(完整版)环境科学交叉关系学科课后题参考答案第八、九章
(完整版)环境科学交叉关系学科课后题答案第十七、十八章
CHAPTER 171. As illustrated in figure 17.2, the waste generation rates of people are directly related to their economic condition.Nation with high standards of living and productivity tend to have more municipal solid waste per person than less-developed countries.3.1)The remaining numbers of landfills in US are declining as some small, poorly run landfills areclosed as they fail to meet regulations. Others are closed due to full capacity. Therefore, new, modern landfills are in urgent need, especially in metropolitan cities(LA, NY, Toronto).However, it is difficult to find a geologically suitable site and building new ones often receive local opposition.2)What’s more, a modern landfill is becoming increasingly more complex and expensive, and itis sometimes no more cost effective compared to incineration. Experts also suggest that unless further steps are taken to detoxify landfilled materials, they will place burden on upcoming generations to address future impacts.3)Landfills may present long-term threats to groundwater and surface water that arehydrologically connected. Leachate is of particular concern, if the landfill system is not properly sealed, the rain or connected water source may leak through buried trash, dissolving and carrying hazardous materials with it, and pose the major threat to the current and future quality of groundwater.4)There is a problem about the air pollution too. Methane produced by decomposing wasteshould be collected and treated, and they can be used to produce heat or to generate electricity, or they might enter atmosphere and become a kind of greenhouse gas.5.1)Design changes to soft drink bottles and milk jugs can keep out more than one hundredmillion kg of plastic out of the waste stream per year.2)Manufacturing processes have been changed in many industries to reduce the amount ofwaste produced. This kind of change could be done by paying more attention to incidence like leaks, spills and accidents.3)Purchasing decisions can significantly reduce the amount of waste produced. Choosing topurchase things that have reduced packaging waste, not only could this reduce the amount of waste , but also might it encourage the producer to use less in packaging.4)Using materials in such a way that waste is not generated is an important means of curbingwaste. Using less-hazardous alternatives and sharing products that contains hazardous chemicals, following the label directions and using the smallest amount necessary are way to reduce waste or its toxicity5)Reusing items is a way to reduce waste at the source because it delays or prevents the entryof reused items into the waste collection and disposal system.7.Several kinds of program have contributed to the increase in recycling rate.Container laws and mandatory recycling laws in many states provide an incentive to recycle andcurbside recycling make it convenient to recycle. A prominent RecycleBank is a recent program of success.9.1)Electronic waste is a growing problem worldwide as obselete or broken computers andother electronic equipments are discarded. A major problem is the toxic heavy metals used as components, as estimations of 70 percent of heavy metals in US landfills come from discarded electronics, while e-waste account for 2 percent of total trash by volume.2)The amount of e-waste is expected to grow rapidly as people in developing countriespurchase a large number of cellphones and other electronics.3)Much of e-waste is exported to developing countries and laborers use crude techniquesincluding smashing, melting and adding acid or burning plastic coating, which often occur in open space where they release toxins into environment and endanger the health of workers.ndfill gas contain sufficient amount of methane, and can be utilized to generate electricity through the following steps:1)Anaerobic decomposition, as the bacteria feed on organic waste and produce methane andcarbon dioxide.2)Accessing the gas. Drill well into the landfill and insert perforated pipes filled with gravel andsealed on top, which allow gas to be collected from deep down the waste. After vacuumed out the gas, it will be piped to a nearby compression facility where it is dehydrated, filtered and pressurized.3)Becoming electricity. Processed methane gas is piped to an electricity-generating facility andworks as fuel to spin turbine/engine to produce current.4)Back to source. Landfill gas in utility transmission lines will be delivered to businesses orhomes where garbage collection starts or piped directly to where it may be needed as fuel.CHAPTER 181.There are several kinds by classifications of DOT:1)Explosives,which cause a rapid release of gas and heat;2)Gases that may be flammable, nonflammable or toxic;3)Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides;4)Poisonous materials and infectious materials;5)Radioactive materials;6)Corrosives.3.The EPA defines hazardous waste as those with four characteristics:Ignitability, corrosiveness, reactivity and toxicity.It has also compiled a list of hazardous wastes.5.The uranium miners are exposed to radioactive gases, while those who smoke tobacco and thusexposed to toxins in tobacco smoke have unusually high incidences of lung cancer. It is apparent that the radioactive gases in uranium mines interact synergistically with carcinogens found in tobacco smoke.7.It is hard to determine appropriate exposure limits as nearly all substances are toxic in sufficiently high doses.Typically the regulatory agency will determine the level of exposure at which none of the test animals is affected( threshold level) and then set the human exposure level lower to allow for a safety margin. The safety margin is important because threshold levels vary significantly among species and even members of the same species.9.Hazardous wastes enter the environment in several ways:1)Many molecules that evaporate readily are vented directly into the atmosphere. Many kindsof solvents used in paints and other industrial processes fall into such category.2)Other materials escape from faulty piping and valves, but they are often called fugitiveemissions.3)Uncontrolled or improper incineration of hazardous wastes whether on land or at sea, cancontaminate the atmosphere and the surrounding environment.11.CERCLA was enacted in 1980 to deal with financing the cleanup of large uncontrolled hazardous-waste sites. It has several key objectives:1)To develop a comprehensive program to set priorities for cleaning up the worst existinghazardous-waste sites.2)To make responsible parties pay for those cleanups whenever possible.3)To set up a 1.6 billion dollars Hazardous Waste Trust Fund to support the identification andcleanup of abandoned hazardous-waste sites.4)To advance scientific and technological capabilities in all aspects of hazardous-wastemanagement, treatment and disposal.13.The National Priorities List are those hazardous-waste sites which require urgent attention by Superfund. It included 11000 in the initial evaluation of 40000 sites, while the number fluctuated as new sites are added and sites removed when they are cleaned up or deleted from the list.15.Metal Mining accounted for 31 percent of all toxic