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cpu中央处理器中英文对照外文翻译文献

cpu中央处理器中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文资料翻译中央处理器设计摘要CPU(中央处理单元)是数字计算机的重要组成部分,其目的是对从内存中接收的指令进行译码,同时对存储于内部寄存器、存储器或输入输出接口单元的数据执行传输、算术运算、逻辑运算以及控制操作。

在外部,CPU为转换指令数据和控制信息提供一个或多个总线并从组件连接到它。

在通用计算机开始的第一章,CPU作为处理器的一部分被屏蔽了。

但是CPU有可能出现在很多电脑之间,小,相对简单的所谓微控制器的计算机被用在电脑和其他数字化系统中,以执行限制或专门任务。

例如,一个微控制器出现在普通电脑的键盘和检测器中,但是这些组件也被屏蔽。

在这种微控制器中,与我们在这一章中所讨论的CPU可能十分不同。

字长也许更短,(或者说4或8个字节),编制数量少,指令集有限。

相对而言,性能差,但对完成任务来说足够了。

最重要的是它的微控制器的成本很低,符合成本效益。

在接下去的几页里,我考虑的是两个计算机的CPU,一个是一个复杂指令集计算机( CISC),另一个是精简指令集计算机(RISC)。

在详细的设计检查之后,我们比较了两个CPU的性能,并提交了用来提高性能的一些方法的简要概述。

最后,我们讨论了关于一般数字系统设计的设计思路。

1.双CPU的设计正如我们前一章提到的,一个典型的CPU通常被分成两部分:数据路径和控制单元。

该数据路径由一个功能单元、登记册和内部总线组成,为在功能单元、存储器以及其他计算机组件之间提供转移信息的途径。

这个数据途径有可能是流水线,也有可能不是。

控制单元由一个程序计数器,一个指令寄存器,控制逻辑,和可能有其他硬或微程序组成。

如果数据途径是流水线那么控制单元也有可能是流水线。

电脑的CPU是一个部分,要么是复杂指令集计算机( CISC),要么是精简指令集计算机(RISC),有自己的指令集架构。

本章的目的是提交两个CPU的设计,用来说明指令集,数据路径,和控制单元的构造特征的合并。

该设计将自上而下,但随着先前组件设计的重新使用,来说明指令集构架在数据路径和控制单元上的影响,数据路径上的单元的影响力。

盈利能力外文资料翻译译文

盈利能力外文资料翻译译文

盈利能力外文资料翻译译文XXX has always been one of the XXX。

Capital structure is related to a company's funding costs。

financial risks。

and profitability。

and funding costs and financial risks XXX een a company's capital structure and profitability is not us。

but increasing a company's long-term debt-to-equity。

XXX.The funding costs of long-XXX taxes。

a company's actual capital cost is lower than the rate of return demanded by creditors。

The cost of debt capital is mainly determined by the company's financial structure。

debt repayment ability。

operating cash flow。

operating ability。

operating efficiency。

market interest rates。

and current market economic XXX nary effects。

and the return XXX。

Long-term debt has a greater impact on a company's operating XXX。

and long-term debt faces greater credit default risk。

毕业设计外文资料翻译sc-pdf

毕业设计外文资料翻译sc-pdf

毕业设计外文资料翻译题目甲醇氧化生产甲醛的银催化剂改性学院化学化工学院专业化学工程与工艺班级0803学生许继盟学号20080207167指导教师倪献智二〇一二年三月十五日Catalysts Today, 1996, (28): 239-244.甲醇氧化生产甲醛的银催化剂的改性A.N.Pestryakov摘 要 银催化剂的性能可用Zr ,La , Rb ,C s 的氧化物改性,改性后的银催化剂的物化性能和催化性能已在甲醇的选择性氧化工艺中研究过,甲醇氧化制甲醛工艺中,质量分数为1%-10%的改性添加物会改变载体银的有效电荷及氧化还原性能、金属分散度和其表面扩散、催化剂表面酸度及结焦程度。

当银催化性能改变时,改性物主要影响催化剂活性位(++δn Ag Ag)。

关键词 银催化剂;甲醇氧化为甲醛 1 简介甲醇选择性氧化生产甲醛工艺中使用大量的载体银催化剂[1-3]。

采用不同的非有机添加物对银催化剂进行改性是提高其性能的最有前景的方法之一。

在银催化剂发现之后,人们致力于对其进行改进,以达到提高其催化活性和寿命,降低银使用量和扩展其工艺操作条件的目的。

广泛使用载体以减少银使用量及防止银在“严酷”条件(600-700 ℃)下烧结也是改性方法之一。

但是载体的堆积有限,不同改性化合物的少量添加(质量分数0.1-10%)可以使银可变的催化性能产生较大差异。

在科技和专利文献中提到过很多不同的添加物,它们能改善并激发银的催化性能[3-14]。

在这其中,研究人员提到改性作用的不同机理:银上金属的电子功能和电子密度改变[7-9],O 2吸附的差异[3,10],催化剂表面酸度[11],催化剂表面的机械堵塞[12],添加物的固有催化性质[13,14]。

然而,所有这些仅描述了催化剂改性的几个分散的方面,并没有涉及添加物对银催化剂改性影响的差异。

也没有考虑改性物对银催化剂活性位电子状态的影响。

在本文中,我们研究了改性物对银的性能影响的几个方面[15-18],目的是在甲醇氧化制甲醛工艺中对稀有和稀土金属氧化物反应及银催化剂的电子属性、物化属性和催化属性进行综合研究。

毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译【范本模板】

毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译【范本模板】

南京理工大学紫金学院毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系:机械系专业:车辆工程专业姓名:宋磊春学号:070102234外文出处:EDU_E_CAT_VBA_FF_V5R9(用外文写)附件:1。

外文资料翻译译文;2.外文原文.附件1:外文资料翻译译文CATIA V5 的自动化CATIA V5的自动化和脚本:在NT 和Unix上:脚本允许你用宏指令以非常简单的方式计划CATIA。

CATIA 使用在MS –VBScript中(V5.x中在NT和UNIX3。

0 )的共用部分来使得在两个平台上运行相同的宏。

在NT 平台上:自动化允许CATIA像Word/Excel或者Visual Basic程序那样与其他外用分享目标。

ATIA 能使用Word/Excel对象就像Word/Excel能使用CATIA 对象。

在Unix 平台上:CATIA将来的版本将允许从Java分享它的对象。

这将提供在Unix 和NT 之间的一个完美兼容。

CATIA V5 自动化:介绍(仅限NT)自动化允许在几个进程之间的联系:CATIA V5 在NT 上:接口COM:Visual Basic 脚本(对宏来说),Visual Basic 为应用(适合前:Word/Excel ),Visual Basic。

COM(零部件目标模型)是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象。

Automation 是一种“微软“技术,它使用一种解释环境中的COM对象。

ActiveX 组成部分是“微软“标准于几个应用程序之间的共享对象,即使在解释环境里。

OLE(对象的链接与嵌入)意思是资料可以在一个其他应用OLE的资料里连结并且可以被编辑的方法(在适当的位置编辑).在VBScript,VBA和Visual Basic之间的差别:Visual Basic(VB)是全部的版本。

它能产生独立的计划,它也能建立ActiveX 和服务器。

它可以被编辑。

VB中提供了一个补充文件名为“在线丛书“(VB的5。

计算机外文翻译(完整)

计算机外文翻译(完整)

