—接收—解码P4对应哪些不同研究领域不同学科都从自己的角度研究语言或其交际过程的某一环节，在发展了这些学科的同时，也加深了对语言的了解：生理学、物理学、心理学、神经学、病理学、情报学和信息科学研究、数学语言学和人文社会科学及自然科学都有密切的联系。

第一章1. 语言的信息传递功能7.8语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。

人与人之间的联系得靠语言来维持。

语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。

语言的信息传递功能非常卓越，可以跨越时空。

旗语、电报代码、数学符号等是建立在语言文字基础之上的辅助性交际工具。

身势等伴随动作是非语言的交际工具。

别对我撒谎表情帝文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具。

语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

2.语言和思维的关系关于思维的定义10语言和思维是两种独立的现象。

思维是人脑的一种特殊机能，是认识客观事物时动脑的过程，也指动脑进行比较、分析、综合的能力。

思维的时候需要用语言。

哲学把思维看作是人类对客观事物间接的、概括的反映。

思维是理性的认识，以感觉和知觉为基础，同时借助一定的知识和经验，可以概括事物的本质和内在联系。

语言是思维活动的动因和载体，是思维成果的贮存所。

认识事物所形成的概念要用固定的语言形式确定下来，使今后的思维认识过程得以简化。

3.大脑左右半球分工12大脑左半球管右半身，右半球管左半身。

控制语言活动的左半球掌管抽象的、概括的思维；右半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维（这就说明思维不一定要靠语言）。

大脑两半球的分工是人类特有的。

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

语言学教程[第二章语音]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

第二章语音复习笔记I．语音学和音系学的定义1．语音学语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。

2．语音学研究的三大领域(1)发音语言学研究语音的发生。

(2)声学语音学研究语音的物质特征。

(3)感知语音学 (或听觉语音学)研究语音的感知。

3．音系学音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。

换句话说，音系学研究的是说话人为表达意义而系统地选择语音的方法。

Ⅱ．发音器官1．发音器官是人体参与语音发生的那部分，包括肺、气管、喉、鼻和口。

2．清音在发音过程中，发音时声带不振动，这样所发出的音叫做清音。

3．浊音在发音过程中，发音时声带振动，这样所发出的音叫做浊音。

4．国际音标(1)国际音标是一个标准的、被国际上广泛接受的语音描述系统。

(2)它的基本原则是用不同的字母符号来表示不同的发音。

(3)经过几次修正，目前国际音标仍然被语音学家和语言学家广泛使用。

Ⅲ．辅音和元音1．定义(1)发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。

(2)发音时，声道不受任何压缩或阻碍，因此不会有气流的紊乱或停滞，由此产生的音叫做元音。

2．辅音(1)发音方式和发音部位①发音方式指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位时的方式。

②发音部位指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。

(2)辅音的分类①按发音方式分类，辅音可分为爆破音、鼻音、擦音、近音、边音、颤音、触音和闪音以及塞擦音。

爆破音：[p，b，t，d，k，g]鼻音：[m，n，n]擦音：[f，v，o，6，s，z，J，3，h]近音：[w，J，j]边音：[l]颤音：[ts，dz，tr，dr]②按发音部位分类，辅音可分为双唇音、唇齿音、齿音、齿龈音、齿龈后音、卷舌音、硬腭音、软腭音、小舌音、咽音和声门音。

双唇音：[p，b，m]唇齿音：[f，v]齿音：[0，6]齿龈音：[t，d，n，s，z，j，l]齿音后音：[f，3]硬腭音：[j]软腭音：[k，g，n]声门音：[h]3．元音(1)基本元音基本元音是指一系列约定俗成的、固定不变的元音特质，目的是为语言中实际存在的元音描述提供一个参照框架。

语言学教程[第八章语言的使用]山东大学期末考试知识点复习

第八章语言的使用复习笔记I.语用学1．定义语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

2．语用学和语义学的区别虽然语用学和语义学都是研究语言意义的学科，但是它们有着很大的差别：语用学主要研究在特定的语境中说话人所想要表达的意义，而语义学研究的是句子的字面意义，通常不考虑语境。

II.言语行为理论言语行为理论是牛津大学哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在他《如何以言行事》一文中提出的。