waste, which are deposited primarily on surface of land. Electric utilities (power generation) are responsible for 24 percent of releases, most of which into the atmosphere. chemical and metal processing industries are also significant sources.17.Prevent accidental spills, leaks from pipes and valves and loss from broken containers,etc. Other measures include:1)Changing a process so that a hazardous solvent is replaced with water.2)Using a waste produced in a process in another aspect of the process to reduce the amountof waste produced.3)Using a still to clean solvents so that they can used repeatedly4)Allowing water to evaporate from waste can reduce the total amount of waste produced,thus concentrating the hazardous material.19.1)Neutralization of dangerous acids and bases by reacting them with one another can convertthem to non-hazardous materials.2)Biodegradation of organic materials by microorganisms can convert hazardous chemicals toinnocuous substances, Such as in sewage treatment plants3)Air stripping is used to remove volatile chemical from water. Steam stripping works on thesame principle while the high temperature can force out chemicals that ordinary air can not.The volatile compounds can be captured or reused or disposed of.4)Carbon absorption tanks contain specifically activated particles of carbon to treat hazardouschemicals in gaseous and liquid waste. Carbon combines chemically with waste or catch hazardous particles like a fine wire mesh catches grains of sand.Contaminated carbon must then be disposed of or cleaned and reused.5)Precipitation involves adding special materials to a liquid waste. These bind to hazardouschemicals and cause them to precipitate out of the liquid and form large particles called floc.Floc that settles can be seperated as sludge; floc that remain suspended can be filtered and the concentrated waste can be sent to a hazardous-waste landfill.21.The Basel Convention was established in response to the debate over controlling hazardous-waste movements between countries in 1989. There is particular concern about rich, industrialized countries exporting such wastes to developing countries lacking administrative and technological resources to safely dispose of or recycle the waste.Its main objective is to minimize the generation of hazardous wastes and to control and reduce their transboundary movements to protect human health and the environment.23.Transuranic nuclear waste is highly radioactive waste that contains large numbers of atoms larger than uranium with half-lives greater than 20 years. Most of these come from processes involved in the production of nuclear weapons. As the clean-up of former nuclear weapons sites in US take place, transuranic waste is transported to the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant near Calsbad, New Mexico, for storage. （WIIP)25. Low-level radioactive waste can come from a variety of sources, in nuclear power facilities, hospitals and research institutions. Examples include radioactive materials used in medical field. Protective clothing worn by persons who work with radioactive materials, contaminated cleaning materials and other uses of radioactive isotopes.。
环境学导论答案
环境学导论答案第1 章习题参考答案三试全面分析人类环境的组成自然环境组成：物质：空气，水，岩石，土壤动植物，微生物能量：气温，阳光，引力，地磁力自然现象：太阳稳定性,地壳稳定性（地质构造情况；地震，火山活动；海啸），大气力量，水循环，水土演变等多种自然要素人工环境组成：综合生产力，技术进步，人工构筑物，人工产品和能量，政治体制，社会行为，宗教信仰，文化与地方习俗等五环境科学的分科？环境科学可分为三部分：环境学：基础环境学：环境社会学，环境数学，环境物理学（环境声学，辐射污染及控制，热污染级控制），环境化学，环境生态学，环境毒理学，环境地质学；应用环境学，环境控制学，环境管理学，环境工程学（环境污染，防治工程技术及原理（大气污染防治技术，水污染防治工程，固体污染防治工程，固体废物治理及利用工程，核工业环境工程，噪声及热污染控制工程），环境评价与环境规划，环境系统工程，环境水利工程），六环境容量，环境自净能力是什么含义？环境容量：污染物质或污染因素进入环境后，将引起一系列物理，化学和生物的变化，而自身逐步被清除出去，从而环境达到自然净化的目的。
在保持生态平衡的前提下，环境可能容纳污染物质的最大负荷量。
七什么是生态平衡？举例说明。
任何一个正常的生态系统，能量流动和物质循环总是不断地进行着，是一个复杂的，有时、空、量、序变化的动态系统和开放系统，内外存在物质和能量的变化和交换，但在一定时期内，生产者、消费者和还原者之间都保持着一种动态的平衡，这种平衡状态就叫生态平衡。
比如地上的草等绿色植物被羊，牛等动物吃掉，而这些一部分又被人吃掉，人所产生的废物排入到外界被一些微生物分解后，又被细菌等分解成供绿色植物进行光合作用的营养成分，这些营养成分有利于绿色植物的生长，这样就构成了一个动态的平衡。
生态系统由生产者，消费者，分解者和转变者，以及无机营养养分组成。
第2 章习题参考答案2．环境问题有哪些分类方法？分几类？如果从引起环境问题的原因考虑，可将环境问题分为两类。
环境科学概论课后答案
环境科学概论课后答案【篇一：环境科学概论思考题】____________，自然环境和人工环境之间存在着________________________流动,构成一个环境科学研究的复杂体系2绿色交通(green transport)是指：采用____________________、适合都市环境的运输工具，来完成社会经济活动的一种交通概念。
一般绿色工具(green modes)包括徒步、自行车、________________________等。
3环境承载力是衡量地球承载力以及人与环境和谐程度的重要指标，是指在一定的时期范围内，维持人类-环境系统稳定，人类活动不引起环境功能破坏发生质的改变的能力，其实质是在维持人与环境和谐的前提下，人类-环境系统能承受的人类活动的阈值。
４环境背景值亦称自然本底值，指在__________________的情况下，环境组成的各要素中与____________________有关的各种化学元素的含量及基本化学成份。
5土壤污染人类活动所产生的物质（污染物），通过多种途径进入土壤，其数量和速度超过了_土壤的容纳能力和__土壤的净化速度_，从而引起土地正常功能遭到破坏或土壤肥力降低，并对土壤、植物和动物造成损害的现象。
6对众多污染物进行分级排队，从中筛选出潜在危害性大，在环境中出现率高，有可靠的监测手段并能获得准确数据，有环境质量标准的污染物作为监测和控制对象。
经过优选的污染物称为环境优先污染物。
7环境规划的特点综合性、涉及面广、地区性、动态性、政策性强等。
8环境污染控制中末端控制与全过程控制相比具有被动消极、原始传统、投资大，效果差、治标等缺点；集中控制与分散控制相比具有尽可能少的投入、尽可能大的效益。
9固体废物处理、处置与利用原则是“无害化”、“减量化”、“资源化”。
10按时间要素环境评价可分为环境回顾评价、环境现状评价、环境影响评价。
其中环境影响评价是对拟开发行动方案或规划产生的环境影响进行评价，提出合理削减负面影响对策。
(完整版)环境科学交叉关系学科课后题答案第十一、十二章
CHAPTER 11 three ways that humans directly alter ecosystems.1)In the past, prehistoric men used human-induced fire to capture game animals or clean landfor agriculture, thus destroying climax communities. The harvesting of tropical forests today works in the same way.2)The conversion of natural land into agricultural land and even urban land in cities , whichcontinues today, has greatly undermined the biodiversity.3)The overexploitation of fishery resources, coupled with the introduction of exotic species,have spawned a series of problems that alter the local water environment.2.Why is the impact of humans greater today than at any time in the past?As the technology advanced, the ability of people to modify their surroundings has increased significantly, the agricultural revolution and modern agricultural technologies, for example, have efficiently turned large parts of the earth into agricultural land.The growing number of human population contributed to the draining of natural resources, as well as the extinctions of many species.3. Describe three factors that influence the genetic diversity of a population.Several things can influence the genetic diversity of a population.1)Mutations are changes in the genetic information of an organism, which introduce newgenetic information into a population by modifying genes that are already present. The DDT-tolerance of insects and the evolution of human resistance to antibiotic medication are such examples.2)Migration of individuals of a species from one place to another is also an important way. Itresults in the reduction of genetic information in the former population and the addition in the new population. This can have a significant effect on both populations if the migrating individual possess rare characteristics.3)Sexual reproduction is another process that influence genetic diversity. Rather than creatingnew genetic information, it tends to generate new genetic combinations when genetic information from two individuals mixes during fertilization, forming a unique individual, which may have a combination to out-compete its peer by being more successful in producing offspring, thus influence the genetic diversity.5.What are the major causes of loss of biodiversity in marine ecosystems?1)Habitat loss is a problem in marine ecosystems, as much of the harvest is restricted toshallow parts of the ocean where bottom dwelling fish can be easily harvested. It involved the use of trawls which are nets that can be dragged along the bottom. The trawls can disturb the sea floor and create conditions that make it harder for the fish population to recover. It captures various other species (25%) that are not commercially valuable and often left dead on board. Their removal further alter the ecological nature of the seafloor. 