计算机外⽂翻译(完整)毕业设计(论⽂)外⽂资料翻译专业:计算机科学与技术姓名:王成明学号:06120186外⽂出处:The History of the Internet附件: 1.外⽂原⽂ 2.外⽂资料翻译译⽂;附件1:外⽂原⽂The History of the InternetThe Beginning - ARPAnetThe Internet started as a project by the US government. The object of the project was to create a means of communications between long distance points, in the event of a nation wide emergency or, more specifically, nuclear war. The project was called ARPAnet, and it is what the Internet started as. Funded specifically for military communication, the engineers responsible for ARPANet had no idea of the possibilities of an "Internet."By definition, an 'Internet' is four or more computers connected by a network.ARPAnet achieved its network by using a protocol called TCP/IP. The basics around this protocol was that if information sent over a network failed to get through on one route, it would find another route to work with, as well as establishing a means for one computer to "talk" to another computer, regardless of whether it was a PC or a Macintosh.By the 80's ARPAnet, just years away from becoming the more well known Internet, had 200 computers. The Defense Department, satisfied with ARPAnets results, decided to fully adopt it into service, and connected many military computers and resources into the network. ARPAnet then had 562 computers on its network. By the year 1984, it had over 1000 computers on its network.In 1986 ARPAnet (supposedly) shut down, but only the organization shut down, and the existing networks still existed between the more than 1000 computers. It shut down due to a failied link up with NSF, who wanted to connect its 5 countywide super computers into ARPAnet.With the funding of NSF, new high speed lines were successfully installed at line speeds of 56k (a normal modem nowadays) through telephone lines in 1988. By that time, there were 28,174 computers on the (by then decided) Internet. In 1989 there were 80,000 computers on it. By 1989, there were290,000.Another network was built to support the incredible number of people joining. It was constructed in 1992.Today - The InternetToday, the Internet has become one of the most important technological advancements in the history of humanity. Everyone wants to get 'on line' to experience the wealth of information of the Internet. Millions of people now use the Internet, and it's predicted that by the year 2003 every single person on the planet will have Internet access. The Internet has truly become a way of life in our time and era, and is evolving so quickly its hard to determine where it will go next, as computer and network technology improve every day.HOW IT WORKS:It's a standard thing. People using the Internet. Shopping, playing games,conversing in virtual Internet environments.The Internet is not a 'thing' itself. The Internet cannot just "crash." It functions the same way as the telephone system, only there is no Internet company that runs the Internet.The Internet is a collection of millioins of computers that are all connected to each other, or have the means to connect to each other. The Internet is just like an office network, only it has millions of computers connected to it.The main thing about how the Internet works is communication. How does a computer in Houston know how to access data on a computer in Tokyo to view a webpage?Internet communication, communication among computers connected to the Internet, is based on a language. This language is called TCP/IP. TCP/IP establishes a language for a computer to access and transmit data over the Internet system.But TCP/IP assumes that there is a physical connecetion between onecomputer and another. This is not usually the case. There would have to be a network wire that went to every computer connected to the Internet, but that would make the Internet impossible to access.The physical connection that is requireed is established by way of modems,phonelines, and other modem cable connections (like cable modems or DSL). Modems on computers read and transmit data over established lines,which could be phonelines or data lines. The actual hard core connections are established among computers called routers.A router is a computer that serves as a traffic controller for information.To explain this better, let's look at how a standard computer might viewa webpage.1. The user's computer dials into an Internet Service Provider (ISP). The ISP might in turn be connected to another ISP, or a straight connection into the Internet backbone.2. The user launches a web browser like Netscape or Internet Explorer and types in an internet location to go to.3. Here's where the tricky part comes in. First, the computer sends data about it's data request to a router. A router is a very high speed powerful computer running special software. The collection of routers in the world make what is called a "backbone," on which all the data on the Internet is transferred. The backbone presently operates at a speed of several gigabytes per-second. Such a speed compared to a normal modem is like comparing the heat of the sun to the heat of an ice-cube.Routers handle data that is going back and forth. A router puts small chunks of data into packages called packets, which function similarly to envelopes. So, when the request for the webpage goes through, it uses TCP/IP protocols to tell the router what to do with the data, where it's going, and overall where the user wants to go.4. The router sends these packets to other routers, eventually leadingto the target computer. It's like whisper down the lane (only the information remains intact).5. When the information reaches the target web server, the webserver then begins to send the web page back. A webserver is the computer where the webpage is stored that is running a program that handles requests for the webpage and sends the webpage to whoever wants to see it.6. The webpage is put in packets, sent through routers, and arrive at the users computer where the user can view the webpage once it is assembled.The packets which contain the data also contain special information that lets routers and other computers know how to reassemble the data in the right order.With millions of web pages, and millions of users, using the Internet is not always easy for a beginning user, especially for someone who is not entirely comfortale with using computers. Below you can find tips tricks and help on how to use main services of the Internet.Before you access webpages, you must have a web browser to actually be able to view the webpages. Most Internet Access Providers provide you with a web browser in the software they usually give to customers; you. The fact that you are viewing this page means that you have a web browser. The top two use browsers are Netscape Communicator and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Netscape can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html and MSIE can be found at /doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html /ie.The fact that you're reading this right now means that you have a web browser.Next you must be familiar with actually using webpages. A webpage is a collection of hyperlinks, images, text, forms, menus, and multimedia. To "navigate" a webpage, simply click the links it provides or follow it's own instructions (like if it has a form you need to use, it will probably instruct you how to use it). Basically, everything about a webpage is made to be self-explanetory. That is the nature of a webpage, to be easily navigatable."Oh no! a 404 error! 'Cannot find web page?'" is a common remark made by new web-users.Sometimes websites have errors. But an error on a website is not the user's fault, of course.A 404 error means that the page you tried to go to does not exist. This could be because the site is still being constructed and the page hasn't been created yet, or because the site author made a typo in the page. There's nothing much to do about a 404 error except for e-mailing the site administrator (of the page you wanted to go to) an telling him/her about the error.A Javascript error is the result of a programming error in the Javascript code of a website. Not all websites utilize Javascript, but many do. Javascript is different from Java, and most browsers now support Javascript. If you are using an old version of a web browser (Netscape 3.0 for example), you might get Javascript errors because sites utilize Javascript versions that your browser does not support. So, you can try getting a newer version of your web browser.E-mail stands for Electronic Mail, and that's what it is. E-mail enables people to send letters, and even files and pictures to each other.To use e-mail, you must have an e-mail client, which is just like a personal post office, since it retrieves and stores e-mail. Secondly, you must have an e-mail account. Most Internet Service Providers provide free e-mail account(s) for free. Some services offer free e-mail, like Hotmail, and Geocities.After configuring your e-mail client with your POP3 and SMTP server address (your e-mail provider will give you that information), you are ready to receive mail.An attachment is a file sent in a letter. If someone sends you an attachment and you don't know who it is, don't run the file, ever. It could be a virus or some other kind of nasty programs. You can't get a virus justby reading e-mail, you'll have to physically execute some form of program for a virus to strike.A signature is a feature of many e-mail programs. A signature is added to the end of every e-mail you send out. You can put a text graphic, your business information, anything you want.Imagine that a computer on the Internet is an island in the sea. The sea is filled with millions of islands. This is the Internet. Imagine an island communicates with other island by sending ships to other islands and receiving ships. The island has ports to accept and send out ships.A computer on the Internet has access nodes called ports. A port is just a symbolic object that allows the computer to operate on a network (or the Internet). This method is similar to the island/ocean symbolism above.Telnet refers to accessing ports on a server directly with a text connection. Almost every kind of Internet function, like accessing web pages,"chatting," and e-mailing is done over a Telnet connection.Telnetting requires a Telnet client. A telnet program comes with the Windows system, so Windows users can access telnet by typing in "telnet" (without the "'s) in the run dialog. Linux has it built into the command line; telnet. A popular telnet program for Macintosh is NCSA telnet.Any server software (web page daemon, chat daemon) can be accessed via telnet, although they are not usually meant to be accessed in such a manner. For instance, it is possible to connect directly to a mail server and check your mail by interfacing with the e-mail server software, but it's easier to use an e-mail client (of course).There are millions of WebPages that come from all over the world, yet how will you know what the address of a page you want is?Search engines save the day. A search engine is a very large website that allows you to search it's own database of websites. For instance, if you wanted to find a website on dogs, you'd search for "dog" or "dogs" or "dog information." Here are a few search-engines.1. Altavista (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed2. Yahoo (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed Collection3. Excite (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed4. Lycos (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Web spider & Indexed5. Metasearch (/doc/bedc387343323968011c9268.html ) - Multiple searchA web spider is a program used by search engines that goes from page to page, following any link it can possibly find. This means that a search engine can literally map out as much of the Internet as it's own time and speed allows for.An indexed collection uses hand-added links. For instance, on Yahoo's site. You can click on Computers & the Internet. Then you can click on Hardware. Then you can click on Modems, etc., and along the way through sections, there are sites available which relate to what section you're in.Metasearch searches many search engines at the same time, finding the top choices from about 10 search engines, making searching a lot more effective.Once you are able to use search engines, you can effectively find the pages you want.With the arrival of networking and multi user systems, security has always been on the mind of system developers and system operators. Since the dawn of AT&T and its phone network, hackers have been known by many, hackers who find ways all the time of breaking into systems. It used to not be that big of a problem, since networking was limited to big corporate companies or government computers who could afford the necessary computer security.The biggest problem now-a-days is personal information. Why should you be careful while making purchases via a website? Let's look at how the internet works, quickly.The user is transferring credit card information to a webpage. Looks safe, right? Not necessarily. As the user submits the information, it is being streamed through a series of computers that make up the Internet backbone.The information is in little chunks, in packages called packets. Here's the problem: While the information is being transferred through this big backbone, what is preventing a "hacker" from intercepting this data stream at one of the backbone points?Big-brother is not watching you if you access a web site, but users should be aware of potential threats while transmitting private information. There are methods of enforcing security, like password protection, an most importantly, encryption.Encryption means scrambling data into a code that can only be unscrambled on the "other end." Browser's like Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer feature encryption support for making on-line transfers. Some encryptions work better than others. The most advanced encryption system is called DES (Data Encryption Standard), and it was adopted by the US Defense Department because it was deemed so difficult to 'crack' that they considered it a security risk if it would fall into another countries hands.A DES uses a single key of information to unlock an entire document. The problem is, there are 75 trillion possible keys to use, so it is a highly difficult system to break. One document was cracked and decoded, but it was a combined effort of14,000 computers networked over the Internet that took a while to do it, so most hackers don't have that many resources available.附件2:外⽂资料翻译译⽂Internet的历史起源——ARPAnetInternet是被美国政府作为⼀项⼯程进⾏开发的。

专英三课文译文

专英三课文译文

How Biologists Define a SpeciesModern biology generally define a species as group of actually or potentially interbreeding populations that is reproductively isolated from the such groups. Members of a species can interbreed with each other, but they cannot breed with organisms belonging to another species. One advantage of the standard of reproductive isolation is that it is very precise. Notice, however, that it can only be applied to organisms that reproduce sexually. Asexual reproducers, including most prokaryotes, many plants, and some animals, must be classified into species on the basis of physical (biochemical or morphological) traits.现代生物学大体将物种定义为实际上的一群或潜在的杂交群体,即从这个群体隔离繁殖的后代。

种族中个体可以互相交配,但种间不能。

这种繁殖隔离的一个优势是很精确。

但仅适用于性繁殖的生物。

非性繁殖,包括大多数原核生物,许多植物,某些动物,需要通过自然特征进行归类。

Preventing Gene ExchangeTwo general types of mechanisms operate to block the exchange of genes between individuals of related groups. The first general type is made up of prezygotic isolating mechanisms that prevent the formation of zygotes. Prezygotic isolation falls into two categories: ecological and behavioral. In the first case, two related group may become adapted to slightly different environments-perhaps varying soil types or food sources. Over time, these genetic differences become so great that successful cross-fertilization can no longer take place. In behavioral isolation, related groups evolve differing behaviors such as specific mating rituals-that restrict the exchange of genes to members of the same group.两种基因型机制阻碍了相关群体中个体的基因交换。

S-S-S-三丁基三硫代磷酸酯安全技术说明书MSDS (1)

S-S-S-三丁基三硫代磷酸酯安全技术说明书MSDS (1)

第一部分化学品及企业标识化学品中文名:S,S,S-三丁基三硫代磷酸酯化学品英文名:S,S,S-tributylphosphorotrithioate;tributyl trithiophosphate;DEF化学品别名:三硫代磷酸三丁酯;脱叶磷CAS No.:78-48-8EC No.:201-120-8分子式:C12H27OPS3产品推荐及限制用途:工业及科研用途。

第二部分危险性概述紧急情况概述液体。

吞食后有毒。

跟皮肤接触有剧毒。

吸入有毒。

长期暴露有损伤健康的危险。

对水生物有剧毒,使用适当的容器,以预防污染环境。

对水生环境可能会引起长期有害作用。

使用适当的容器,以预防污染环境。

GHS危险性类别根据GB30000-2013化学品分类和标签规范系列标准(参阅第十六部分),该产品分类如下:急毒性-口服,类别3;急毒性-皮肤,类别2;急毒性-吸入,类别3;特定目标器官毒性-重复接触,类别2;危害水生环境-急性毒性,类别1;危害水生环境-慢性毒性,类别1。

标签要素:象形图:警示词:危险危险信息:吞咽会中毒,皮肤接触致命,吸入会中毒,长期或重复接触可能对器官造成伤害,对水生生物毒性极大,对水生生物毒性极大并具有长期持续影响。

预防措施:不要吸入粉尘/烟/气体/烟雾/蒸气/喷雾。

严防进入眼中、接触皮肤或衣服。

作业后彻底清洗。

使用本产品时不要进食、饮水或吸烟。

只能在室外或通风良好之处使用。

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毕业设计外文文献翻译【范本模板】

毕业设计外文文献翻译【范本模板】

毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系别:专业:班级:姓名:学号:外文出处:附件: 1. 原文; 2。

译文2013年03月附件一:A Rapidly Deployable Manipulator SystemChristiaan J。

J。

Paredis, H. Benjamin Brown,Pradeep K. KhoslaAbstract:A rapidly deployable manipulator system combines the flexibility of reconfigurable modular hardware with modular programming tools,allowing the user to rapidly create a manipulator which is custom-tailored for a given task. This article describes two main aspects of such a system,namely,the Reconfigurable Modular Manipulator System (RMMS)hardware and the corresponding control software。

1 IntroductionRobot manipulators can be easily reprogrammed to perform different tasks, yet the range of tasks that can be performed by a manipulator is limited by mechanicalstructure。

Forexample,a manipulator well-suited for precise movement across the top of a table would probably no be capable of lifting heavy objects in the vertical direction. Therefore,to perform a given task,one needs to choose a manipulator with an appropriate mechanical structure.We propose the concept of a rapidly deployable manipulator system to address the above mentioned shortcomings of fixed configuration manipulators。

汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献

汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献

汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献1汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The Changing Automotive Environment: High-Temperature ElectronicsR. Wayne Johnson, Fellow, IEEE, John L. Evans, Peter Jacobsen, James R. (Rick) Thompson, and Mark ChristopherAbstract —The underhood automotive environment is harsh and current trends in the automotive electronics industry will be pushing the temperatureenvelope for electronic components. The desire to place engine control unitson the engine and transmission control units either on or in the transmissionwill push the ambient temperature above 125125℃℃.However, extreme cost pressures,increasing reliability demands (10 year/241 350 km) and the cost of field failures (recalls, liability, customer loyalty) will make the shift to higher temperatures occur incrementally. The coolest spots on engine and in the transmission will be used. These large bodies do provide considerableheat sinking to reduce temperature rise due to power dissipation in the controlunit. The majority of near term applications will be at 150 ℃ or less andthese will be worst case temperatures, not nominal. The transition toX-by-wire technology, replacing mechanical and hydraulic systems with electromechanical systems will require more power electronics. Integrationof power transistors and smart power devices into the electromechanical℃ to 200℃ . Hybridactuator will require power devices to operate at 175electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles will also drive the demand for higher temperature power electronics. In the case of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles, the high temperature will be due to power dissipation. Thealternates to high-temperature devices are thermal management systems which add weight and cost. Finally, the number of sensors in vehicles is increasingas more electrically controlled systems are added. Many of these sensors mustwork in high-temperature environments. The harshest applications are exhaustgas sensors and cylinder pressure or combustion sensors. High-temperature electronics use in automotive systems will continue to grow, but it will be gradual as cost and reliability issues are addressed. This paper examines themotivation for higher temperature operation,the packaging limitations evenat 125 C with newer package styles and concludes with a review of challenge at both the semiconductor device and packaging level as temperatures push beyond 125 ℃.Index Terms—Automotive, extreme-environment electronics.I. INTRODUCTIONI N 1977, the average automobile contained $110 worth of electronics [1]. By 2003 the electronics content was $1510 per vehicle and is expected to reach$2285 in 2013 [2].The turning point in automotive electronics was governmentTABLE IMAJOR AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONIC SYSTEMSTABLE IIAUTOMOTIVETEMPERATUREEXTREMES(DELPHIDELCOELECTRONIC SYSTEMS) [3]regulation in the 1970s mandating emissions control and fuel economy. The complex fuel control required could not be accomplished using traditional mechanical systems. These government regulations coupled with increasing semiconductor computing power at decreasing cost have led to an ever increasing array of automotive electronics. Automotive electronics can be divided into five major categories as shown in Table I.The operating temperature of the electronics is a function of location, power dissipation by the electronics, and the thermal design. The automotive electronics industry defines high-temperature electronics as electronics operating above 125 ℃. However, the actual temperature for various electronics mounting locations varies considerably. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems recently published the typical continuous maximum temperatures as reproduced in Table II [3]. The corresponding underhood temperatures are shown in Fig. 1. The authors note that typical junction temperatures for integrated circuits are 10 ℃to15℃ higher than ambient or baseplate temperature, while power devices can reach 25 ℃ higher. At-engine temperatures of 125℃ peak can be maintained by placing the electronics on theintake manifold.Fig. 1. Engine compartment thermal profile (Delphi Delco Electronic Systems) [3].TABLE III THEAUTOMOTIVEENVIRONMENT(GENERALMOTORS ANDDELPHIDELCO ELECTRONICSYSTEMS) [4]TABLE IV REQUIREDOPERATIONTEMPERATURE FORAUTOMOTIVEELECTRONIC SYSTEMS(TOYOTAMOTORCORP. [5]TABLE VMECHA TRONICMAXIMUMTEMPERA TURERANGES(DAIMLERCHRYSLER,EA TONCORPORA TION, ANDAUBURNUNIVERSITY) [6]Fig. 2. Automotive temperatures and related systems (DaimlerChrysler) [8].automotive electronic systems [8]. Fig. 3 shows an actual measured transmission transmission temperature temperature temperature profile profile profile during during during normal normal normal and and excessive excessive driving drivingconditions [8]. Power braking is a commonly used test condition where the brakes are applied and the engine is revved with the transmission in gear.A similar real-world situation would be applying throttle with the emergencybrake applied. Note that when the temperature reached 135135℃℃,the over temperature light came on and at the peak temperature of 145145℃℃,the transmission was beginning to smell of burnt transmission fluid.TABLE VI2002I NTERNA TIONAL T ECHNOLOGY R OADMAPFOR S EMICONDUCTORS A MBI ENTOPERA TINGTEMPERA TURES FORHARSHENVIRONMENTS (AUTOMOTIVE) [9]The 2002 update to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) did not reflect the need for higher operating temperatures for complex integrated circuits, but did recognize increasing temperature requirements for power and linear devices as shown in Table VI [9]. Higher temperature power devices (diodes and transistors) will be used for the power section of power converters and motor drives for electromechanical actuators. Higher temperature linear devices will be used for analog control of power converters and for amplification and some signal processing of sensor outputs prior to transmission to the control units. It should be noted that at the maximum rated temperature for a power device, the power handling capability is derated to zero. Thus, a 200℃ rated power transistor in a 200℃ environment would have zero current carrying capability. Thus, the actual operating environments must be lower than the maximum rating.In the 2003 edition of the ITRS, the maximum junction temperatures identified forharsh-environment complex integrated circuits was raised to 150℃through 2018 [9]. Theambient operating temperature extreme for harsh-environment complex integrated circuits was defined as 40℃to 125℃ through 2009, increasing to 40℃to 150℃for 2010 and beyond. Power/linear devices were not separately listed in 2003.The ITRS is consistent with the current automotive high-temperature limitations. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems offers two production engine controllers (one on ceramic and one on thin laminate) for direct mounting on the engine. These controllers are rated for operation over the temperature range of 40℃to 125℃. The ECU must be mounted on the coolest spot on the engine. The packaging technology is consistent with 140℃ operation, but the ECU is limited by semiconductor and capacitor technologies to 125℃.The future projections in the ITRS are not consistent with the desire to place controllers on-engine or in-transmission. It will not always be possible to use the coolest location for mounting control units. Delphi Delco Electronics Systems has developed an in-transmission controller for use in an ambient temperature of 140℃[10] using ceramic substrate technology. DaimlerChrysler is also designing an in-transmission controller for usewith a maximum ambient temperature of 150℃ (Figs. 4 and 5) [11].II. MECHATRONICSMechatronics, or the integration of electrical and mechanical systems offers a number ofadvantages in automotive assembly. Integration of the engine controller with the engine allows pretest of the engine as a complete system prior to vehicle assembly. Likewise with the integration of the transmission controller and the transmission, pretesting and tuning to account for machining variations can be performed at the transmission factory prior to shipment to the automobile assembly site. In addition, most of the wires connecting to a transmission controller run to the solenoid pack inside the transmission. Integration of the controller into the transmission reduces the wiring harness requirements at the automobile assembly level.Fig. 4. Prototype DaimlerChrysler ceramic transmission controller [11]Fig. 5. DaimlerChrysler in-transmission module [11].The trend in automotive design is to distribute control with network communications. As the industry moves to more X-by-wire systems, this trend will continue. Automotivefinalassembly plants assemble subsystems and components supplied by numerous vendors to build the vehicle. Complete mechatronic subsystems simplify the design, integration, management, inventory control, and assembly of vehicles. As discussed in the previous section, higher temperature electronics will be required to meet future mechatronic designs.III. PACKAGINGCHALLENGES AT125℃Trends in electronics packaging, driven by computer and portable products are resulting in packages which will not meet underhood automotive requirements at 125℃. Most notable are leadless and area array packages such as small ball grid arrays (BGAs) and quadflatpacks no-lead (QFNs). Fig. 6 shows the thermal cycle test 40 ℃to 125℃ results for two sizes of QFN from two suppliers [12]. A typical requirement is for the product to survive 2000–2500 thermal cycles with<1% failure for underhood applications. Smaller I/O QFNs have been found to meet the requirements.Fig. 7 presents the thermal cycle results for BGAs of various body sizes [13]. The die size in the BGA remained constant (8.6 *8.6 mm). As the body size decreases so does the reliability. Only the 23-mm BGA meets the requirements. The 15-mm BGA with the 0.56-mm-thick BT substrate nearly meets the minimum requirements. However, the industry trend is to use thinner BT substrates (0.38 mm) for BGA packages.One solution to increasing the thermal cycle performance of smaller BGAs is to use underfill. Capillary underfill was dispensed and cured after reflow assembly of the BGA. Fig. 8 shows a Weibull plot of the thermal cycle data for the 15-mm BGAs with four different underfills. Underfill UF1 had no failures after 5500 cycles and is, therefore, not plotted. Underfill, therefore, provides a viable approach to meeting underhood automotive requirements with smaller BGAs, but adds process steps, time, and cost to the electronics assembly process.Since portable and computer products dominate the electronics market, the packages developed for these applications are replacing traditional packages such as QFPs for new devices. The automotive electronics industry will have to continuedeveloping assembly approaches such as underfill just to use these new packages in current underhood applications.IV. TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES ABOVE125 ℃The technical challenges for high-temperature automotive applications are interrelated, but can be divided into semiconductors, passives, substrates,interconnections, and housings/connectors. Industries such as oil well logging have successfully fielded high-temperature electronics operating at 200℃ and above. However, automotive electronics are further constrained by high-volume production, low cost, and long-term reliability requirements. The typical operating life for oil well logging electronics may only be 1000 h, production volumes are in the range of 10s or 100s and, while cost is a concern, it is not a dominant issue. In the following paragraphs, the technical challenges for high-temperature automotive electronics are discussed.Semiconductors: The maximum rated ambient temperature for most silicon basedintegrated circuits is 85℃, which is sufficient for consumer, portable, and computing product applications. Devices for military and automotive applications are typically rated to 125℃. A few integrated circuits are rated to 150℃, particularly for power supply controllers and a few automotive applications. Finally, many power semiconductor devices are derated to zero power handling capability at 200℃.Nelmset al.and Johnsonet al.have shown that power insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and metal–oxide–semiconductorfield-effect transistors (MOSFETs) can be used at 200℃[14], [15]. The primary limitations of these power transistors at the higher temperatures are the packaging (the glass transition temperature of common molding compounds is in the 180℃ to 200℃range) and the electrical stress on the transistor during hard switching.A number of factors limit the use of silicon at high temperatures. First, with a bandgap of 1.12 eV, the silicon p-n junction becomes intrinsic at high temperature (225℃ to 400℃depending on doping levels). The intrinsic carrier concentration is given by (1)As the temperature increases, the intrinsic carrier concentration increases. When the intrinsic carrier concentration nears the doping concentration level, p-n junctions behave as resistors, not diodes, and transistors lose their switching characteristics. One approach used in high-temperature integrated circuit design is to increase the doping levels, which increases the temperature at which the device becomes intrinsic. However, increasing the doping levels decreases the depletion widths, resulting in higher electricfields within the device that can lead to breakdown.A second problem is the increase in leakage current through a reverse-biased p-n junction with increasing temperature. Reverse-biased p-n junctions are commonly used in IC design to provide isolation between devices. The saturation current (I,the ideal reverse-bias current of the junction) is proportional to the square of the intrinsic carrier concentrationwhere Ego=bandgap energy atT= 0KThe leakage current approximately doubles for each 10℃rise in junction temperature. Increased junction leakage currents increase power dissipation within the device and can lead to latch-up of the parasitic p-n-p-n structure in complimentary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) devices. Epitaxial-CMOS (epi-CMOS) has been developed to improve latch-up resistance as the device dimensions are decreased due to scaling and provides improved high-temperature performance compared to bulk CMOS.Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology replaces reverse-biased p-n junctions with insulators, typically SiO2 , reducing the leakage currents and extending the operating range of silicon above 200℃. At present, SOI devices are more expensive than conventional p-njunction isolated devices. This is in part due to the limited use of SOI technology. With the continued scaling of device dimensions, SOI is being used in some high-performance applications and the increasing volume may help to eventually lower the cost.Other device performance issues at higher temperatures include gate threshold voltage shifts, decreased noise margin, decreased switching speed, decreased mobility, decreased gain-bandwidth product, and increased amplifier input–offset voltage [16]. Leakage currents also increase for insulators with increasing temperature. This results in increased gate leakage currents, and increased leakage of charge stored in memory cells (data loss). For dynamic memory, the increased leakage currents require faster refresh rates. For nonvolatile memory, the leakage limits the life of the stored data, a particular issue for FLASH memory used in microcontrollers and automotive electronics modules.Beyond the electrical performance of the device, the device reliability must also be considered. Electromigration of the aluminum metallization is a major concern. Electromigration is the movement of the metal atoms due to their bombardment by electrons (current flow). Electromigration results in the formation of hillocks and voids in the conductor traces. The mean time to failure (MTTF) for electromigration is related to the current density (J)and temperature(T) as shown in (3)The exact rate of electromigration and resulting time to failure is a function of the aluminum microstructure. Addition of copper to the aluminum increases electromigration resistance. The trend in the industry to replace aluminum with copper will improve the electromigration resistance by up to three orders of magnitude [17].Time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) is a second reliability concern. Time to failure due to TDDB decreases with increasing temperature. Oxide defects, including pinholes, asperities at the Si–SiO2 interface and localized changes in chemical structure that reduce the barrier height or increase the charge trapping are common sources of early failure [18]. Breakdown can also occur due to hole trapping (Fowler–Nordheim tunneling). The holes can collect at weak spots in the Si–SiO2 interface, increasing the electricfield locally and leading to breakdown [18]. The temperature dependence of time-to-breakdown(tBD) can be expressed as [18]Values reported for Etbd vary in the literature due to its dependence on the oxidefield and the oxide quality. Furthermore, the activation energy increases with breakdown time [18].With proper high-temperature design, junction isolated silicon integrated circuits can be used to junction temperatures of 150℃ to 165℃, epi-CMOS can extend the range to 225℃to 250℃ and SOI can be used to 250℃ to 280℃ [16, pp. 224]. High-temperature, nonvolatile memory remains an issue.For temperatures beyond the limits of silicon, silicon carbidebased semiconductors are being developed. The bandgap of SiC ranges from 2.75–3.1 depending on the polytype. SiC has lower leakage currents and higher electric field strength than Si. Due to its wider bandgap, SiC can be used as a semiconductor device at temperatures over 600℃. Theprimary focus of SiC device research is currently for power devices. SiC power devices may eventuallyfind application as power devices in braking systems and direct fuel injection. High-temperature sensors have also been fabricated with SiC. Berget al.have demonstrated a SiCbased sensor for cylinder pressure in combustion engines [19] at up to 350℃ and Casadyet al.[20] have shown a SiC-based temperature sensor for use to 500℃. At present, the wafer size, cost, and device yield have made SiC devices too expensive for general automotive use. Most SiC devices are discrete, as the level of integration achieved in SiC to date is low.Passives: Thick and thin-film chip resistors are typically rated to 125 ℃. Naefeet al.[21] and Salmonet al.[22] have shown that thick-film resistors can be used at temperatures above 200℃ if the allowable absolute tolerance is 5% or greater. The resistors studied were specifically formulated with a higher softening point glass. The minimum resistance as afunction of temperature was shifted from 25℃to 150℃to minimize the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) over the temperature range to 300℃. TaN and NiCr thin-film resistors have been shown to have less than 1% drift after 1000 h at 200℃ [23]. Thus, for tighter tolerance applications, thin-film chip resistors are preferred. Wire wound resistors provide a high-temperature option for higher power dissipation levels [21].High-temperature capacitors present more of a challenge. For low-value capacitors, negative-positive-zero (NPO) ceramic and MOS capacitors provide low-temperature coefficient of capacitance (TCC) to 200℃. NPO ceramic capacitorshave been demonstrated to 500℃ [24]. Higher dielectric constant ceramics (X7R, X8R, X9U), used to achieve the high volumetric efficiency necessary for larger capacitor values, exhibit a significant capacitance decrease above the Curie temperature, which is typically between 125℃ to 150℃. As the temperature increases, the leakage current increases, the dissipation factor increases, and the breakdown strength decreases. Increasing the dielectric tape thickness to increase breakdown strength reduces the capacitance and is a tradeoff. X7R ceramic capacitors have been shown to be stable when stored at 200℃ [23]. X9U chip capacitors are commercially available for use to 200 C, but there is a significant decrease in capacitance above 150℃.Consideration must also be given to the capacitor electrodes and terminations. Ni is now being substituted for Ag and PdAg to lower capacitor cost. The impact of this change on hightemperature reliability must be evaluated. The surface finish for ceramic capacitor terminations is typically Sn. The melting point of the Sn (232℃) and its interaction with potential solders/brazes must also be considered. Alternate surfacefinishes may be required.For higher value, low-voltage requirements, wet tantalum capacitors show reasonable behavior at 200℃ if the hermetic seal does not lose integrity [23]. Aluminum electrolytics are also available for use to 150℃. Mica paper (260℃) and Teflonfilm (200℃) capacitors can provide higher voltage capability, but are large and bulky [25]. High-temperature capacitors are relatively expensive. V capacitors are relatively expensive. Volumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, olumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, high-temperature and low-cost capacitors are still needed.Standard transformers and inductor cores with copper wire and teflon insulation are suitable for operation to 200℃. For higher temperature operation, the magnetic core, the conductor metal (Ni instead of Cu) and insulator must be selected to be compatible with the higher temperatures [16, pp. 651–652] Specially designed transformers can be used to 450℃ to 500℃, however, they are limited in operating frequency.Crystals are required for clock frequency generation for microcontrollers. Crystals with acceptable frequency shift over the temperature range from 55℃to 200℃ have been demonstrated [22]. However, the selection of packaging materials and assembly process for the crystal are key to high-temperature performance and reliability. For example, epoxies used in assembly must be compatible with 200℃ operation.Substrates: Thick-film substrates with gold metallization have been used in circuits to 500℃ [21], [23]. Palladium silver, platinum silver, and silver conductors are morecommonly used in automotive hybrids for reduced cost. Silver migration has been observed with an unpassivated PdAg thick-film conductor under bias at 300℃ [21]. The time-to-failure needs to be examined as a function of temperature and bias voltage with and without passivation. Low-temperature cofired ceramic (LTCC) and high-temperature cofired ceramic (HTCC) are also suitable for high-temperature automotive applications. Embedded resistors are standard to thick-film hybrids, LTCC, and some HTCC technologies. As previously mentioned, thick-film resistors have been demonstrated at temperatures 200℃. Dielectric tapes for embedded capacitors have also been developed for LTCC and HTCC. However, these embedded capacitors have not been characterized for high-temperature use.High-Tg laminates are also available for fabrication of hightemperature printed wiring boards. Cyanate esters [Tg=250℃by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)], polyimide (260℃by DSC), and liquid crystal polymers(Tm>280℃)provide options for use to 200℃. Cyanate ester boards have been used successfully in test vehicles at 175℃, but failed when exposed to 250℃ [26]. The higher coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the laminate substrates compared to the ceramics must be considered in the selection of component attachment materials. The temperature limits of the laminates with respect to assembly temperatures must also be carefully considered. Work is ongoing to develop and implement embedded resistor and capacitor technology for laminate substrates for conventional temperature ranges. This technology has not been extended to high-temperature applications.One method many manufacturers are using to address the higher temperatures whilemaintaining lower cost is the use of laminate substrates attached to metal. The typical design involves the use of higher Tg( +140℃ and above) laminate substrates attached to an aluminum plate (approximately 2.54-mm thick) using a sheet or liquid adhesive. To assist in thermal performance, the laminate substrate is often thinner (0.76 mm) than traditional automotive substrates for under-the-hood applications. While this design provides improved thermal performance, the attachment of the laminate to aluminum increases the CTE for the overall substrates. The resultant CTE is very dependent on the ability of the attachment material to decouple the CTE between the laminate substrate and the metal backing. However, regardless of the attachment material used, the combination of the laminate and metal will increase the CTE of the overall substrate above that of a stand-alone laminate substrate. This impact can be quite significant in the reliability performance for components with low CTE values (such as ceramic chip resistors). Fig. 9 illustrates the impact of two laminate-to-metal attachment options compared to standard laminate substrates [27], [28]. The reliability data presented is for 2512 ceramic chip resistors attached to a 0.79-mm-thick laminate substrate attached to aluminum using two attachment materials. Notice that while one material significantly outperforms the other, both are less reliable than the same chip resistor attached to laminate without metal backing.This decrease in reliability is also exhibited on small ball grid array (BGA) packages. Fig. 10 shows the reliability of a 15-mm BGA package attached to laminate compared to the same package attached to a laminate substrate with metal backing [27], [28]. The attachment material used for the metal-backed substrate was the best material selected from previous testing. Notice again that the metal-backed substrate deteriorates the reliability. This reliability deterioration is of particular concern since many IC packages used for automotive applications are ball grid array packages and the packaging trend is for reduced packaging size. These packaging trends make the use of metal-backed substrates difficult for next generation products.One potential solution to the above reliability concern is the use of encapsulants and underfills. Fig. 11 illustrates how conformal coating can improve component reliability for surface mount chip resistors [27], [28]. Notice that the reliability varies greatly depending on material composition. However, for components which meet a marginal level of reliability, conformal coatings may assist the design in meeting the target reliability requirements. The same scenario can be found for BGA underfills. Typical underfill materials may extend the component life by a factor of two or more. For marginal IC packages, this enhancement may provide enough reliability improvement toall the designs to meet under-the-hood requirements. Unfortunately, the improvements provided byencapsulants and underfills increase the material cost and adds one or more manufacturing processes for material dispense and cure.Interconnections: Methods of mechanical and electrical interconnection of the active and passive components to the board include chip and wire,flip-chip, and soldering of packaged parts. In chip and wire assembly, epoxy die-attach materials can beused to 165℃ [29]. Polyimide and silicone die-attach materials can be used to 200℃. For higher temperatures, SnPb ( >90Pb), AuGe, AuSi, AuSn, and AuIn have been used. However,with the exception of SnPb, these are hard brazes and with increasing die size, CTE mismatches between the die and the substrate will lead to cracking with thermal。

