国际法

INTERNATIONAL LAW
国际法
Definition of International Law 国际法的定义
Refer to a body of rules governing international relations
指的是管理国际关系的主体规则
Terms术语: a. Jus Gentium and Grotius (1583-1645)
万民法和雨果·格劳修斯
b. Law of Nations 万国公法
c. International Law and Bentham (1748-1832)
国际法和杰拉米·边沁
d. Law of Mankind 人类法
e. World Law 世界法
f. Transnational Law 跨国法
Features of international law compared with municipal law
国际法与国内法相比的特征
A. Subjects 对象
B. Law-making process 立法过程
C. Law enforcement 执法
Relationship Between International Law and Municipal Law
国际法与国内法之间的关系
Theories 理论
Monism一元论: One single legal system. 单一法律系统。

Which prevail? 哪个优先？
Dualism二元论: Two independent legal systems. 两个独立的法律系统。

How to transfer? 如何转换？
Practices 实践
1. US 美国
Treaties条约: Supreme law of the land; 国家的至上法律；
Distinguish self-executing treaty and non-self-executing treaty;
区别自动执行条约和非自动执行条约；
Customs习惯: Viewed as common law; 视作习惯法；
Can be applied directly by courts. 可以直接由法院实施。

2. UK 英国
UK does not permit treaty to take effect in domestic society without the legislative enactment.
英国不允许条约在国内社会没有立法性法规的情况下生效。

UK denies the existence of self-executing treaty.
英国否认自动执行条约的存在。

Custom is viewed as common law and can be applied directly by courts.
习惯被视作习惯法并且可以直接由法院实施。

3. Russia 俄罗斯
Russian Constitution provides that“the commonly recognized principles and norms of the international law and the international treaties of the Russian Federation shall be the component part of its legal system. If an international treaty of the Russian Federation stipulates other rules than those stipulated by the Russian Federation law, the rules of the international treaty shall apply”.
俄罗斯宪法规定：“普遍公认的国际法原则和准则及俄罗斯联邦国际条约是俄罗斯联邦法律体系的组成部分。

如果俄罗斯联邦国际条约确立了不同于法律所规定的规则，则适用国际条约规则。

”
4. Germany 德国
In Germany duly ratified or accepted treaty has effect over German law and can create rights and obligations for Germans.
在德国，被正式批准和认可的条约有高于德国法律的效力，并且能够创制适用于德国人的权利和义务。

5. China 中国
No related provisions in Constitution. 在宪法中没有相关的条款。

Some domestic laws provide that treaties prevail.
一些国内法规定条约优先。

Some domestic laws provide that international usage can merely be applied when treaties and domestic laws of China both failed to provide rules.
一些国内法规定，只有在条约和中国国内法都没有作出规定的时候，国际惯例才能适用。

Classic criteria for statehood国家地位的传统标准
Permanent Population固定的居民
Defined Territory确定的领土
Government (with actual control over the territory)
政府（具有对领土的实际控制力）
Capacity to Enter Into Relations With Other States
参加同其它国家间关系的资格
Five Fundamental Principles 和平共处五项原则
1. Principle of mutual respect for sovereignty and integrity of territory
互相尊重主权和领土完整
2. Principle of mutual non-aggression互不侵犯
3. Principle of non-intervention in domestic affairs互不干涉内政
4. Principle of equality and mutual benefit平等互利
5. Principle of peaceful co-existence和平共处
Sources of International Law 国际法的渊源
Article 38 of the Statute of International Court of Justice
《国际法院规约》第三十八条
1. Strictly speaking, constitutes a standing directive to the court as to what to apply in deciding cases brought before it.
严格地说，关于在裁决案件前应该提交怎样的申请，《国际法院规约》第三十八条对法院制定了一个长期的规章。

2. However, has exercised an enormous influence in the sources field, and frequently cited as an authoritative enumeration of the sources of international law.
然而，《国际法院规约》第三十八条已经在渊源领域发挥了重大影响，并且屡次被引证为国际法渊源的权威性例证。