2)Overexploitation has driven some species to extinction and threaten many others.Organisms can be harvested for various reasons, food, ornaments or other aesthetic uses, and uncrupulous people often poach the already endangered species for quick profit. It isalso common in marine fisheries, and efforts are made to develop aquaculture methods and market new fish species which levitate the problem.3)Climate change has a great effect on the survival of species with limited physiologicaltolerance, such as corals in oceans and amphibians. The warming of water are leading to the declining of coral reefs.7.What is desertification? What causes it?Desertification is the process of converting arid and semiarid land to desert because of improper use by humans.Rangelands are too dry to support crops and grazing of domesticated animals is the only viable solution. But in areas where human population pressure is great, overgrazing is seemingly unavoidable, as people graze too many animals and cut down more trees for firewood. These would expose soil to wind erosion and lead to loss in soil fertility. Cutting down legumes that fix nitrogen would worsen the case. The land would gradually turn into a desert-like ecosystem.9.List six techniques utilized by wildlife managers.Habitat management are modifications to the habitat to enhance their survival and reproduction. The first step is to understand the habitat need of target species, and identify the critical habitat requirements of it. Then, they can alter the habitat and improve the success of the species. Population assessment and management also requires careful planning and the techniques involved included:Population census to keep the numbers of animals in check.Regulating hunting seasons, i.e. In fall so as to take the surplus animals, can ensure adequate and sustainable reproduction of animals.Artificially introduction of certain species when their population is below the desired number or extinct from the local area.Refuges for waterfowls can be built to provide resting places, food and protection from hunting. Transboundary parks can accommodate the movements of migratory animals across different countries.11.What is extinction? Why does it occur?Extinction is the death of a species, the elimination of all individuals of a particular kind. Extinction is a natural and common process through out the evolution, yet human activity has sped up its rate by a factor of 1000-10000. Some species with low population density and low reproductive rate, in specialized niche are prone to extinction. As technology advanced, human populations grew, we have increasingly huge influence on our surroundings. Consequently, many species have gone extinct.15.List three actions that be taken to prevent extinctions.IUCN lists over 19000 species as threatened with extinction in the Red List of Threatened Species, this can encourage countries to protect the related species and to build natural reserves.The Convention on Biological Diversity are adopted by many countries to preserve the biological diversity.The Endangered Species Act demands all government agencies to do whatever necessary to preserve the endangered species and the following amendment in 1978 saw the “god squad”to exempt some projects from the Act.16.Describe the role of the red list of threatened species in species preservation.IUCN is a highly visible international preservation organization, but has very little power to effect change. It generally seeks to protect species in danger by encouraging countries to complete inventories of plants and animals within their borders and encourage the training of plant and animal biologists within countries involved and the establishment of preservers to protect species in danger of extinction.CHAPTER 121. List three reasons why land-use planning is necessary.1)In modern world, significant amounts of land is covered with buildings, streets and otherproducts of society. But in many cases, cities are established before there is an understanding of the challenges presented by the location, when these cities grew and technology and society changed, the shortcomings of the location become apparent.Therefore, we should understand that each piece of land has its specific qualities based on its location and physical make-up.2)The land should be considered a nonrenewable resource nowadays as the land and theresources it supports(soil, vegetation and watersheds, etc) are not being created today. We need to plot carefully about the use of it. Once it is converted from natural ecosystems or agriculture to intensive human use, it is generally unavailable for other purposes.3)As the human population continues to boom, competition for the use of land wouldundoubtedly increase and systematic land-use planning would be important. Furthermore, as the population becomes more urbanized and cities grow, urban planning becomes critical.3. List three factors that encourage people to move from rural farms to cities in 1800s.4)First, the Industrial Revolution led to improvements in agriculture that required less farmlabor at the same time industrial jobs became available in the city, leading to the rural-to-urban migration.5)Then, the second factor that affected the growth of cities was the influx of immigrants fromEurope. They settled in towns and cities.6) A third reason for the growth was that they offered a greater variety of cultural, social, andartistic opportunities than did rural communities.Thus they were attractive for cultural as well as economic reasons.5.List three physical and three social consequences of urban sprawl.Physical:1)The automobile based society in US can cause serious traffic congestion for those who workin cities but live in the suburbs.2)The new housing or commercial development in suburbs would require the municipalservices to be extended to such areas, which is way more costly than supplying services to areas already in the city. The same is of energy costs because of low energy efficiency.3)Air pollution is also significant due to the reliance on automobiles as primary method oftransportation, and the infrastructure that support automobile travel is impervious to water, and the runoff are channeled directly into local water sources, bringing pollutants(oil, coolant and rubber pieces) into local streams.Social:1)The death of central city occurred as more people move to the suburbs and quality ofservices in urban center drops which starts a downward spiral of decay. This can deprive the remaining residents of basic services. It has a particular hard hit on the poor and elderly.2)Open fields, parks boulevards and similar land uses allow people to visually escape from thecongestion of the city. However, the urban sprawl have deprived