尼斯分类第三类中英文翻译件-李晓晓

尼斯分类第三类中英文翻译件-李晓晓

Sunscreens Talcum powders for toilet use Sun-tanning creams and lotions Sunscreen preparations Talcum powders [for cosmetic use] Sun bronzers Sun-tanning creams Sunscreen lotions Talcum powders Sun blocking preparations [cosmetics] Sun tan oil Sunscreen [for cosmetic use] Sun blocking oils [cosmetics] Sun tan lotion Sunscreen creams [for cosmetic use] Sun blocking lipsticks [cosmetics] Sun tan gel Stain removers Sun block preparations Sun-screening preparations Sprays (Breath freshening -) Sun-block lotions Sun screen preparations Spray polish Sun block [cosmetics] Soaps for brightening textiles Sun screen Spray cleaners for freshening athletic mouth guards Sun barriers [cosmetics] Soaps for brightening textiles Sun protectors for lips Spot removers [preparations] Sugar soap Soaps for body care Sun protecting creams [cosmetics] Spot remover Styling sprays for the hair

毕业设计论文外文文献翻译计算机科学与技术微软VisualStudio中英文对照

毕业设计论文外文文献翻译计算机科学与技术微软VisualStudio中英文对照

外文文献翻译(2012届)学生姓名学号********专业班级计算机科学与技术08-5班指导教师微软Visual Studio1微软Visual StudioVisual Studio 是微软公司推出的开发环境,Visual Studio可以用来创建Windows平台下的Windows应用程序和网络应用程序,也可以用来创建网络服务、智能设备应用程序和Office 插件。

Visual Studio是一个来自微软的集成开发环境IDE(inteqrated development environment),它可以用来开发由微软视窗,视窗手机,Windows CE、.NET框架、.NET精简框架和微软的Silverlight支持的控制台和图形用户界面的应用程序以及Windows窗体应用程序,网站,Web应用程序和网络服务中的本地代码连同托管代码。

Visual Studio包含一个由智能感知和代码重构支持的代码编辑器。

集成的调试工作既作为一个源代码级调试器又可以作为一台机器级调试器。

其他内置工具包括一个窗体设计的GUI应用程序,网页设计师,类设计师,数据库架构设计师。

它有几乎各个层面的插件增强功能,包括增加对支持源代码控制系统(如Subversion和Visual SourceSafe)并添加新的工具集设计和可视化编辑器,如特定于域的语言或用于其他方面的软件开发生命周期的工具(例如Team Foundation Server的客户端:团队资源管理器)。

Visual Studio支持不同的编程语言的服务方式的语言,它允许代码编辑器和调试器(在不同程度上)支持几乎所有的编程语言,提供了一个语言特定服务的存在。

内置的语言中包括C/C + +中(通过Visual C++),(通过Visual ),C#中(通过Visual C#)和F#(作为Visual Studio 2010),为支持其他语言,如M,Python,和Ruby等,可通过安装单独的语言服务。