它从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，其目的在于回答“用语言干什么”这个问题。

1．施为句和叙事句奥斯汀提出自己理论的第一步是把句子分成两类：施为句和叙事句。

它们不能应用于传统的真值判断方法。

因此，他对施为句和叙事句作了区分。

(1)定义施为句是用来做事的，既不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证其真假；叙事句要么用于陈述，要么用于验证，可以验证其真假。

(2)合适条件虽然施为句没有真假，但必须满足一定条件才是合适的。

我们把奥斯汀的合适条件简化如下：①必须有一个相应的规约程序，并且相关的参与者与环境是合适的。

②该程序必须正确全面地得到执行。

③有关人必须有相关的思想、感情和意图，而且必须有相关的后续行为。

但是奥斯汀很快就认识到，这些条件只适用于部分情况。

2．行事行为理论后来，奥斯汀放弃了他最初对叙事句和施为句所做的区分。

他建立了另一种模式来解释如何通过语言实施行为。

根据这种新的模式，说话人说话时可以完成三种行为：发话行为，行事行为和取效行为。

发话行为是说出词、短语、分句的行为，是通过句法、词汇和音位手段表达字面意义的行为。

行事行为是表达说话人意图的行为，是在说话过程中所完成的行为。

取效行为是通过说话完成或通过说话所产生的行为，是由话语所带来的结果和变化。

在上述三种言语行为中，语言学家最感兴趣的是行事行为，因为这种言语行为与说话人的意图一致。

在研究语言交际时，语言学家最感兴趣的是说话人如何表达他的意图和听话人如何识别说话人的意图。

《语言学教程》重点笔记（2020年）

《语言学教程》重点笔记（2020年）语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。

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1. sociolinguistics: as an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show therelationship between language and society. We try to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context and understand sociological things of society by linguistic phenomenon in speaking community.2. pragmatics: is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly therelationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used.Pragmatics includes the study of3. Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition oflanguage in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.4. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all with makinginferences about the content of the human mind.5.illocutionary act: it is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed insaying something.municative competence: refers to what a learners knows about how a language is used inparticular situations for effective and appropriate communication, which include knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately.7.interlanguage: is often understood as a language system between the target language and thelearner’s native language. It is imperfect with the target language.8. Context of situation(1) The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities:a. The verbal action of the participantsb. The non-verbal action of the participants(2) The relevant objects(3) The effects of the verbal action9. Speech community: Speech community refers to a group of people who form a community,e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common.10. Gender difference: Gender difference is the difference in a speech between men and women.11. Linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity: Linguistic determinism is one of the twopoints in S-W hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought. Linguistic relativity is the other point: there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.12. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speech act theory,utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structures which the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositional meaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. The illocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on the listener. It may be intended as request for something to drink. A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirect speech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts are often felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.13. What the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests is like this: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. Following this argument, two important points could be captured in the theory. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other hand, similarity between language is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. This hypothesis has two versions: a strong and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns. The weak version, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.14. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts between three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence.A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a function. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of saying something.15. Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation”between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.16. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.17. Error: Error is the grammatically incorrect form.Mistake: Mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in a communicational context.18. Input Hypothesis was offered by Krashen. It refers to learner acquire language as a result ofcomprehending input addressed to them. “i+1”principle is most famous.The Input hypothesis is a theory proposed by Krashen (1985) to deal with the relationship between language input and learner s’ acquiring language. According to thishypothesis, learners acquire a language as a result of comprehending input addressed tothem. Krashen brought forward the concept of “i + 1” principle, i.e. the language thatlearners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence thatthey can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress. Input shouldneither be so far beyond their reach that they are overwhelmed, nor so close to theircurrent stage that they are not challenged at all.19. Interlanguage is a language system between the target language and the learner’s nativelanguage. It formed when the learner attempts to learn a new language, and it has features of both the first language and the second language but is neither.20. Error: Error is the grammatically incorrect form.21. Mistake: Mistake appears when the language is correct grammatically but improper in acommunicational context.22. Error analysis: Error analysis is the study and analysis of error and is confined to thelanguage learner.。