a lot of land that could have been used as open space.3)Unpleasant odors, disagreeable tastes, annoying sounds and offensive sights are aggravating,and may be deemed harmful from an aesthetic point of view. Yet this are often the case of unplanned development in suburbs.7.What is a megapolis?As suburbs continued to grow, cities began to merge, and it became difficult to tell were one city ended and another began. This type of growth led to the development of regional cities. Although their cities maintain their individual names, they are really just part of one large urban area called a megalopolis.9.State three consequences of the dominance of the automobile as a means of transport in urban areas.1)The reliance on the automobile has required the constant building of new highways andaccording to DOT it costs 1 trillion per year on maintaining and building new ones.2)The average person in US travels about 260 kilometers per week in car and a person inmetropolitan area spends more than 40 hours per year stuck in traffic delays.3)It is hard to divert funding to establish mass transit besides the dispersed nature of suburbs.11.What characteristics of suburbs contribute to high infrastructure and high energy costs.1)Infrastructure include all physical, social and economic elements needed to support thepopulation, and it is often costly to extend it to the newly developed suburbs as everything need to be built from scratch.2)Energy costs are high due to low energy efficiency, and there are several reasons for this: Firstly, the automobiles are the least energy-efficient means of transporting people. Secondly, the separation of blocks of home from business and shopping areas require greater distance driven to meet basic needs.Thirdly, congested traffic routes result in hours being spent in stop-and-go traffic and wasting much fuel.Finally, the single-family homes require more energy for heating and cooling than multifamilydwellings.13. What land uses are suitable on floodplains?Floodplains are low areas near rivers that are subject to periodic floods, and it is often used for residential or commercial purposes due to its flat character. But flood-control structures need to be built which have detrimental downstream effects and could pose threats during floods.A better use of floodplains is for open space or recreation or agriculture.15. Why is a understanding of the geology and resources base of an area important in land use planning?1)The geologic status of an area must be considered in land-use decisions to prevent possibledisasters and hazards(i.e. Near volcanoes or earthquake-prone faults) or the lack of water, which will inevitably worsen as cities grow. To understand to resource base can lead to wise planning.2)Some land has unique features that should be preserved because of their special value tosociety( Grand Canyon and Yellowstone, etc) and should take precedence over other uses.17.What role do state and regional planning, purchasing of land, and use restrictions play in implementing land-use plans?1)State and regional planning is often more effective than local land-use planning since manyimportant geographic, geological and habitat characteristics cross local political boundaries.2)In addition, a regional approach is likely to prevent duplication of facilities and lead togreater efficiency.3)State or regional planning bodies are also more likely to have the financial resources to hireprofessional planners to assist in the planning process.4)Purchasing of land is the easiest way to protect them, and many environment organizationsopt to purchase lands with special historic, scenic or environmental value. In some cases, the landowners may sell the right to develop the land or place restrictions on the future uses of land.5)Many kinds of l and-use restrictions involve some form of zoning, that designates specificareas within a community for certain kinds of land use. But it has both positive and negative impacts on good land-use planning. Sometimes it help in preserving important historic or cultural sites while in many ways it also contributed to the segregation found in urban sprawl.19.List ten common smart growth principles.The smart growth approach has the following guidelines:1)Preserve open space. Farmland, natural beauty and critical environmental areas.2)Direct development toward existing urban areas, which encourages the reuse of abandonedor poorly used urban space.3)Take advantage of compact building design, so more people can be housed, and a smallercarbon footprint can be achieved. It can also reduce the need to develop new land4)Create a range of housing opportunities and choices, to accommodate people with differentlifestyles, desires and income levels.5)Foster distinctive, attractive communities with a strong sense of place. Pay attention to thedesign of buildings and their relationship with open space and cultural attractions to createa pleasing urban setting.6)Mix land uses, so that people need not drive somewhere to fulfill their basic needs.7)Create walkable neighborhoods, provide pedestrian walks to separate vehicle traffic frompedestrians.8)Provide a variety of transportation choices.9)Encourage community and stakeholder collaboration in development decisions.10)Make development decisions predictable, fair and cost-effective.21.Give examples of conflict over the use of federally owned property.One of the major conflict is between those who prefer to use motorized vehicles and those who prefer to use muscle power over the outdoor recreation activities. They both paid taxes and wish the land can be used as they wish.Conflicts also arise between business interests and recreational users of public lands. The grazing and skiing are hard to reconciliate, and as the regulatory agencies are often understaffed, the ranchers tend to overgraze the land.A particular sensitive issue is the designation of certain areas as wilderness areas. Many people argue it’s unfair because they are paying tax but their access to the wilderness is restricted. While others fear too many people would destroy the charm and unique character.。
环境科学交叉关系学科课后题答案
环境学概论第一周作业1.Environmental problems are complex and interrelated.Within the ecosystem every component seems to be interconnected and interacted with each other as illustrated in the Darwin's theory of the relation between the production of seeds in red clover and numbers of catsEnvironmental problems often involve social, ethical, political and economic issues. It 'snot easy to achieve acceptable solutions to environmental issues; an environmental decision that is supportable from an economic point of view may not be plausible from the political perspective. As the reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone manifested, the solution has an ethical side and influence not only natural but also economic and social realms. What's more, environmental problems do not necessarily coincide with political boundaries, thus require the collaboration of multiple states or even nations.It's gettin more complicated as the globalization accelerates and the scale of environmental problems expands and requires better governance to ensure sustainable developments.2.The ecosystem approach is the