外文翻译原文模板

外文翻译原文模板

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装订时原文在前,译文在后。

文章中有引用的地方在原文中也要体现。

参考文献也要翻译成中文!An Energy-Efficient Cooperative Algorithm for Data Estimation inWireless Sensor NetworksAbstract – In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN), nodes operate on batteries and network’s lifetime depends on energy consumption of the nodes. Consider the class of sensor networks where all nodes sense a single phenomenon at different locations and send messages to a Fusion Center (FC) in order to estimate the actual information. In classical systems all data processing tasks are done in the FC and there is no processing or compression before transmission. In the proposed algorithm, network is divided into clusters and data processing is done in two parts. The first part is performed in each cluster at the sensor nodes after local data sharing and the second part will be done at the Fusion Center after receiving all messages from clusters. Local data sharing results in more efficient data transmission in terms of number of bits. We also take advantage of having the same copy of data at all nodes of each cluster and suggest a virtual Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (V-MIMO) architecture for data transmission from clusters to the FC. A Virtual-MIMO network is a set of distributed nodes each having one antenna. By sharing their data among themselves, these nodes turn into a classical MIMO system. In the previously proposed cooperative/virtual MIMO architectures there has not been any data processing or compression in the conference phase. We modify the existing VMIMO algorithms to suit the specific class of sensor networks that is of our concern. We use orthogonal Space-Time Block Codes (STBC) for MIMO part and by simulation show that this algorithm saves considerable energy compared to classical systems.I. INTRODUCTIONA typical Wireless Sensor Network consists of a set of small, low-cost and energy-limited sensor nodes which are deployed in a field in order to observe a phenomenon and transmit it to a Fusion Center (FC). These sensors are deployed close to one another and their readings of the environment are highly correlated. Their objective is to report a descriptive behavior of the environment based on all measurements to the Fusion Center. This diversity in measurement lets the system become more reliable and robust against failure. In general, each node is equipped with a sensing device, a processor and a communication module (which can be either a transmitter or transmitter/receiver).Sensor nodes are equipped with batteries and are supposed to work for a long period of time without battery replacement. Thus, they are limited in energy and one of the most important issues in designing sensor networks will be the energy consumption of the sensor nodes. To deal with this problem, we might either reduce the number of bits to be transmitted by source compression or reduce the required power for transmission by applying advanced transmission techniques while satisfying certain performance requirement.A lot of research has been done in order to take advantage of the correlation among sensors’ data for reducing the number of bits to be transmitted. Some are based on distributed source coding[1]while others use decentralized estimation[2-5]. In [1], authors present an efficient algorithm that applies distributed compression based on Slepian – Wolf[14] encoding technique and use an adaptive signal processing algorithm to track correlation among sensors data. In [2-5] the problem of decentralized estimation in sensor networks has been studied under different constraints. In these algorithms, sensors perform a local quantization on their data considering that their observations are correlated with that of other sensors. They produce a binary message and send it to the FC. FC combines these messages based on the quantization rules used at the sensor nodes and estimates the unknown parameter. Optimal local quantization and final fusion rules are investigated in these works. The distribution of data assumed for sensor observation in these papers has Uniform probability distribution function. In our model we consider Gaussian distribution introduced in [17] for sensor measurements which ismore likely to reality.As an alternative approach, some works have been done using energy-efficient communication techniques such as cooperative/virtual Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) transmission in sensor networks [6-11]. In these works, as each sensor is equipped with one antenna, nodes are able to form a virtual MIMO system by performing cooperation with others. In [6] the application of MIMO techniques in sensor networks based on Alamouti[15] space-time block codes was introduced. In [8,9] energy-efficiency of MIMO techniques has been explored analytically and in [7] a combination of distributed signal processing algorithm presented and in [1] cooperative MIMO was studied.In this paper, we consider both techniques of compression and cooperative transmission at the same time. We reduce energy consumption in two ways; 1) processing data in part at the transmitting side, which results in removing redundant information thus having fewer bits to be transmitted and 2) reducing required transmission energy by applying diversity and Space-Time coding. Both of these goals will be achieved by our proposed two-phase algorithm. In our model, the objective is to estimate the unknown parameter which is basically the average of all nodes’ measurements. That is, exact measurements of individual nodes are not important and it is not necessary to spend a lot of energy and bandwidth to transmit all measured data with high precision to the FC. We can move some part of data processing to the sensors side. This can be done by local data sharing among sensors. We divide the network into clusters of ‘m’ members. The number of members in the cluster (m) is both the compression factor in data processing and also the diversity order in virtual-MIMO architecture. The remaining of this paper is organized as following: in section II we introduce our system model and basic assumptions. In section III we propose our collaborative algorithm. In section IV we present the mathematical analysis of the proposed algorithm and in section V we give some numerical simulations. Finally section VI concludes the paper.II. SYSTEM MODELA. Network ModelThe network model that we use is similar to the one presented in [2-5].Our network consists of N distributed Sensor Nodes (SN) and a Fusion Center (FC). Sensors are deployed uniformly in the field, close to one another and each taking observations on an unknown parameter (θ). Fusion Center is located far from the nodes. All nodes observe same phenomenon but with different measurements. These nodes together with the Fusion Center are supposed to find the value of the unknown parameter. Nodes send binary messages to Fusion Center. FC will process the received messages and estimate the unknown value.B. Data ModelIn our formulation we use the data model introduced in[17]. We assume that all sensors observe the same phenomenon (θ) which has Gaussian distribution with variance σx 2. They observe different versions of θ and we model this difference as an additive zero mean Gaussian noisewith variance σn 2. Therefore, sensor observations will be described byn i i θx += (1) Where θ ~ N (0, σx 2) and n i ~ N (0, σn 2) for i = 1, 2, … , N .Based on thisassumption the value of θ can be estimated by taking the numerical average of the nodes observations, i.e.∑==N i i x N 11θ(2)C. Reference System ModelOur reference system consists of N conventional Single Input Single Output (SISO) wireless links, each connecting one of the sensor nodes to the FC. For the reference system we do not consider any communication or cooperation among the sensors. Therefore each sensor quantizes its observation by an L-bit scalar quantizer designed for distribution of θ, generates a message of length L and transmits it directly to the FC. Fusion Center receives all messages and performs the processing, which is calculation of the numerical average of these messages.III. COOPERATIVE DATA PROCESSING ALGORITHMSensor readings are analog quantities. Therefore, each sensor has to compress its data into several bits. For data compression we use L -bit scalar quantizer [12,13].In our algorithm, network is divided into clusters, each cluster having a fixed and pre-defined number of members (m). Members of each cluster are supposed to cooperate with one another in two ways:1. Share, Process and Compress their data2. Cooperatively transmit their processed data using virtual MIMO.IV. ANALYSISThe performance metric considered in our analysis is the total distortion due to compression and errors occurred during transmission. The first distortion is due to finite length quantizer, used in each sensor to represent the analog number by L bits. This distortion depends on the design of quantizer.We consider a Gaussian scalar quantizer which is designed over 105 randomly generated samples. The second distortion is due to errors occurred during transmission through the channel. In our system, this distortion is proportional to the probability of bit error. Since the probability of bit error (Pe) is a function of transmission energy per bit (Eb), total distortion will be a function of Eb. In this section we characterize the transmission and total consumed energy of sensors and find the relationship between distortion and probability of bit error.V. SIMULATION AND NUMERICAL RESULTS To give a numerical example, we assume m = 4 members in each cluster. Therefore our Virtual-MIMO scheme will consist of 4 transmit antennas. We assume that network has N = 32 sensors. Sensor observations are Gaussian with σx2= 1 and are added to a Gaussian noise of σn2= 0.1 .Nodes are deployed uniformly in the field and are 2 meters apart from each other and the Fusion Center is located 100 meters away from the center of the field. The values for circuit parameters are quoted from [6] and are listed in Table I. These parameters depend on the hardware design and technological advances. Fig. 1 illustrates the performance (Distortion) of reference system and proposed two-phase V-MIMO scheme versus transmission energy consumption in logarithmic scale. As shown in the figures, depending on how much precision is needed in the system, we can save energy by applying the proposed algorithm.TABLE IFig. 2 illustrates the Distortion versus total energy consumption of sensor nodes. That is, in this figure we consider both the transmission and circuit energy consumption. The parameters that lead us to these results may be designed to give better performance than presented here. However, from these figures we can conclude that the proposed algorithm outperforms the reference system when we want to have distortion less than 10−3 and it can save energy as high as 10 dB.VI. CONCLUSIONIn this paper we proposed a novel algorithm which takes advantage of cooperation among sensor nodes in two ways: it not only compresses the set of sensor messages at the sensor nodes into one message, appropriate for final estimation but also encodes them into orthogonal space-time symbols which are easy to decode and energy-efficient. This algorithm is able to save energy as high as 10 dB.REFERENCES[1] J.Chou,D.Petrovic and K.Ramchandran “A distributed and adaptive signalprocessing approach to reducing energy consumption in sensornetworks,”Proc. IEEE INFOCOM,March 2003.[2] Z.Q.Luo, “Universal decentralized estimation in a bandwidth constrainedsensor network,” IEEE rmation The ory, vol.51,no.6,June 2005.[3] Z.Q.Luo,“An Isotropic Universal decentralized estimation scheme for abandwidth constrained Ad Hoc sensor network,”IEEEm. vol.23,no. 4,April 2005.[4] Z.Q.Luo and J.-J. Xiao, “Decentralized estimation i n an inhomogeneoussensing environment,” IEEE Trans. Information Theory, vol.51, no.10,October 2005.[5] J.J.Xiao,S.Cui,Z.-Q.Luo and A.J.Goldsmith, “Joint estimation in sensornetworks under energy constraints,” Proc.IEEE First conference on Sensor and Ad Hoc Communications and Networks, (SECON 04),October 2004.[6] S.Cui, A.J.Goldsmith, and A.Bahai,“Energy-efficiency of MIMO andcooperative MIMO techniques in sensor networks,”IEEEm,vol.22, no.6pp.1089–1098,August 2004.[7] S.K.Jayawe era and M.L.Chebolu, “Virtual MIMO and distributed signalprocessing for sensor networks-An integrated approach”,Proc.IEEEInternational Conf. Comm.(ICC 05)May 2005.[8] S.K.Jayaweera,"Energy efficient virtual MIMO-based CooperativeCommunications for Wireless Sensor Networks",2nd International Conf. on Intelligent Sensing and Information Processing (ICISIP 05),January 2005.[9] S.K.Jayaweera,“Energy Analysis of MIMO Techniques in Wireless SensorNetworks”, 38th Annual Conference on Information Sciences and Systems (CISS 04),March 2004.[10] S.K.Jayaweera and M.L.Chebolu,“Virtual MIMO and Distributed SignalProcessing for Sensor Networks - An Integrated Approach”,IEEEInternational Conf.on Communications (ICC 05),May 2005.[11] S.K.Jayaweera,“An Energy-efficient Virtual MIMO CommunicationsArchitecture Based on V-BLAST Processing for Distributed WirelessSensor Networks”,1st IEEE International Conf.on Sensor and Ad-hocCommunications and Networks (SECON 2004), October 2004.[12] J.Max,“Quantizing for minimum distortion,” IRE rmationTheory,vol.IT-6, pp.7 – 12,March 1960.[13] S.P.Lloyd,“Least squares quantization in PCM ,”IEEE rmationTheory,vol.IT-28, pp.129-137,March 1982.[14] D.Slepian and J.K.Wolf “Noiseless encoding of correlated inf ormationsources,” IEEE Trans. on Information Theory,vol.19, pp.471-480,July1973.[15] S.M.Alamouti,“A simple transmit diversity technique for wirelesscommunications,” IEEE m., vol.16,no.8,pp.1451–1458,October 1998.[16] V.Tarokh,H.Jafarkhani,and A.R.Calderbank. “Space-time block codesfrom orthogonal designs,’’IEEE rmationTheory,vol.45,no.5,pp.1456 -1467,July 1999.[17] Y.Oohama,“The Rate-Distortion Function for the Quadratic GaussianCEO Problem,” IEEE Trans. Informatio nTheory,vol.44,pp.1057–1070,May 1998.。

外文翻译国际商务谈判(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)

外文翻译国际商务谈判(适用于毕业论文外文翻译+中英文对照)

