语义学重要概念整理

Reference: the relationship by which language hooks onto the world. Words also derive their position within the language system. The concrete entities having these properties.

Sense: the semantic links between elements within the vocabulary system is an aspect of their sense, or meaning. The abstract property of an entity

Utterance: an utterance is created by speaking (or writing), a piece of language. ~are real pieces of speech.

Concept: something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our mind.

Sentence: are abstract grammatical elements obtained from utterance. By filtering out certain types of information, we can get to abstract grammatical elements, sentence.

Proposition s: one further step of abstraction is possible purpose: to identify propositions. In trying to establish rules of valid deduction, logicians discovered that certain elements of grammatical information in sentence were irrelevant. By going on to filter out certain types of grammatical information, we can get to propositions, which are descriptions of states of affaires and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning.

Types of reference: referring& non referring expressions : constant& variable reference:I You, Eiffel Tower referents & extensions

Denotational approach: emphasizes the links between language and external reality

Representationa l: emphasizes the links between language and the conceprual structure.

Language of though t: mental process not involving language is often used to argue that cognitive process do not employ a spoken language but makes sense of a separate computational system in the mind. Homonymy: are unrelated senses of the same phonological word.. we can distinguish different types depending on their syntactic behavior and spelling.不同源

Polysemy: Polysemous are judged to be related and listed under the same lexical entry.(HOOK) Opposites：simple~,(dead, alive); gradable~(hot); reverse~(right0left); converse~(above below); taxonomic sisters(red, blue)

Hyponymy; inclusion. A hyponym includes the meaning of a more general word (dog& cat_animal) Meronymy; part-whole relationships between lexical items(cover&page~~book)

DERIVATIO NAL verbs: Causative verbs: KILL

Agentive nouns: V+er\or

Entailment, he killed the king. The king died.hyponymy I bought a dog, I bought an animal. Presupposition: to presuppose something means to assume it..例合适husband is a fool. She has a husband.B是A的条件

Situation types: is a label for the typology of situations encoded in semantics of language. semantic distinctions like static: view a situation as a steady state (love,know)& dynamic(walk),-------durative(sleep)& punctual(cough, knock), telic(bounded,have a natural completion)& atelic(unbounded) allows a basic classification of situations into(states. Activities and accomplishments) inchoatives(are progresses where or attention is directed to the beginning of a new state,or to a change of state# the ice melted)& resultatives(have a final point of completion# Bill baked a cake)

(A) STATE; desire, want ,love hate (B)ACTIVITIES(unbounded process): run, walk

(B) ACCOPLISHMENT（bounded）：walk to school (D)ACHIEVEMNT recognize, stop

(E)SEMELFACTIVES the gate banged.

Modality& Evidentiality: allows the speaker to assume various attitudes towards a proposition.

Modality is a cover term for devices which allow speakers to express varing degree of commitment to, or belief in, a proposition. EPISTEMIC modality reflects various judgements of factuality and DEONTIC modality communicates judgements of moral and legal obligation. Both can be seen as implying a