comprehensive and integrated management of human activities, based on the scientific knowledge about ecosystem and its dynamics, and achievesustainable use of ecosystem goods and services and maintenance of ecosystem integrity.It is the right approach because an ecosystem involves not only all organisms but also the abiotic environment, and they form a complex network of interrelationships. Only by thinking systematically, can we understand the dynamics of the ecosystem and take the right action which satisfies human needs while preserving health of the ecosystem.3.The security consists of economic, political, cultural, social andenvironmental aspects.Urbanization and human migration can put great pressure on environment, leading to land degradation and eutrophication, which destroyed the aquatic ecosystem. These would affect the economic and environmental security.The environmental change also threatens environmental resources and caused social instability or even conflicts and wars, thus posing a threat to social and political security.4.Defining human well-being is difficult due to differing views onits definition.first is the resources that people possess, including money and other assets. Such view implies weak sustainability, in which the environment can contribute to development merely by promoting economic growth.second is how people feel about their lives. It means people value the environment for its traditional or cultural aspects.third is what people are able to be and to do. The impacts that the environment have on human well-being are regarded as multidimensional.Above all, human well-being and the quality of the environment are strongly interrelated, and the impact is prominent in various ecosystem services, including provisioning services, regulating services cultural services and supporting services.5.There is difference in how social, political and environmental decisions are made. Most social and political decisions are made with respect to political jurisdictions, while environmental problems do not necessarily coincide with these artificial political boundaries. The problem between Mexico and United States showed that tackling the environmental problem often requires thinking on a ecosystem level instead of as a single nation.There shouldn't be a difference as the economic and political decisions are supposed to adjust to environmental needs and emphasize the environmental concerns. In fact, there should be integrated decision-making that takes in all the above factors, which gives us the best solution.6.The disease has a close relationship with the environment. According to WHO, almost a quarter of all diseases are caused byenvironmental exposure. Environmental risks including pollution, hazards in the workplace, UV radiation, noise and climate and ecosystem change could lead to many diseases, such as malaria, cancer, diarrhea and emerging diseases. Typically, the lack of clean water and sanitation in poor countries and the unhealthy diet and lifestyle in rich countries are both related to diseases.7.Environment is everything that affects an organism during its lifetime. Examples are like a fishpond to a fish or the grassland to a cricket.Ecosystem is a region in which the organisms and the physical environment form an interacting unit, for example the wetlands in Chongming Island.8.In resolving environmental conflicts, we need to take the ecosystem approach, call for better governance, involve related political jurisdictions to arrive at the best available compromise-- the sustainable development strategies.9.Smog is the most severe problem nowadays. There are meteorological, industrial, geographical as well as economical factors.The pollutants are mainly emitted by big factories burning fuel, and then dispersed into atmosphere. Once the weather gets moist and windless, smog is easily formed. Besides, the booming traffic emissions and burning of straws also play an important role in the smog. Specifically, the many high buildings and skyscrapers in Shanghai has curbed the effective diffusion of PM 2.5 particles.However, this is almost inevitable since shutting down big companies that emit pollutants or stopping the traffic growth will do harm to the economy of China.Solving smog would require new and clean energy sources be developed and applied as well as substitute the former techniques with more eco-friendly, although costly techniques. Therefore, there should be more financial aids and policy supports from our governments.。
环境科学学习题及答案
环境科学学习题及答案题目一：什么是环境科学？答案一：环境科学是研究环境与人类相互作用的一门学科，涉及大气、水、土壤及生物等不同方面。
它致力于了解和解决环境问题，保护和改善环境质量，促进可持续发展。
题目二：列举环境科学领域的一些主要问题。
答案二：- 气候变化：包括全球变暖、温室气体排放等问题。
- 水资源管理：包括水质污染、水源枯竭等问题。
- 土壤退化：包括土壤污染、土地沙化等问题。
- 生物多样性丧失：包括物种灭绝、生态系统破坏等问题。
- 环境污染：包括空气污染、水污染、噪音污染等问题。
题目三：什么是环境可持续发展？答案三：环境可持续发展是指在满足当前世代需求的同时，不损害未来世代满足其需求的能力。
它强调经济、社会和环境的相互关系，追求经济发展与环境保护的良性互动。
题目四：为什么环境保护重要？答案四：环境保护对于人类的生存和发展至关重要。
保护环境可以维护生态平衡，减少自然灾害的发生，保障人类健康，促进可持续发展。
另外，环境保护还可以维护地球的美丽和资源的可持续利用。
题目五：个人应如何参与环境保护？答案五：个人应当树立环保意识，从自身做起，采取以下行动：- 节约能源，减少碳排放。
- 减少废物产生，垃圾分类回收。
- 推广可再生能源的使用。
- 关注环境保护组织的活动，参与公益行动。
- 提倡可持续生活方式，例如骑行或使用公共交通工具。
以上是关于环境科学的一些学习题及答案。
希望对你的学习有所帮助！。
环境科学-交叉学科课后critivethinkingquestions答题要点 (1)
第一篇交叉学科篇综合讨论题1. Imagine you are an environmentalist in your area who is interested in local environmental issues. What kinds of issues might these be?1. 假如你是你所居住区域的环境专家。
你对当地那些环境问题感兴趣？当地人民和政府、企业都有那些观点？答案要点：因地而异。
列举工厂污染或荒漠化等等均可。
2. Considering environmental ethics issues in the year 2025.At the rate consumers, corporations, and governments are responding to environmental concerns, what quality- of- life consequences do you project for the year 2025? How will your health, lifestyle, income, employment, and community be affected?2. 考虑2025年的环境伦理学话题。
随着消费者、企业、政府都在承担环境责任，那么到2025年你的生活质量会受到那些影响？你的健康、生活方式、收入、工作和社区都会发生哪些变化？答案要点：请区别本题中生活质量和现有的用GDP来衡量的生活水平（living standard），随着环境责任的增加和资源的枯竭，建立节约型社会是趋势所然。
放弃现有的方便生活方式并不能降低生活质量。
例如：“禁塑令”只是举手之劳，可以改变白色污染等。
同学们应从多方面分析。
第二篇生态学篇综合讨论题1. What is the significance of studying the structure and function of ecosystem on environmental protection?1. 研究生态系统的结构和功能对环保有何意义？答案要点：主要根据物质循环、能量流动等特点进行分析。
环境生态学习题答案
《环境生态学》习题集参考答案第一章绪论（合计43题）一、填空题1.人类对自然的适应环境污染5.《寂静的春天》原生环境问题和次生环境问题7.生态破坏和环境污染8.生态破坏环境污染产生9.《增长的极限》10. Haeckel英美学派法瑞学派前苏联学派12.生物圈生命支持系统13. 大气圈微观二、选择题1. A2. B3. D4. D5.A B C D6. A7. A B8. B9. A 10. C三、判断题1. （√）2. （×）3.（√）4.（×）5.（×）6.（√）四、名词解释——指人类为其自身生存和发展，在利用和改造自然的过程中，对自然环境破坏或污染所产生的危害人类生存的各种不利的反馈效应。
或指由于人类不恰当的生产活动引起全球环境或区域环境质量的恶化，出现了不利于人类生存和发展的问题。
——是研究认为干扰下，生态系统内在的变化机制、规律和人类的反效应，寻求受损生态系统的恢复、重建和保护对策的科学。
即应用生态学的原理，阐明人与环境间相互作用的机制和效应以及解决环境问题的生态途径的科学。
——是研究生物与其环境之间相互关系的科学。
——是研究和指导人类在认识、利用和改造自然中，正确协调人与环境相互关系，寻求人类社会可持续发展途径与方法的科学，是由众多分支学科组成的学科体系的总称。
——是生物圈与生命支持系统的统一体，是地球上全部生物与之发生相互作用的环境的总和。
五、简答题1.生态圈运行的主要特点及启示。
答：特点：生态圈的物质是封闭循环的；生态圈是具有自我调节和控制能力的自持系统；生态圈具有优化演进的能力。
启示以自己的理解围绕要怎么善待生态圈来作答。
2.简答环境生态学的主要研究内容和学科任务。
答：研究内容包括人为干扰下生态系统内在变化机制和规律研究；生态系统受损程度及危害性的判断研究；各类生态系统的功能和保护措施的研究；解决环境问题的生态学对策研究。
学科任务：研究以人为主体的各种环境系统在人类活动的干扰下，生态系统演变过程、生态环境变化的效应以及相互作用的规律和机制，寻求受损生态系统恢复和重建的措施。
（完整版）环境生态学课后题答案
（完整版）环境生态学课后题答案第一章绪论1.生态学的分支学科怎样划分的？2.什么是环境生态学及其研究内容对象？定义：环境生态学是研究人类干扰条件下，生态系统内在变化机理、规律和对人类的反效应，寻求受损生态系统的恢复、重建及保护生态对策的科学。
研究内容：人为干扰下生态系统内在变化机制和规律研究；生态系统受损程度及危害性的判断研究；各类生态系统的功能和保护措施的研究；解决环境问题的生态学对策研究3.环境生态学产生与发展过程。