西京学院本科毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译教学单位:经济系专业:国际经济与贸易(本)学号:0700090641姓名:王欢外文出处:《国际商务谈判》附件:1.译文;2.原文;3.评分表2010年11月1.译文译文(一)国际商务谈判是国际商务活动中,处于不同国家或不同地区的商务活动当事人为了达成某笔交易,彼此通过信息交流,就交易的各项要件进行协商的行为过程。

可以说国际商务谈判是一种在对外经贸活动中普遍存在的﹑解决不同国家的商业机构之间不可避免的利害冲突﹑实现共同利益的一种必不可少的手段。

国际商务谈判与一般贸易谈判具有共性,即以经济利益为目的,以价格为谈判核心。

因为价格的高低最直接﹑最集中的表明了谈判双方的利益切割,而且还由于谈判双方在其他条件,诸如质量﹑数量﹑付款形式﹑付款时间等利益要素上的得与失,在很多情况下都可以折算为一定的价格,并通过价格的升降而得到体现或予以补偿。

在国际买卖合同中价格术语包括单价和总价。

单价则是由计量单位,单价,计价货币以及贸易术语构成。

例如,一个价格术语可以这样来说:“每吨CIF伦敦1500美元包含3%佣金”。

总价格是合同中交易的总额。

在谈判过程中,应该由谁先出价,如何回应对方的报价,做出多少让步才适当,到最后双方达成都能接受的协议,整个这一过程被称之为谈判之舞。

通常情况下,谈判者的目标价位不会有重叠:卖方想为自己的产品或服务争取的价格,会高出买方愿意付出的价格。

然而,有时候谈判者的保留点却会相互重叠,也就是说大多数买方愿意付出的价格都会高于卖方可以接受的最低价格,在这种议价区间的前提下,谈判的最终结果会落在高于卖方的保留点而低于买方的保留点之间的某个点上。

议价区间可以为正数,也可以为负数。

在正议价区间,谈判者的保留点会互相重叠的,即买方愿意出的最高价格高于卖方可以接受的最低价格。

这意味着谈判者能达成协议的话,那么结果肯定在这个区间之内。

负议价区间可能根本不存在或是负数,这可能会造成花费巨大的时间来做一件毫无结果的协议,谈判者将会浪费时间成本。

机械设计制造及其自动化毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译

机械设计制造及其自动化毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译

机械设计创造及其自动化毕业论文外文文献翻译INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY译文题目专业机械设计创造及其自动化外文资料翻译INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY(From ELECTRICAL AND MACHINERY INDUSTRY)ABSTRACTMachinery was the modern science and technology development inevitable result, this article has summarized the integration of machinery technology basic outline and the development background .Summarized the domestic and foreign integration of machinery technology present situation, has analyzed the integration of machinery technology trend of development.Key word: integration of machinery ,technology, present situation ,product t,echnique of manufacture ,trend of development0. Introduction modern science and technology unceasing development, impelled different discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage, has caused the project domain technological revolution and the transformation .In mechanical engineering domain, because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapid development and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinery, caused the mechanical industry the technical structure, the product organization, the function and the constitution, the production method and the management systemof by machinery for the characteristic integration ofdevelopment phase.1. Integration of machinery outline integration of machinery is refers in the organization new owner function, the power function, in the information processing function and the control function introduces the electronic technology, unifies the system the mechanism and the computerization design and the software which constitutes always to call. The integration of machinery development also has become one to have until now own system new discipline, not only develops along with the science and technology, but also entrusts with the new content .But its basic characteristic may summarize is: The integration of machinery is embarks from the system viewpoint, synthesis community technologies and so on utilization mechanical technology, microelectronic technology, automatic control technology, computer technology, information technology, sensing observation and control technology, electric power electronic technology, connection technology, information conversion technology as well as software programming technology, according to the system function goal and the optimized organization goal, reasonable disposition and the layout various functions unit, in multi-purpose, high grade, redundant reliable, in the low energy consumption significance realize the specific function value, and causes the overall system optimization the systems engineering technology .From this produces functional system, then becomes an integration of machinery systematic or the integration of machinery product. Therefore, of coveringtechnology is based on the above community technology organic fusion one kind of comprehensive technology, but is not mechanical technical, the microelectronic technology as well as other new technical simple combination, pieces together .This is the integration of machinery and the machinery adds the machinery electrification which the electricity forms in the concept basic difference .The mechanical engineering technology has the merely technical to develop the machinery electrification, still was the traditional machinery, its main function still was replaces with the enlargement physical strength .But after develops the integration of machinery, micro electron installment besides may substitute for certain mechanical parts the original function, but also can entrust with many new functions,like the automatic detection, the automatic reduction information, demonstrate the record, the automatic control and the control automatic diagnosis and the protection automatically and so on .Not only namely the integration of machinery product is human's hand and body extending, human's sense organ and the brains look, has the intellectualized characteristic is the integration of machinery and the machinery electrification distinguishes in the function essence.2. Integration of machinery development condition integration of machinery development may divide into 3 stages roughly.20th century 60's before for the first stage, this stage is called the initial stage .In this time, the people determination not on own initiative uses the electronic technology the preliminary achievement to consummate the mechanical product the performance .Specially in Second World War period, the war has stimulated the mechanical product and the electronic technology union, these mechanical and electrical union military technology, postwar transfers civilly, to postwar economical restoration positive function .Developed and the development at that time generally speaking also is at the spontaneouscondition .Because at that time the electronic technology development not yet achieved certain level, mechanical technical and electronic technology union also not impossible widespread and thorough development, already developed the product was also unable to promote massively. The 20th century 70~80 ages for the second stage, may be called the vigorous development stage .This time, the computer technology, the control technology, the communication development, has laid the technology base for the integration of machinery development . Large-scale, ultra large scale integrated circuit and microcomputer swift and violent development, has provided the full material base for the integration of machinery development .This time characteristic is :①A mechatronics word first generally is accepted in Japan, probably obtains the quite widespread acknowledgment to 1980s last stages in the worldwide scale ;②The integration of machinery technology and the product obtained the enormous development ;③The various countries start to the integration of machinery technology and the product give the very big attention and the support. 1990s later periods, started the integration of machinery technology the new stagewhich makes great strides forward to the intellectualized direction, the integration of machinery enters the thorough development time .At the same time, optics, the communication and so on entered the integration of machinery, processes the technology also zhan to appear tiny in the integration of machinery the foot, appeared the light integration of machinery and the micro integration of machinery and so on the new branch; On the other hand to the integration of machinery system modeling design, the analysis and the integrated method, the integration of machinery discipline system and the trend of development has all conducted the thorough research .At the same time, because the hugeprogress which domains and so on artificial intelligence technology, neural network technology and optical fiber technology obtain, opened the development vast world for the integration of machinery technology .These research, will urge the integration of machinery further to establish the integrity the foundation and forms the integrity gradually the scientific system. Our country is only then starts from the beginning of 1980s in this aspect to study with the application .The State Councilsummary had considered fully on international the influence which and possibly brought from this about the integration of machinery technology developmenttrend .Many universities, colleges and institutes, the development facility and some large and middle scale enterprises have done the massive work to this technical development and the application, does not yield certain result, but and so on the advanced countries compared with Japan still has the suitable disparity.3. Integration of machinery trend of development integrations of machinery are the collection machinery, the electron, optics, the control, the computer, the information and so on the multi-disciplinary overlapping syntheses, its development and the progress rely on and promote the correlation technology development and the progress .Therefore, the integration of machinery main development direction is as follows:3.1 Intellectualized intellectualizations are 21st century integration of machinery technological development important development directions .Theartificial intelligence obtains day by day in the integration of machinery constructor's research takes, the robot and the numerical control engine bedis to the machine behavior description, is in the control theory foundation, the absorption artificial intelligence, the operations research, the computer science, the fuzzy mathematics, the psychology, the physiology and the chaos dynamics and so on the new thought, the new method, simulate the human intelligence, enable it to have abilities and so on judgment inference, logical thinking, independent decision-making, obtains the higher control goal in order to .Indeed, enable the integration of machinery product to have with the human identical intelligence, is not impossible, also is nonessential .But, the high performance, the high speed microprocessor enable the integration of machinery product to have preliminary intelligent or human's partial intelligences, then is completely possible and essential.In the modern manufacture process, the information has become the control manufacture industry the determining factor, moreover is the most active actuation factor .Enhances the manufacture system information-handling capacity to become the modern manufacture science development a key point .As a result of the manufacture system information organization and structure multi-level, makes the information the gain, the integration and the fusion presents draws up the character, information measure multi-dimensional, as well as information organization's multi-level .In the manufacture information structural model, manufacture information uniform restraint, dissemination processing and magnanimous data aspects and so on manufacture knowledge library management, all also wait for further break through.Each kind of artificial intelligence tool and the computation intelligence method promoted the manufacture intelligence development in the manufacture widespread application .A kind based on the biological evolution algorithm computation intelligent agent, in includes thescheduling problem in the combination optimization solution area of technology, receives the more and more universal attention, hopefully completes the combination optimization question when the manufacture the solution speed and the solution precision aspect breaks through the question scale in pairs the restriction .The manufacture intelligence also displays in: The intelligent dispatch, the intelligent design, the intelligent processing, the robot study, the intelligent control, the intelligent craft plan, the intelligent diagnosis and so on are various These question key breakthrough, may form the product innovation the basic research system. Between 2 modern mechanical engineering front science different science overlapping fusion will have the new science accumulation, the economical development and society's progress has had the new request and the expectation to the science and technology, thus will form the front science .The front science also has solved and between the solution scientific question border area .The front science has the obvious time domain, the domain and the dynamic characteristic .The project front science distinguished in the general basic science important characteristic is it has covered the key science and technology question which the project actual appeared.Manufacture system is a complex large-scale system, for satisfies the manufacture system agility, the fast response and fast reorganization ability, must profit from the information science, the life sciences and the social sciences and so on the multi-disciplinary research results, the exploration manufacture system new architecture, the manufacture pattern and the manufacture system effective operational mechanism .Makes the system optimization the organizational structure and the good movement condition is makes the system modeling , the simulation and the optimized essential target .Not only the manufacture system new architecture to makes the enterprise the agility and may reorganize ability to the demand response ability to have the vital significance, moreover to made the enterprise first floor production equipment the flexibility and may dynamic reorganization ability set a higher request .The biological manufacture view more and more many is introduced the manufacture system, satisfies the manufacture system new request.The study organizes and circulates method and technique of complicated system from the biological phenomenon, is a valid exit which will solve many hard nut to cracks that manufacturing industry face from now on currently .Imitating to living what manufacturing point is mimicry living creature organ of from the organization, from match more, from growth with from evolution etc. function structure and circulate mode of a kind of manufacturing system and manufacturing process.The manufacturing drives in the mechanism under, continuously by one's own perfect raise on organizing structure and circulating mode and thus to adapt the process of[with] ability for the environment .For from descend but the last product proceed together a design and make a craft rules the auto of the distance born, produce system of dynamic state reorganization and product and manufacturing the system tend automatically excellent provided theories foundation and carry out acondition .Imitate to living a manufacturing to belong to manufacturing science and life science of"the far good luck is miscellaneous to hand over", it will produce to the manufacturing industry for 21 centuries huge of influence .机电一体化摘要机电一体化是现代科学技术发展的必然结果,本文简述了机电一体化技术的基本概要和发展背景。