—not exhaustive enumeration, more practical
不是权威性的例证，却更具有实际价值
Court Shall Apply 法院应当遵守
1. Three sources 三个渊源
a. international conventions 国际协约
b. international custom 国际习惯
c. general principles of law 一般法律原则
2. Subsidiary means of determining rules of law 确定法律原则的辅助方法
a. judicial decisions 司法判例
b. writings of most highly qualified publicists (i.e. scholarly writings)
大多数权威公法学家的著作（即学术著作）
3. At the request of the parties to a dispute, Court may decide a case ex aequo et bono (“in justice and fairness”, or “according to what is just and good”).
在各方争论的需求下，国际法院会根据“公平和善意”原则裁决案件。

Treaties 条约
Nature of Treaties 条约的本质
1. Essential features 必要特征
a. intention of parties to create binding obligations
各方意图创立有约束性的契约
b. agreement to be governed by international law
协议以国际法为准
2. Distinction is sometimes drawn between law-making treaties and treaty-contracts
区别有时存在于造法性条约和契约性条约之间
a. Law-making treaties codify, define or interpret international law
造法性契约编纂、定义、解释国际法
b. Treaty-contracts do not create general rules of international law, only
create obligations between parties
契约性条约并不创制国际法的基本规则，只是制定各方之间的契约
3. Binding force of treaties: Pacta sunt servanda
条约的约束力：条约必须遵守原则
4. Generally based on reciprocal obligation; but unilateral declaration of intent may create international obligations under unusual circumstances 总体上基于互相之间的权利义务，但单方声明的意图会产生特殊情况下的国际契约
Reservations 条约的保留
A. Definition of reservation 保留的定义
B. Two separate questions arise: “permissibility” and “opposability”
出现两个独立的问题：允许、可反对
C. Legal effect of reservations 保留的法律效果
D. Bear in mind procedural requirements; most important is that reservations must be made in writing and communicated to the contracting states.
牢记程序要求，最重要的是保留必须通过书面形式确定，并且传达给缔约国的沟通。

E. Also keep in mind distinction between reservations and “interpretati ve declarations”
同时牢记保留与“解释性声明”之间的区别
Theories of Recognition承认的学说
A. Two theories of the effects of recognition 承认效果的两种学说
1. Constitutive Theory 构成说
2. Declaratory Theory 宣告说
3. More accurate view is that recognition has both constitutive and
declaratory aspects.
更准确的观点是：承认同时具有构成和宣告两方面。

B. EC “Guidelines on the Recognition of New States in Eastern Europe and in the Soviet Union”, in response to situation in Yugoslavia.
欧共体的“东欧与苏联之新国家承认指导方针”，针对南斯拉夫局势。

State Immunity 国家豁免
Concept of state immunity is based on sovereign equality of states coupled with notion of reciprocity.
国家豁免的概念是基于国家主权平等，伴随着对等的概念。

1. Immunity is seen as the logical outgrowth of the nature of the international system.
豁免被视为国际制度本质的逻辑产物。

2. Classic articulation in The Schooner Exchange v. M'Faddon (1812: U.S.S.C.)
斯库诺交易号诉麦克法登案中的经典经典表达（1812年：美国联邦最高法院）
3. Should immunity change to reflect changes in the international system itself?
豁免是否需要变化，以体现国际系统本身的变化？
Absolute Immunity v. Restrictive Immunity 绝对豁免与有限豁免
1. Absolute immunity: any and all acts of the sovereign enjoy immunity from the jurisdiction of courts of another State.
绝对豁免：任何与主权相关的行为有免于他国法院法律管辖的权利。

2. Restrictive immunity: immunity should be enjoyed only for acts of a governmental nature not for commercial acts.
有限豁免：只享有针对政府性质行为而非商业行为的豁免权。

3. Latter doctrine found increasing acceptance around the world.
后一种学说在世界各地越来越多地被接受。

Traditionally territory could be acquired in a number of ways
传统领土可以通过许多方式取得
1. Occupation 先占
2. Cession 割让
3. Prescription 时效
4. Conquest 政府
5. Accretion 添附
Jurisdiction Over Marine Zones 海洋区域管辖权
Territorial Sea (12 n. miles from baseline) 领海（从基线量起12海里）
A. Distinction between territorial sea and internal waters.
领海和内水的区别。