4.当今世界上的主要环境问题是什么全球气候变化；臭氧层破坏和损耗；酸雨污染；土地荒漠化；森林植被被破坏；生物多样性锐减；海洋资源破坏和污染；有机物的污染5.当代环境问题的主要特点全球化；综合化；社会化；高科技化；累积化；政治化。
6.名词及术语环境问题，生态破坏，环境污染，环境生态学，环境危机，地球温暖化，臭氧层空洞，酸雨环境问题：是指人类为其生存和发展，在利用和改造自然的过程中，对自然环境破坏或污染所产生的危害人类生存的各种不利反馈。
生态破坏：不合理地开发和利用资源而对自然环境的破坏以及由此产生的各种生态效应。
环境污染：因工农业生产活动和人类生活所排放的废弃物造成的污染。
环境生态学：研究人类干扰条件下，生态系统内在变化机理、规律和对人类的反效应，寻求受损生态系统的恢复、重建及保护生态对策的科学。
环境危机：由人类生产与生活活动导致地区性、区域性，甚至全球性的环境功能的衰退或破坏，从而严重影响和威胁人类自身的生存和发展的现象。
地球温暖化：臭气层空洞：人类大量使用的氯氟烷烃化学物质（如制冷剂、发泡剂、清洗剂等）在大气对流层中不易分解，当其进入平流层后受到强烈紫外线照射，分解产生氯游离基，游离基同臭氧发生化学反应，使臭氧浓度减少，从而造成臭氧层的严重破坏。
酸雨：PH值小于5.65的降水。
第二章生物与环境1、什么是生物的协同进化？举例说明。
生物的协同进化主要是由于生物个体的进化过程是在其环境的选择压力下进行的，而环境不公包括非生物因素，也包括其他生物。
(完整版)环境科学交叉关系学科课后题答案第七章
1.Biotic potential is the ability of each species to produce offspring; it is directly dependent on the number of individuals, especially females, of reproductive age. A high biotic potential would guarantee enough offspring to sustain or increase the population of the given species.3. Populations have an inherent tendency to increase in size. Population growth is determined by the combined effects of birthrate and death rate, as well as emigration, immigration, sex ratio, and age distribution.5. A death phase occurs when there is a decline in population size. This occurs as the result of disease, increased predation, low food supply, toxins accumulating in the ecosystem, and some other limiting factors.7. Birthrate is defined as the number of individuals born into a population, whereas population growth is the result of birthrate and immigration minus death rate and emigration, or the total net increase in the population size.9.Intrinsic factors: crowded living conditions.Extrinsic factors: predators, loss of a food source, lack of sunlight, or accidents of nature. Density-dependent factors are those that become more effective as the density of the population increases. For example, the larger a population becomes, the more likely it is that predators will have a chance to catch some of the individuals.Density-independent factors are population-controlling influences that do not relate to the density of the population such as a sudden rainstorm.11. As the human population increases, some species would decline in population as they are hunted down for food. As human beings continue to alter the condition of environment, destroying habitats for those species which live in them. On the other hand, some invasion species may find another habitat and prosper.13. Demographic transition is the hypothesis that economies proceed through a series of stages, resulting in stable populations and high economic development. As a country develops technologically, it automatically experiences a drop in death rate and then birthrate, and population goes stable.The model is based on the historical, social, and economic development of Europe and North America.15. Ecological footprint is a measure of the land area required to provide the resources and absorb the wastes of a population. China has the need to import many materials needed, and much more investments into controlling the pollution caused by unbalanced and unsustainable developments which enlarge the ecological footprint of us. Thus, our ecological footprint is larger than those in Africa.17. The education level of women is strongly correlated with the total fertility rate andeconomic well-being of a population.In many male-dominated, the traditional role of women is to marry and raise children, thus leading to high fertility rate. This is most acute in poor countries, in which women are usually poorly educated, do not have disposable income, and depend on their husband's income. They are more likely to have children they do not want because they cannot afford or understand birth control and because they view children as workers and caregivers. In developed world, parents would make the decision about having children in the economic sense, thus having less fertility rates.19. People who live in overpopulated countries use plants as their main source of food because they cannot afford the 90-percent energy loss that occurs when plants are fed to animals. The same amount of grain can support ten times more people at the herbivore level than at the carnivore level.21. Children are valued as workers and provide an income for their family.Women have little choice for vocation, rather than giving birth to and raising children. Cultures and religions encourage large families, due to lack of adequate social welfare and social security.。
《环境工程学》课后习题答案详解计算过程全
3.65
碳酸盐硬度=
1 2
1-3 取某水样 250mL 置于空重为 54.342 6 g 的古氏坩埚中，经过滤、105℃烘干、
冷却后称其质量为 54.3998 g，再移至 600℃炉内灼烧，冷却后称其质量为 54.362
2 g。试求此水样的悬浮固体和挥发性悬浮固体量。
答：悬浮固体量
（54 .3998
-
54.3426） 1000 250
第一章水质与水体自净第二章水的物理化学处理方法18第三章水的生物化学处理方法37第四章水处理工程系统与废水最终处置51第五章大气质量与大气污染54第六章颗粒污染物控制55第七章气态污染物控制63第八章污染物的稀释法控制66环境工程学绪论01名词解释答
环境工程学
目录
绪论................................................................................................................................ 1 第一章 水质与水体自净 ..........................................................................................2 第二章 水的物理化学处理方法 ............................................................................18 第三章 水的生物化学处理方法 ............................................................................37 第四章 水处理工程系统与废水最终处置 ............................................................51 第五章 大气质量与大气污染 ................................................................................54 第六章 颗粒污染物控制 ........................................................................................55 第七章 气态污染物控制 ........................................................................................63 第八章 污染物的稀释法控制 ................................................................................66
(完整版)环境科学交叉关系学科课后题答案第十章
1. Renewable energy are continuously being produced or continuously available. However， the cost to exploit renewable energy sources is higher than that of exploiting fossil fuels.2. 13%3. The burning of biomass and waste accounts for over 75 percent of all renewable energy consumed.4. Certain industries， such as lumber mills, paper mills， and plants that process sugar from sugarcane typically burn wastes to provide energy for their operations.5。
Europe has much less available land and have placed restrictions on landfills. Thus, these countries have a much higher rate of burning of solid waste。
6。
Ethanol can be produced by fermenting sugars。
The sugars can be obtained directly from plants or may be produced by converting starch or cellulose of plants to sugars。
Typically，sugar or starch is extracted from the biomass crop by crushing and mixing with water and yeast and then keeping the mixture warm in fermenters。
环境科学交叉关系学科
事务繁多的情况下，他顺利拿下英语四级、六级，计算机二级，并取得了国
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竞赛中获得二等奖；在 2008年美国大学生数学建模竞赛中获得一等奖；在
2008年“高教社”杯全国大学生数学建模竞学的局限性
“隔行如隔山”； 科学家也要与伦理道德问题做斗争； 科学中正常的争论或辩论是科学文明进 步的表现；
6 认识到物质已固、液和气态 存在，其存在形态取决于分子 动能的大小；
7 认识到能量既不能产生，也 不能消失，但是，能量可以由 一种形式转化为另一种形式， 有的能量转化为用途较少的形 式；
8 了解能量具有不同的品质。
整理ppt
3
科学思考
科学：对一定条件下物质变化规律的总结。科学的特点：可重
复验证、可证伪、自身没有矛盾。 科学是运用范畴、定理、定律等思维形式反映现实世界各种现 象的本质和规律的知识体系，是社会意识形态之一。科学是人 类智慧结晶的分门别类的学问。科学就是讲求证据，逻辑严密 的人类认知。
辉辉的眼里是充实而又忙碌的。
大二，段辉辉把注意力集中在数学建模上。兴趣引领他走向更高的殿堂
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成绩，也刷新了学校在这一领域的最好成绩：在2007年“高教社”杯全国大
环境工程学课后习题答案
环境工程学课后习题答案环境工程学课后习题答案环境工程学是一门研究人类与环境相互作用的学科，旨在解决环境问题，保护生态环境，维护人类的健康和可持续发展。
在学习环境工程学的过程中，习题是非常重要的一部分，通过解答习题可以巩固对知识的理解和应用。
以下是一些环境工程学课后习题的答案，希望对大家的学习有所帮助。
1. 什么是环境工程学？环境工程学是一门综合性的工程学科，主要研究人类活动对环境的影响以及如何保护和改善环境质量。
它涉及到水、土壤和空气等自然环境的保护与修复，废物处理与资源回收利用，环境监测与评估等方面的内容。
2. 请列举几种常见的废物处理方法。
常见的废物处理方法包括：焚烧、填埋、堆肥、物理处理（如筛分、磁选、气浮等）、化学处理（如中和、沉淀、氧化等）和生物处理（如好氧处理、厌氧处理等）等。
3. 什么是水污染？请列举几种常见的水污染物。
水污染是指水体中存在有害物质或病原微生物超过一定限度，导致水质下降，不适宜人类或生态系统使用的现象。
常见的水污染物包括：重金属（如铅、汞、铬等）、有机物（如农药、工业废水中的有机物等）、营养物质（如氮、磷等）、微生物（如细菌、病毒等）等。
4. 请简述环境影响评价的目的和步骤。
环境影响评价的目的是评估某个项目或计划对环境的影响，为决策者提供科学依据，以减少环境破坏和资源浪费。
其步骤包括：确定评价范围和目标、收集环境基础数据、评估环境影响、提出环境保护措施、编制环境影响报告书、公众参与和决策等。
5. 请简述大气污染的成因和防治措施。
大气污染的成因主要包括工业排放、交通尾气、燃煤和石油燃烧、挥发性有机物等。
防治措施包括：加强大气污染监测和管理、推广清洁能源、控制工业和交通排放、提高能源利用效率、加强环境法规和政策的制定等。
6. 请简述环境风险评估的步骤和意义。
环境风险评估的步骤包括：风险识别、风险评估、风险管理和风险沟通。
其意义在于评估特定活动或场所对人类健康和环境的潜在风险，为决策者提供科学依据，制定相应的风险管理措施，保护公众健康和环境安全。
2020年智慧树知道网课《环境医学》课后章节测试满分答案
绪论单元测试1【单选题】(40分)环境卫生学的研究对象是人群及其周围的A.生活环境B.自然环境C.社会环境D.自然环境和生活环境E.生态环境2【单选题】(30分)地球上的大气圈、水圈、土壤圈和生物圈被称为A.次生环境B.自然环境C.生活居住环境D.城乡生活居住环境E.生态环境3【单选题】(30分)人与环境之间的辨证统一关系主要体现在A.人类对自然环境的依赖性B.人类对自然资源的索取C.机体的新陈代谢上D.人体每天摄取食物，获得足够营养E.人对环境的破坏，又对环境加以保护和治理第一章测试1【单选题】(10分)可再生资源和不可再生资源的最大区别是A.能否回收利用B.能长时间使用C.必须天然形成D.消耗速度与其再生的速度之间的相对关系E.可以人工合成2【判断题】(10分)可再生能源就是清洁能源A.错B.对3【多选题】(10分)下列选项中属于次生环境的是（）A.高楼大厦B.别墅C.其他选项都正确D.大洋中心E.原始森林4【单选题】(10分)有害和不利的自然环境因素的下列特征，哪项是的A.将继续长期存在B.将逐渐消失C.历来存在D.依然存在E.比次生环境的问题出现早5【单选题】(10分)“食物网”的概念是A.多条食物链相互交叉相连，形成复杂的网络状食物关系B.多种生物因食物不同，形成的复杂的食物关系C.多种污染食物与健康的相互关系D.多种生物相互作用，形成的网状食物关系E.复杂的食物之间的关系6【单选题】(10分)水环境污染物通过食物链迁移的重要介质是A.悬浮物B.颗粒物C.水D.生物体E.胶体7【单选题】(10分)有的污染物在水环境中浓度极低且极为稳定，该污染物通过水生物摄取进入食物链系统，使生物体内污染物浓度大大增加，这种现象被称为A.生物富集作用B.生物降解作用C.生物转化作用D.生物放大作用E.生物自净作用8【多选题】(10分)经济发展包括A.结构改善B.后代人的发展C.教育水平的提高D.社会进步E.经济增长9【单选题】(10分)表征经济增长的参数是A.国民生产总值B.人均国民生产总值C.经济增长指数D.其他选项都不正确E.国家固定资产总值10【单选题】(10分)表征经济发展的参数是A.经济发展指数B.其他选项都不正确C.国民生产总值D.国民可支配收入E.人均国民生产总值第二章测试1【判断题】(10分)对于那些生物半减期短、暴露浓度低的污染物，当体内最大蓄积量低于引起有害效应的水平时，就不会引起慢性有害作用。
《环境科学》部分复习题参考答案要点(PDF)
《环境科学》部分复习题参考答案要点1、怎样理解“环境”的基本概念，简要介绍环境的功能和特性概念：从环境科学的角度看，环境即是以人类为主体的外部世界的总体，即人类生存与繁衍所必需的、相适应的环境或物质条件的综合体，可以分为自然环境和人工环境两种。
环境的功能：（1）为人类生存和繁衍提供必须的资源。
（2）环境的调节功能。
在一定的时空尺度内，环境在自然状态下通过调节作用，使系统的输入等于输出，保持环境平衡或生态平衡。
（3）环境的服务功能。
环境不仅为人类提供大量的生产和生活资料，还为人类提供许多服务，像森林调节气候，净化空气，为人类提供休闲娱乐的场所等等。
（4）环境的文化功能。
优美的自然环境又是艺术家们创作和美学倾向的源泉。
环境的特性：包括环境的整体性与区域性、环境的变动性和稳定性、环境的资源性与价值性。
（1）整体性与区域性。
环境的整体性是指人与地球环境是一个整体，地球的任一部分，或任一个系统，都是人类环境的组成部分。
环境的区域性是指的是环境特性的区域差异。
具体来说就是环境因地理位置的不同或空间范围的差异，会有不同的特性。
（2）环境的变动性和稳定性。
环境变动性指的是在自然或人类社会行为的作用下，环境的内部结构和外在状态始终处于不断的变化中。
（3）资源性与价值性。
环境的资源性是指环境就是一种资源。
这是因为人类的生存与发展，社会的进步，都离不开环境。
既然环境是一种资源，所以环境的价值性也就显而易见了。
2、怎样理解“环境问题”、“环境质量”、“环境污染”和“环境承载力”这几个概念？环境问题：任何由自然或人类引起的生态平衡破坏，最后直接或间接影响人类的生存和发展的一切客观存在的问题，都是环境问题。
环境问题主要是由有两方面原因引起：一是自然因素；二是人为因素。
环境质量：环境质量就是指环境素质的好坏。
一般是指在一个具体的环境内，环境的总体或环境的某些要素，对人群的生存和繁衍以及社会经济发展的适宜程度，是反映人的具体要求而形成的对环境评定的一种概念。
环境科学交叉关系学科Chapter8,9重点句子翻译
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第八章人口问题The world can be divided into two segments based on the state of economic development of the countries。
根据国家的经济发展状况，世界可以分成两个部分。
Collectively, the more-developed countries of the world have relatively stable populations and are expected to grow by about 4 percent by 2050。
The less—developed regions of the world，however, have high population growth rates and are expected to grow by about 55 percent by 2050。
总体而言，世界上发达国家的人口数量比较稳定，预计到2050年增长4％.但是,世界上欠发达国家的人口增长率非常高，预计到2050年增长55％。
Human population growth is tied to economic development and is a contributing factor to nearly all environmental problems.人口增长与经济发展紧密相连,在几乎所有的环境问题中,人口增长都是一个影响因子.It is clear that as the population continues to increase, it will become more difficult to limit the environmental degradation that accompanies it。
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1. Early in human history, people began to use additional sources of energy to make their lives more comfortable. They domesticated plants and animals to provide a more dependable supply of food. Domesticated animals furnished a source of energy for transportation, farming, and other tasks. They provided people with a source of power other than their own muscles.2. Transportation, Residential, commercial and industrial needs3. Central to the Industrial Revolution was the invention of steam engine, which could convert heat energy into the energy of motion. The major heat energy producer is coal and the steam engine made possible the large-scale mining of coal. Nations without a source of coal or those possessing coal reserves that were not easily exploited thus didn’t participate in the Industrial Revolution.4. Invention of steam engine, coal discovery and mining as well as wood shortages in densely populated areas.5. The invention of the internal combustion engine and the automobile dramatically increased the demand for oil products. The prospering automobile industry and road construction lead to more energy consumption, creating more demand for oil.6.a. Government policy has kept the cost of energy artificially low and supported the automobile industry while removing support for bus and rail transport.b. The convenience of rapid travel provided by automobiles.7.(1) Imposing taxes on energy(2) Granting subsidies to energy producers8. Electricity is both a way that energy is consumed and a way that it is supplied. (secondary energy) The transportation of electrical energy is simple and the uses to which it can be put are varied.9.a. The consumption of electricityb. The government regulationsc. The availability of resources that could produce electricity10. Residential and commercial energy use; industrial energy use; transportation energy use.11. OPEC nations control over 75% of the world’s estimated oil reserves of 1,400 billion barrels of oil; Today’s economy is highly dependent on oil as a source of energy. Thus, OPEC countries can set the price of oil through collective action.12.Political:Increased solidarity among OPEC countries and continuing political instability in the Middle East had made oil prices to peak at over US $147 per barrel in mid-2008.Economic:The worldwide economic recession that began about 2008 lowered the demands for energy use and people’s access to energy.13. Despite the possibility that new rich reserves would be found, the price of nonrenewable energy would continue to rise as the availability of energy become less. But as new technologies develop and price of renewable energy goes down, maybe we can see the trend of transformation to “green industry”.1. Coal, oil, natural gas.2. A resource is a naturally occurring substance of use to humans that can potentially be extracted.Reserves are known deposits from which material can be extracted profitably with existing technology under prevailing economic conditions. Reserves are a portion of the total resource. The concept of reserves is an economic idea and is only loosely tied to the total quantity of a materialpresent in the world.3.a. Discovery of new oil deposits.b. Better drilling techniques that led to the discovery of deeper oil deposits,c. Offshore drilling that make use of oil under the ocean floor.4. Coal was formed from plant material that had been subjected to heat and pressure. In many regions of the Earth 300 million years ago, there were many freshwater swamps, which resulted in