变电站中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

变电站中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述

变电站中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述XXXns are an essential part of electrical power systems。

servingas the interface een high-voltage n lines and lower-voltage n lines。

They play a critical role in XXX homes。

businesses。

and industries.Types of nsThere are several types of ns。

including n ns。

n ns。

and customer XXX to the end-users and step down the voltage for n to XXX a single customer or group of customers.XXXns consist of us components。

including transformers。

circuit breakers。

switches。

XXX are used to step up or step down thevoltage of the electricity。

XXX are used to control the flow ofXXX to the system.XXXXXX stages。

including site n。

layout design。

equipment n。

XXX n lines。

land availability。

and environmental ns。

The layout design involves determining the placement of equipment。

XXX appropriate transformers。

circuit breakers。

and other components。

III型轨枕优化设计外文翻译

III型轨枕优化设计外文翻译

西南交通大学本科毕业设计外文资料翻译年级:2006级学号:20060058姓名:郭鹏专业:土木工程指导老师:杨荣山2010年 6 月英文翻译原稿Prestressed Concrete the extensive application Priestesses concrete is used in concrete structures under load before the production phase, the use of pre-stage of the tension zone imposed stress, the stress caused by an artificial state. When the components used to bear a load and stress, first of all to offset the pre-stress concrete, and then as the load increases, the Rajah area of concrete produced stress. Therefore, concrete cracks may delay the emergence and implementation, to meet the application requirements. In structural members to bear this load before the pre-tension zone imposed stress of the concrete structural members, called on priestesses concrete structures.China's use of priestesses concrete sleeper more than 30 years, the concrete sleeper in a lot of damage related to traffic safety, which is often considered failures sleeper operation should be replaced on the line. But to put the new sleeper, in addition to re-create, but also handling, transport and went to the line on the pillow-for-work, not only need to spend a lot of manpower and material resources, and sometimes impact on traffic, the cost is often a sleeper itself Cost Four to five times.Sleeper as a priestess’s concrete structure, cracks are difficult to avoid, priestesses concrete sleeper on the causes and dangers of cracks on how the prevention and control of cracks, concrete sleeper to improve the durability of the structure, to extend the life of sleeper, Will be very important.1. causes cracks in concrete sleeperCracks in concrete sleeper can be generated from the structure, processes, materials and other aspects of, or from the design, manufacture, laying, use of research. Here, only physical, chemical, mechanical point of view for analysis.1.1 mechanical factorsConcrete sleeper suffered moment not only the size and Zhen hang dynamic pressure, but also with the sub occipital Ballast support of the state. The laying of the original design requirements and conservation should be the middle part of the sleeper emptied 400 ram, hollowed out part of Ballast top of the pillow at the end should be less than 30 mm, toavoid negative moment too large a pillow in the upper horizontal cleft. In recent years do not require the middle emptied, the middle should be floating pad for ballast. Assumption that the design of the middle part of the supporting force should be part of the track under 3 / 4 (hollowed out at 0). And the general priestesses concrete products different from the sleeper train with the state supported the operation and maintenance of conditions constantly changing, once supported state and Zhen hang vertical dynamic pressure arising from the combined effects of more than design limits at the moment, The corresponding part of sleeper will have a crack. In addition when the pre-stress increases Stripping too large and when concrete strength is inadequate, the end of the sleeper will have a vertical crack; rail trains running on the level and vertical force and spiral clip bolt caused by pulling on the edge and make sleeper Bolt clip bolt holes around a vertical and horizontal cracks.1.2 physical factorsPhysical factors means the sleeper manufacture and laying, in the course of operating the hot and cold, wet and dry, such as the role of freezing and thawing. When the conservation process of warming up steam soon, when the high temperature thermostat, the concrete gas, water, cement, gravel, and so different coefficient of thermal expansion of different materials, and concrete structure of the early intensity and low, so that high-temperature gas, water greatly expanded, resulting in Concrete internal structural deficiencie s, easily lead to the surface in particular sleeper End of the concrete surface cracks, loose.For some time, many factories in the production of steam conservation sleeper nopre-custody time, warming up quickly, thermostat temperature is higher than 95 ℃, Stripping at the end of the concrete sleeper swelling, loose situation often occurred.1.3 Chemical factorsChemical factors that steel corrosion, concrete corrosion, carbonated, alkali aggregate reaction, and so on. China on the concrete sleeper, which alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) caused the damage can not be ignored. Alkali aggregate reaction of the three conditions are: aggregate activity, high-alkali cement and water, the destruction of more than three is a chemical reaction, in the aggregate in the concrete and cement interface on the formationof silicate gel, Volume expansion caused concrete cracking. One of the most common base - silica reaction.As China's cement production for a long time not to limit alkali content. Usinghigh-alkali cement increased cement production and reduce costs. China has some areas of concrete coarse aggregate (stone) has obvious base activity, a combination of both together, easy to form alkali aggregate reaction (AAR) damage. This issue is from the late 1960s, a fact ory production of priestess’s concrete sleeper (and bridges) and the fracture occurred repeatedly cracking, and the structure, process, laying the conservation conditions to improve still further fracture, cracking there until the late 1980s, began to be recognized and confirmed by the pilot. Inspection process is: first concrete sleeper in the core-sample, the test items, including: ①the naked eye or using three-dimensional microscope, and then side-thin reflective microscope, the damage caused by the general AAR regular injury aggregate particles, the more cracks from the aggregate Extending to the slurry, and sometimes also obvious observation aggregate stars expected to split or torn edges. This feature is very important, because of salt corrosion, chemical corrosion, steel corrosion, carbonate, such as mechanical load will not make aggregate particles by injury, so this is AAR and other factors undermining the main features; ②coupled with the ability to rely on the electron microscope Spectrum analysis can be measured alkali silicate gel's chemical composition, this is a direct proof of AAR. In addition, concrete aggregate for mechanical and chemical methods (generally deal with hydrochloric acid) separation, reuse and rapid method of identification its phase-alkali activity.To sum up, vertical cracks in the main by internal factors (materials, structure, technology factors) due to external factors (loading and freeze-thaw, wet and dry cycle) is only promote their development, horizontal cracks are internal (priestesses reinforced, section And concrete strength) and external factors (loading and sleeper boundary conditions) caused by a combination.2. cracks in the concrete sleeper durability of the structure(1) sleeper in the open-air environment, because of dense concrete, water, gas will not infiltrate into the internal, but cracks in to a certain width and depth of cracks at theprotection layer, water, gas will reach the penetration along the cracks gradually reinforced , Caused steel corrosion and rust, rust is a compound of iron (iron oxide), four times its volume expansion in the concrete caused internal stress, leading to further cracking concrete, reinforced and priestesses concrete and Bonding of lower Thus a ffecting the sleeper of the carrying capacity.(2) Study shows that only cracks in the concrete structure of a certain width, water, gas can be infiltrated, from steel corrosion. Domestic and international norms, reinforced concrete structure to allow the crack width of 0.1 ~ 0.3mm (depending on the media environment), priestesses concrete structure does not allow even a crack, its purpose is to ensure that no reinforcement corrosion. However, many times at home and abroad for the investigation and trial, and that crack width and not directly related to steel corrosion.(3) Research also shows that the vertical cracks on the durability of the general structure than the horizontal cracks serious. Reinforced concrete structures due to the longitudinal cracks will cause the steel corrosion protection layer peeling off; cracking concrete expansion will cause osteoporosis, swap block. The author had been taken from different routes 16, with a different state of the sleeper Split 11, the normal sleeper 5, case-by-track roots are cracking under section static strength and fatigue strength test. Table 3 from the test results can be seen: ①through cracks in the sleeper, most of the rail section under static load cracking strength obviously lower; ②end of the fracture or cracking of the sleeper, static cracking strength And fatigue, compared with the normal sleeper, in general there was no significant difference. This shows that the end of the rail fracture and multiple cracks from the surface, not to influence the development of concrete and steel of the Bonding.3. concrete sleeper cracks in the prevention and controlSleeper as a priestess’s concrete structure, in order to completely eliminate cracks is very difficult to do. After all, but the crack is harmful. For this reason, every effort should be made to prevent the emergence of crack.Prevention and control of cracks, you can start with a three-pronged:First, from the mechanical point of view, in order to prevent horizontal cracks, except in accordance with the greatest possible load, the rational allocation of priestesses reinforced, we must also strengthen the end of the stirrups and the spiral reinforcement clip bolt whole configuration. In addition, to strengthen the conservation line maintenance so that the sleeper is in a good state support under the track and prevent the sleeper pillow horizontal cracks appeared in the major conditions.Stirrups and spiral reinforcement of the settings and prevent sleeper End and central fracture cracks and nail holes, but not the overall stirrups itself, and is reinforced and priestesses loose lap, in the prevention of fracture in a limited effect. Some factories will be strictly end of the stirrups layout from the end of the first 30 mm, and priestesses reinforced Bingham firmly together, thus found to prevent the end of the fracture have a good effect.Second, to strengthen production management and operationAfter the 1990s, China's concrete sleeper factory's management of the operation by strict requirements, such as strict concrete mix to ensure that the vibration and dense concrete strength (including a tensile strength), in particular steam conservation. Stripping the surface with the sleeper when the ambient temperature difference between the ≤ 20 ~40 ℃, some factories are still sleeper Stripping deposited within three days of water conservation. These measures to reduce the sleeper cracks, especially cracking and fracture will be very beneficial.Third, strictly control the raw materials of concreteChina's natural river sand has not found a base activity, but many regions of coarse aggregate base has potential activity, it should vigorously promote the use of low-alkali cement (alkali of ≤ 0.6%) and low-alkali water reducer. In the current use of low-alkali cement and low-alkali super plasticizer still difficult circumstances, should control the largest amount of cement, concrete sleeper to make the alkali content does not exceed safety limits (33kg m) o For example: When the cement alkali Volume up 1 percent,/cement concrete sleeper amount of 500 3kg m, while the alkali in concrete for 500 × 1%/= 53kg m. Super plasticizer, if not doped, has greatly exceeded the safety limit 3 kg/m3 /Value when alkali cement volume was 0.6%, the amount of water reducer alkali five percent, one percent for the amount of time, the amount of concrete alkali 500×0.6% 10 500×1% ×5% = 3.253kg m(safety limits), therefore, when the largest cement/kg m> 33/concrete on the amount reduced to 460 3kg m, because 460 × 0.6% 10460 × 1% × 5% =/2.993kg m(Safety limits), instead of the usual technical conditions stipulated in //kg m≈ 33the 500 kg/m3.In short, the concrete in the early conservation, the main purpose is to maintain appropriate Temperature and Humidity conditions, so as to achieve the effect of both the one hand, the concrete from the adverse temperature and humidity deformation of the invasion, to prevent harmful Languor and shrinkage.In theory analysis, contained in the fresh concrete cement hydration water completely satisfy the requirements of a surplus. However, due to evaporation and other reasons often cause water loss, delay or prevent the hydration of cement, concrete surface and easily the most directly affected by such adverse effects. Therefore concrete pouring is the first days after the critical period of conservation, in construction should be earnestly pay attention to it.译文:预应力混凝土的广泛应用预应力混凝土在使用荷载作用下作用于混凝土结构,在生产阶段,前阶段的施加压力的是由人工所造成的压力。

大学英语精读(第三版)第二册翻译

大学英语精读(第三版)第二册翻译

英语精读第二册翻译unit11. 她砰地关上门,一声不吭地走了,他们之间那场争执就此结束。

Their argument ended when she slammed the door and left without a word.2. 出席晚宴的客人对那个美国人威严的语气感到有点意外。

The guests at the dinner party were slightly surprised at the commanding tone of the American.3. 约翰尼已长大成熟,不再害怕独自呆在家里了。

Johnny has outgrown the fear of staying at home alone.4. 当全部乘客都向出口处(exit) 走去时,他却独自留在座位上,好像不愿意离开这架飞机似的。

While all the other passengers made for the exit, he alone remained in his seat as if unwilling to leave the plane.5 . 这封信必须交给威尔逊博士本人。

The letter is to be handed to Dr. Wilson himself.6. 南希虽然很想参加辩论,但腼腆得不敢开口。

While she felt like joining in the argument, Nancy was too shy to open her mouth.7. 你觉得什么时候最有可能在家里找到他?What do you think is the likeliest time to find him at home?8. 猎人一看见有只狐狸从树丛中出现并向他设下(lay) 的陷阱(trap) 方向跑去,脸上顿时闪出了兴奋的表情。

The hunter’s face lit up with excitement as soon as he saw a fox emerge from among the bushes and run in the direction of / m ake for the trap he had laid.Unit21. 会上有人建议任命一个十一人委员会来制定新章程。

剑桥三级单词汇总(带翻译)