B. Drawing baselines 绘制基线
Contiguous Zone (12 n. miles from territorial water)
毗连区（从领海量起12海里）
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 专属经济区
A. Customary international law be codified by UNCLOS
根据《联合国海洋法公约》编纂而成的习惯国际法
B. Definition and breadth 定义和宽度
1. Specific legal regime beyond territorial sea
领海以外的具体法律制度
2. Overlaps with contiguous zone 与毗连区重叠
3. Not extending beyond 200 n.m. from baseline
不超过从基线量起200海里
C. Rights, jurisdiction and duties of coastal state
权利、管辖权和沿海国家的职责
1. Limited sovereign rights, mainly over natural resources
有限的主权权利，主要是关于自然资源
2. Regulatory powers of coastal state in EEZ
沿海国家在专属经济区的监管权力
a. Artificial islands 人工岛屿
b. Conservation of living resources 生物资源的保护
c. Utilization of living resources 生物资源的利用
D. Rights and duties of other states 其它国家的权利与义务
High Seas公海
A. Definition: all parts of the sea not in EEZ, territorial sea or internal waters of a State 定义：除专属经济区、领海、内水以外一个国家全部的水域。

B. Legal regime of high seas 公海的法律制度
1. Freedom of navigation, over-flight, cable laying, artificial islands,
fishing
航行自由、飞越自由、电缆铺设自由、建造人工岛屿的自由、捕鱼自由
2. Reserved for peaceful purposes 只用于和平目的
3. Limited exceptions to freedom of navigation 航行自由的有限例外
C. Flag-state jurisdiction 船旗国管辖权
D. Right of hot pursuit 紧追权
Civil Aviation Safety Regime 民用航空安全制度
A. 1963 Tokyo Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft
1963年《关于在航空器上犯罪和其他某些行为的公约》（《东京公约》）
B. 1970 Hague Convention for Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft
1970年《关于制止非法劫持航空器的公约》（《海牙公约》）
C. 1971 Montreal Sabotage Convention
1971年《关于制止危害国际民用航空安全非法行为的公约》（《蒙特利尔公约》）
Refer to Case of Terrorist Bombing of Pan American Flight 103 over Lockerbie and Case of KAL Flight 007
有关洛克比上空的泛美航空航班103号的恐怖主义爆炸案以及大韩航空007号案
State Jurisdiction Over Persons 国家对于人的管辖权
Jurisdiction Over Offence 罪行管辖权
A. Scope of Jurisdiction Generally 管辖权的总体范围
B. Bases of Criminal Jurisdiction 刑事管辖权的基础
1. Territorial Principle 属地原则
2. Nationality Principle 属人原则
3. Passive Personality Principle 被动人格原则
4. Protective Principle 保护原则
5. Universal Principle 普遍性原则
6. By Agreement 依照约定
Nationality of an individual 个人的国籍
An individual’s nationality is a bond between an individual and a state that establishes their reciprocal rights and duties.
个人的国籍是一种规定了个人和国家相互之间权利与义务的契约。

Three ways to acquire nationality三种获得国籍的方法:
1. Parentage (blood rule) 血统主义原则
2. Place of birth (soil rule) 出生地主义原则
3. Change of nationality 国籍变更
Special issue of dual or multiple nationality and statelessness. Reduce/eliminate dual or multiple nationality and statelessness:
双重国籍、多重国籍、无国籍的特殊问题。

减少或消除双重国籍、多重国籍、无国籍：
1. Through municipal legislation 通过国内立法
2. By bilateral treaty 通过双边条约
3. By multilateral arrangement 通过多边协商
Invocation of State Responsibility 援引国家责任
A. An “injured State” is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State if the obligation breached is owed to that State individually or a group of States (including the injured State) or the international community as a whole, if the breach specially affects that State, or radically changes the position of all the other States to which the obligation is owed with respect to the further performance of the obligation.
“受害国”有权援引另一国的责任，如果违反的义务是单独涉及该国或数个国家（包括受害国）或整个国际社会，如果违约特别影响到该国，或从根本上改变了其他各国对于该义务涉及有关进一步义务履行的立场。

B. Any State other than an injured State is entitled to invoke the responsibility of another State if the obligation breached is owed to a group of States (including that State) and is established for the protection of a collective interest of the group, or the obligation breached is owed to the international community as a whole. In cases such as these, a State can claim cessation of the wrongful act and performance of the obligation of reparation “in the interest of the injured State or of the beneficiaries of the obligation breached.”
受害国以外的任何其他国家有权援引另一国的责任，如果该项义务的违反涉及一组国家（包括该国），并且是为了保护该组国家的整体利益而设立，或者该项义务的违反涉及整个国际社会。