large accumulations of plant material. And their decay was inhibited after their deaths under water. Thus, a spongy mass of organic material formed. It is thought that the chemical nature of these ancient plants and the lack of many kinds of decay organisms at that time also contributed to the accumulation. Due to geologic changes in the Earth, some of these organic deposits were submerged by seas. The plant material that had collected in the swamps was then covered by sediment. The weight of the sediment on top of the deposit compressed it and heat from the Earth caused the evaporation of water and other volatile compounds. Thus, the original plant material was transformed into coal.5. Lignite coal has a high moisture content and is crumbly in nature. Subbituminous coal has a lower moisture content and a higher carbon content (46%-60%) than lignite. Bituminous coal has a low moisture content and a high carbon content (60%-86%). Anthracite coal is 86%-98% carbon and relatively rare.6. Oil and natural gas probably originated from microscopic marine organisms. When these organisms died and accumulated on the ocean bottom and were buried by sediments, their breakdown released oil droplets. Gradually, the muddy sediment formed rock called shale, which contained dispersed oil droplets. In instances where a layer of porous sandstone formed on top of the oil-containing shale and an impermeable layer of rock formed on top of the sandstone, concentrations of oil often form. Natural gas, like oil, forms from fossil remains. If the heat generated within the Earth reached high enough temperatures, natural gas could have formed along with or instead of oil. This would have happened as theorganic material changed to lighter, more volatile hydrocarbons than those found in oil.7. Coal: Europe and Eurasia; Oil: Middle East; Natural gas: Middle East.8.A. Landscape Disturbance.B. Acid Mine DrainageC. Air pollution9. Secondary recovery methods include pumping water or gas into the well to drive the oil out of the pores in the rock. Tertiary recovery methods include pumping steam into the well to lower the viscosity of the oil and allow it to more readily. Other techniques include more aggressive pumping of gases or chemicals into wells.These methods have costs and can manifest in the price of oil.10. Mainly oil leakage, which includes oil spills and oil entering the oceans results from natural seeps and pollution from the use of oil as lubricants and fuel in machinery and the residue from these uses that is washed into streams and carried to the oceans. The evaporation of oil products and the incomplete burning of oil fuels contribute to air pollution.11. Of the three fossil fuels, natural gas is the least disruptive to the environment. A natural gas well does not produce any unsightly waste, although there may be local odor problems. Except for the danger of an explosion or fire, natural gas poses no harm to the environment during transport. Since it is clean burning, it causes almost no air pollution. The products of its combustion are carbon dioxide and water.12. The acceptance of the threat of climate change has had major implications for nuclear power. Since nuclear power plants do not produce carbon dioxide, many people, including some environmental organizations, have reevaluated the value of nuclear power and see it as a continuing part of the energy equation.As the cost of oil and natural gas has increased, electricity generation from these sources has become more costly, making nuclear power moreattractive. Countries with few fossil fuel reserves and those with developing economies are most likely to build nuclear power plants.13. Nuclear disintegration releases energy from the nucleus as radiation, of which there are three major types: alpha radiation; beta radiation; gamma radiation. In addition, when they disintegrate, the nuclei of a few kinds of atoms release neutrons.14. An atom that has a nucleus that will split, it is said to be fissionable and the process of splitting is known as nuclear fission. If these splitting nuclei also release neutrons, they can strike the nuclei of other atoms, which also disintegrate, resulting in a continuous process called a nuclear chain reaction.15. The generation of electricity is mainly about the generation of products that came from a nuclear chain reaction. In order to maintain a nuclear chain reaction the fast moving neutrons must be slowed. This is accomplished by a moderator substance. Control rods contain nonfissionable materials that absorb the neutrons produced by fissioning uranium and prevent the neutrons from splitting other atoms. In order to manage the large amount of heat produced within the nuclear reactor, a coolant material is needed to transfer the heat away. In the production of electricity, a nuclear reactor serves the same function as burning a fossil fuel. It produces heat, which converts water to steam to operate a turbine that generates electricity.16. Mining, extracting the uranium from the ore, enriching U-235, fabricating the fuel rods, installing and using the fuel in a reactor, and disposing of the wastes.17. When an alpha or beta particle or gamma radiation interacts with atoms, it can dislodge electrons from the atoms and cause the formation of ions. When ionization occurs in living tissue it can result in damage to DNA or other important molecules in cells. The degree and kind of damage vary with the kind of radiation, the amount of radiation, the duration of the exposure, and the types of cells irradiated. Ionizing radiation can cause mutations, which are changes in the genetic messages within cells.Mutations that occur in the ovaries or testes can form mutated eggs or sperm, which can lead to abnormal offspring. Mutations that occur in other tissues of the body may manifest themselves as abnormal tissue growths known as cancer.18. Time, distance, and shielding are the basic principles of radiation protection.19. Three Mile Island Chernobyl Fukushima Dai-ichi20. Contaminations associated with the radiation produced by the fuel and the waste products of its use. Radiation would cause damages to people’s bodies and increase the possibility of abnormal babies. Explosions, leaks of nuclear plants would cause a long-term evacuation of a long distance from the plant since the half-lives of some radioactive isotopes are extremely long. Radioactive products may contaminate the rivers and oceans around it and thus, cause environmental problems all over the world. Any living thing around the plant would receive high exposures, which may lead to death or abnormality. The disposal of nuclear waste has also raised environmental concern.21. Stage 1 involves removing fuel rods and water used in the reactor and properly storing or disposing of them. This removes 99% of the radioactivity.22.a. Decontaminate and dismantle the plant as soon as it is shut down.b. Secure the plant for many years to allow radioactive materials that have a short half-life to disintegrate and then dismantle the plant. (However, this process should be completed within 60 years.)c. Entomb the contaminated portions of the plant by covering the reactor with reinforced concrete and placing a barrier around the plant.。