剑桥三级单词汇总(带翻译)

flu a kite 放风筝smell the flowers 轻松一下plag games 玩游戏have a picnic 去野餐have a swim 游泳eat an ice cream 吃冰淇淋enjog the sunshine 明媚的阳光pick up leaves 采摘树叶ride a bike 骑自行车go to the forest 去森林plag with snowballs 打雪仗make a snowman 堆雪人ride on a sledge 骑在雪橇上wear a fur coat 穿一件裘皮大衣What's gour favourite season?你最喜欢哪个季节?I like sprinq 我喜欢春天Why do gou like spring? 你为什么喜欢春天?Because spring is beautiful.因为春天很漂亮。

I can hear birds singing and I can smellflowers 我可以听到鸟儿歌唱和我可以闻到花What's gour favourite season?你最喜欢哪个季节?I like summer 我喜欢夏天Whg do gou fike summer? 你为什么喜欢夏天?Because I like swimmina 因为我喜欢游泳。

I can swim a lot in summer我能在夏天游泳很多。

【我能在夏天畅快的游泳。

】I see.我明白了January 1st New Year's Dag 1月1日新的一年。

February Spring Festival 2月春节。

March 12th Tree-planting Dag 3月12日植树节。

April Easter 4月复活节。

May 1st Labour Day 5月1日劳动节。

June 1st Children'S Day 6月1日儿童节。

常用英语口语(带翻译)通用4篇

常用英语口语(带翻译)通用4篇

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淮阴工学院毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系(院):经管学院专业:国际经济与贸易姓名:胡婷学号:3062102109外文出处:Workshop”Empircal studies of innovation (用外文写)in Europe”,Urbino 1-2 December附件: 1.外文资料翻译译文;2.外文原文。

注:请将该封面与附件装订成册。

附件1:外文资料翻译译文“欧洲的实证研究创新”研讨会,乌尔比诺12月1-2日生产者服务的国际竞争力摘要:本文调查了在90年代国际竞争力和以经合组织国家为样本的生产者服务业的国际专业化的决定因素。

我们发现了国家制造业基础与生产者服务业发展的重要联系。

国内专业化的制造业的生产者服务的大用户明确有助于生产者服务的出口。

我们也发现了在信息与通信技术上的花费对生产者服务出口有积极的影响。

关键词:生产者服务,信息与通信技术,制造业与服务业的联系JEL代码:L80,F10,O331 引言1965年福克斯提出了20世纪50年代中期以来美国劳动力的唯一的一个少数民族涉及有形商品的生产,因此认识服务经济的概念。

最近大多数服务业,特别是一些生产者服务类别(例如通讯和商业服务)被列入增长最快的经济领域中。

普雷特和博斯沃思(2002)指出,商业服务的比重在过去10年翻了一番。

传统服务被认为是无形的,它们的消费不能从产品中分割。

结果它们被当做非流通股(福克斯,1968)。

但是巴格瓦蒂(1984)等人指出,由于电信和信息技术的发展,提供服务的物理接近要求可能有所减少,因此提高了服务可交易性的价值。

事实上,自80年代初,国际服务贸易迅速增长和快于商品贸易,以至于在1990年全球服务贸易已达到全球贸易的20%(Hoekman和普里莫布拉加,1997)。

随着服务贸易的增长,一些生产者服务贸易的理论模型和服务贸易的自由化的经济结论被马库森(1989),梅尔文(1989年),法国(1990年a,1990年b),琼斯和瑞恩(1990年),Van Marrewijk(1997年)等,德瓦尔和范德伯格(1999年),迪尔朵夫(2001年)提出。

但是服务贸易的实证研究是有限的,特别是因为数据的可用性和数量。

昌等(1999)估计服务贸易分解的数据对世界来说作为一个整体并且描述了不同服务行业的国家专业化。

其他研究(米德尔法特,Knarvik等,2000年)从事于生产和就业数据,以使有关推论专业化模式的方式绕过贸易数据的局限性。

这些研究主要是描述性的,而我们没有意识到任何尝试计量经济学试验的服务贸易专业化和竞争力的决定因素。

本文的目的是填补这一空白。

利用服务贸易的OECD数据和其他OECD工业数据,我们调查了国际专业化和国际竞争力的决定因素,生产者服务的选择类别即为金融,通信和商业服务(FCB)。

通信和商业服务被界定为“知识和信息密集”,并被认为战略投入到系统的其他部分的供应商(Antonelli,1998)。

与此同时,几项研究表明,金融服务的有效性和质量是经济发展的关键因素(复审见Levine,1997)。

基于这些原因,我们注意到生产者服务业。

我们采用技术差距的方法(Posner;Krugman,1985)来研究生产者服务贸易。

这种方法,在国家和产业的技术差距影响国际竞争力和传统的成本变数使用,已被广泛用来解释从开始工作的整体货物贸易和贸易休特(1981)。

这些研究的结果表明,技术是解释制成品贸易的一个重要因素。

现在有广泛的证据表明,许多服务行业公司发挥创新的重要作用,不仅在使用方面,而且在新技术的创新和推广方面。

(Tether等,2001)。

因此,技术也是服务贸易的一个重要的决定因素。

尤其是,我们认为信息和通信技术(ICT)在国际服务竞争力中发挥着有关的作用。

事实上,Freund和Weinhold(2002)发现互联网普及率对服务贸易产生显著的积极的影响。

此外,也有人认为,信息和通信技术的扩散是落后于服务的诱导增长的工业部门的重组(OECD,1997)和其可增长的交易性(Freund和Weinhold,2002)的一个关键因素。

生产过程在国内和跨越国界被越来越多地分解(Bhagwati,1984),信息通信产业的技术革命在破碎化过程中发挥了重要作用(Jones和Kierzkowski,1990)。

更重要的是,有人认为制造业中间产品服务的需求是服务业增长的主要因素(Francois1990a,Rowthorn和Ramaswamy,1999;Klodt,2000)。

因此,我们调查对国内需求的具有竞争优势的生产者服务发展发挥了作用。

该文被组织如下:第2利用投入产出数据审视了制造业和服务的联系;第3节讨论了生产者服务业的国际竞争力的决定因素,这些数据用于估计,并提出了经济计量结果;第4提请了该文的主要结论。

2 在服务提升中中间需求的作用几项研究都强调了对解释在先进国家里服务上升的需求作用。

Clark(1940)认为,当人均收入增加,需求对服务产生变化,因为服务需求的收入弹性普遍比工业品需求的收入弹性高。

其他作者认为,服务行业的兴起主要是由于中间产品的服务需求的增加(Francois,1990a;Rowthorn和Ramaswamy,1999;Klodt,2000)。

由于新技术的应用程序和使用,日趋复杂的生产方式生产和分配被举办,以及各种合作问题的显著增加使许多制成品的服务内容提升(Miozzio和Soete,1999)。

事实上,Francois和Reinert(1996年)发现,不同国家收入的水平与企业的中间产品或生产者服务的需求挂钩。

Bhagwati(1984)认为生产者服务成为发展领域的一部分,因为公司使在公司内部进行的服务活动的外化。

然而,曾经制造业企业内部完成的割据以外的活动未充分说明生产者服务的增加。

事实上,生产服务也代表了日益重要的制造企业内执行的剩余活动份额(Francois,1990a)。

最终需求和中间需求根据类型服务的考虑可以起到不同的作用。

相比与双方的FCB和其他服务的最终需求上升,在下面我们使用投入产出数据为了调查中间需求的作用。

特别是我们计算从70年代中期至90年代初期FCB和总的中间需求、最终需求和总产出的其他服务份额和增长的速度的变化。

这是根据丹麦,法国,德国,英国,日本和美国的平均水平计算的。

表1显示,服务得到了在制造业的代价股份。

这是由于最终需求和中间需求的增长。

在这方面,我们可以观察到以中间需求为条件FCB服务不断增长的,然而其它服务却相反。

我们还可以观察到FCB服务已超过其他类别的服务越来越多(超过两倍)。

(表1对这里)在显示为FCB服务增长的中间需求的增加的重要性后,我们问是否有一些制造业部门作出了贡献大大超过这一增加的其他部门和国家之间是否保留。

为了回答这个问题,我们进行了方差分析,从1990年来看用工业影响的重要性来解释关于制造业和服务业的输出FCB服务份额。

方差分析表明,用行业的显著影响来解释金融,通信和商业服务的使用(R^2= 0.626,F= 8.65显著1%)。

在高制造用户里,我们发现,主要是知识密集产业(办公室&计算机械,专业产品,电气设备及电台,电视及通信设备,工业化学品和药品),而劳动和大规模密集行业出现,平均为FCB服务的低或中等的用户,(见表2)(表2对这里)这些结果表明,制造业和服务业目前的架构,对影响金融,通讯和商业服务的增长发挥了作用。

我们特别希望国家有一个高密集制造业的分享活动,这样可以为FCB服务发展创造有利条件。

同时,我们可以观察到,在服务行业里(表3),根据地产及商用服务及跟进批发和零售贸易,财政和保险是FCB主要用户。

(表3对这里)因此,在FCB服务的生产和使用方面似乎有重要的互补性。

我们可以预期,一个国家能够发展生产服务是因为能体验自我实施机制(良性循环):一个具有比较优势的国家,比方说,利用商业服务,为建立比较优势提供便利,譬如说,金融和保险服务。

3 生产者服务的国际竞争力的决定因素为了探讨生产者服务的国际竞争力(市场份额)和国际专业化的决定因素,我们集中注意力,结合传统的成本变量,对中间需求的作用和国家技术优势的作用。

很久以前,瑞典经济学家Burenstam Linder(1961)认为,在国际竞争力方面国内需求发挥重要作用。

最近,这个想法被克鲁格曼正式化(1980年)。

根据在第2所示的证据,我们重点注意力集中在中间的需求。

特别是,我们利用大量使用的生产者服务的国内竞争优势,测试一个制造业的特定结构是否是FCB里国际竞争力的重要来源。

这是由于直接刺激了国内需求的更高水平和知识的流动的联系或溢出。

更重要的是技术变化导致分裂的进程,随着服务(特别是商业服务)在生产中作为增加技术和社会劳动分工的结果。

这种现象导致了在制造业和服务业活动之间强有力的相互依存关系(Francois,1990;Dias Fuentes,1998)。

来自制造业专业化的竞争优势的存在引进滞后因素,在这个意义上的服务,就很难发展有竞争力的独立于国家的工业基础的服务经济。

同时,我们可以预计一个国家内开发的服务模型影响生产者服务的国际竞争力。

特别是,我们希望国家有很高的份额在这些服务行业,是生产大用户的服务活动,可以更轻松开发生产服务本身的国际竞争优势。

自从我们看到(见第2)生产者服务是其他生产商的主要用户服务,这种说法导致这些服务的发展的互补性和自我实施机制的存在。

加上中间需求,技术在服务行业对国际竞争力发挥了重要作用。

事实上,虽然很长一段时间服务被认为在技术开发和应用方面落后,但最近有关方面承认,一些服务性行业,特别是FCB,不仅是重要用户,而且是车辆技术的跨部门推广(Tomlinson,2001)。

因此,技术优势添加了一个重要层面的生产者服务贸易解释,因为它们是国内服务发展竞争力和能够在国际服务贸易的关键因素。

作为技术措施我们集中注意力于信息和通信技术的国家总支出。

这不仅是由于数据可用性的问题,而且是由于更多传统技术变数可能不是最解释有关生产者的竞争力服务的事实,如研发支出。

事实上,虽然制造业的花费在研发上比服务行业多,但是当技术创新的定义扩大至包括市场营销,培训和其他活动,许多服务的开支比平均高得多(Tomlinson,2001年)。

同时,已观察到,知识密集型服务业的传播被平行传播及新的信息和通信技术系统深受影响(Antonelli,1998)。

无形的本质和基于服务特点的信息在企业的创新活动和他们的表现上给予信息和通信技术的产生和使用核心作用(Evangelista,2000)。

信息和通信技术的作用是以 Barras (1986)提出的代表在创新过程中的动态服务的逆向产品周期模型为基础的。

这种观点认为,在产品的反周期的第一阶段,服务用IT作为后端办公效率的原因。

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