在这些情况下，一国可以要求不法行为的终止或者履行理赔“受害国的利益或者违反该项义务的受益者”的责任。

Countermeasures 反措施
A. Definition: a countermeasure is an act that would itself be internationally wrongful if it were not a response to a previous wrongful act.
定义：反措施如果不是作为对于先前不法行为的回应，那么这种行为本身也就是国际不法行为。

B. Traditionally, two different types of countermeasures were recognized:
传统上有两种不同的反措施是被认可的：
1. Reciprocal measures or measures by way of reciprocity
互惠措施或者通过互惠方式实行的措施
2. Reprisals 报复
C. Countermeasures in the ILC Articles on State responsibility
国际法委员会《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款》中的反措施。

Range of Mechanisms Available 机制适用范围
A. Article 33 of Charter lists number of alternatives means of peaceful dispute settlement; not meant to be exhaustive.
《联合国宪章》第三十三条列举了数种供选择的和平解决争端的方法，但并不意味着是无遗漏的。

B. Mechanisms can be seen as lying at different points along a continuum of third-party involvement and “binding” character.
机制可被视作是依赖于不同方面上第三方的参与以及有约束力的地位。

C. Distinction can be made between “diplomatic” means and “adjudicative” means of dispute settlement.
解决争端的方法可分为外交手段和仲裁手段。

Non-adjudicative Procedures and Adjudicative Procedures
非司法程序和司法程序
1. Non-adjudicative Procedures 非司法程序
a. Negotiation 谈判
b. Good offices斡旋
c. Mediation 调停
d. Inquiry 调查
e. Conciliation 和解
2. Adjudicative Procedures 司法程序
a. Arbitration 仲裁
b. Judicial settlement 司法解决
Judges of the Court 法院的法官
A. Composition of the Court 法院的组成
1. 15 members: elected by GA and SC of UN
15位法官：由联合国大会和联合国安全理事会选举产生
2. Judges’ qualification 法官的资格
3. Body as a whole should represent main forms of civilization and legal
systems.
法官作为整体应当能够代表世界的主要文明形式和主要法系。

B. The role of nationality 国籍的作用
1. Only one judge of each nationality 每个国际只能有一名法官
2. Party to a dispute may appoint a judge of its nationality if one is not
already on the bench
争端各方可以指定一名该国国籍的法官——如果该法官并不在法官席
上。

C. Overall composition of the Court has changed over the years to reflect the development of regional representation within the U.N. system more generally.
法院的总体结果在过去数年发生了一定变化以反应区域代表的发展在联合国系统中更加普遍。

Jurisdiction of the Court 法院的管辖权
A. Unlimited as to subject matter 对内容问题无限制
B. Jurisdiction over States based on voluntary acceptance, which generally takes place in one of three ways:
对于国家的管辖权是基于自愿接受的情况，一般以三种方式产生：
1. By special agreement 通过特别协定
2. By treaty provision 通过条约规定
3. By way of "optional clause”通过“任择条款”的方式
C. Court has final word on whether or not it has jurisdiction.
法院对于是否具有管辖权具有最终意见。

D. In certain rare instances, Court may be precluded from exercising jurisdiction over a dispute in which two parties have accepted its jurisdiction because of the effect of the judgment on third parties.
在某些罕见情况下，当争议各方已经由于法院对于第三方裁决的效果而接受了其管辖权，法院可能被排阻止行使管辖权。

Security Council of UN 联合国安全理事会
Has primary responsibility for maintenance of international peace & security 具有维持国际和平及安全之主要责任
All UN members agree to accept and carry out decisions made by it
所有联合国会员国同意接受并履行安全理事会制定的决议
Powers in relation to pacific settlement of disputes
国际关系中和平解决争端的权利
i. Broad powers to investigate matters likely to endanger world peace
调查可能危及世界和平的问题的广泛权力
ii. Any member of UN may bring dispute to Security Council
任何一个联合国成员国可以讲争端交由安理会处理
iii. Security council may recommend procedures for dispute resolution
安理会可以提出对于解决纠纷的程序的建议
Action with respect to threats to the peace
对于和平之威胁的应付办法
Membership of Security Council 安全理事会的成员
i. 15 members 15个成员国
ii. 5 permanent members: China, France, Russian Federation, UK, and
US五个常任理事国：中国、法国、苏联、英国、美国
Security Council Voting Procedure 安理会投票程序
i. On procedure requires 9 affirmative votes
对于程序事项之决议，应以九理事国之可决票表决之
ii. On all other matters: 9 affirmative votes including permanent
members
对于其他一切事项之决议，应以九理事国之可决票包括全体常任理事国
之同意票表决之
—a permanent member can abstain and wouldn’t be considered as a
vote against一个常任理事国可以弃权并且不会被视作反对票—a permanent member vote against would veto the resolution
任一常任理事国的反对票都可以否决决议Justifications for the Use of Force 使用武力的依据
The Right of Self-Defence
A. At customary international law: subject to requirements of necessity and proportionality
B. Right preserved in U.N. Charter Article 51
C. Have developments in the last few years changed the parameters of the right of self-defense, particularly 9/11?
The notion of “generations” of rights
1. First generation rights
2. Second generation rights
3. Third generation rights
a. Right to environment
b. Right to peace
c. Right to development
Specific Treaty Mechanisms
1. Human rights treaties generally establish committees to monitor treaty implementation, E.g.:
a. Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
b. Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women
c. Committee against Torture
2. Perhaps the best-known example is the Human Rights Committee, set up pursuant to the Optional Protocol to the ICCPR.
3. ICESCR lacked any kind of committee mechanism until Economic and Social Council established the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1985) to monitor implementation of the ICESCR.
Inadequacy and Difficulties
General perception of inadequacy of traditional international law and a number of difficulties in applying standard notions of state responsibility to
environmental damage, in particular:
1. Vagueness of rules
2. Difficulty in pinpointing responsible states
Selected Contemporary Developments
A. The Role of Non-State Actors
B. Sustainable Development: purporting to reconcile environment and development
C. Intergenerational Equity
D. The Environment, Human Rights and Humanitarian Law
E. The Precautionary Principle
F. Environmental Impact Assessment
G. Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
H. Polluter Pays Concept
What Is International Criminal Law
A. Has been referred to as a product of “the convergence of two disciplines:
1. the penal aspects of international law and
2. the international aspects of national criminal law.
B. Fairly loose and broad term, but used in this chapter to refer to the body of norms dealing with “international crimes”.
C. Has gained enormous momentum over the past fifteen years, in no small measure because of the Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda and the International Criminal Court.
The International Criminal Court
Structure of Rome Statute: Preamble followed by Parts 1-13
1 Establishment of the Court
2. Jurisdiction, Admissibility and Applicable Law
3. General Principles of Criminal Law
4. Composition and Administration of the Court
5. Investigation and Prosecution
6. The Trial
7. Penalties
8. Appeal and Revision
9. International Cooperation and Judicial Assistance
10. Enforcement
11. Assembly of States Parties
12. Financing
13. Final Clauses
Definition of International Economic Law
International economic law has been defined as all the international law and international agreements governing economic transactions that cross state boundaries or otherwise have implications for more than one state.
Current International Economic System
A. The system is based on the international regulations established by Bretton Woods Conference 1944.
B. Three pillars of the system
1. International Monetary Fund (IMF)
2. The World Bank
3. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was replaced
by WTO in 1995
Fields WTO Covers
a. Tariffs
b. Agriculture
c. Textiles
d. Services
e. Intellectual Property
Basic Principles of Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods
1. Most-favored national treatment
2. National treatment
3. Schedule of concessions
4. Quantitative restrictions
5. Transparency
6. Exceptions such as protection of pubic morals, of human and animal life and health, and of environment, exceptions for free-trade zones and custom unions, etc.
7. Special provisions on developing countries.
International Investment Law
Main Features
A. Cooperation and conflict between capital exporting countries and capital importing countries leads to this law.
B. The law consists of bilateral or multilateral investment treaties, investment insurance schemes, and investment dispute settlement mechanisms.
Investment Insurance Schemes
A. Some capital exporting countries have established national investment insurance schemes.
B. The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency。