英文文献翻译机械类
机械专业外文文献翻译
翻译部分英文原文High-speed machining and demand for the development ofHigh-speed machining is contemporary advanced manufacturing technology an important component of the high-efficiency, High-precision and high surface quality, and other features. This article presents the technical definition of the current state of development of China's application fields and the demand situation.High-speed machining is oriented to the 21st century a new high-tech, high-efficiency, High-precision and high surface quality as a basic feature, in the automobile industry, aerospace, Die Manufacturing and instrumentation industries gained increasingly widespread application, and has made significant technical and economic benefits. contemporary advanced manufacturing technology an important component part.HSC is to achieve high efficiency of the core technology manufacturers, intensive processes and equipment packaged so that it has a high production efficiency. It can be said that the high-speed machining is an increase in the quantity of equipment significantly improve processing efficiency essential to the technology. High-speed machining is the major advantages : improve production efficiency, improve accuracy and reduce the processing of cutting resistance.The high-speed machining of meaning, at present there is no uniform understanding, there are generally several points as follows : high cutting speed. usually faster than that of their normal cutting 5 -10 times; machine tool spindle speed high, generally spindle speed in -20000r/min above 10,000 for high-speed cutting; Feed at high velocity, usually 15 -50m/min up to 90m/min; For different cutting materials and the wiring used the tool material, high-speed cutting the meaning is not necessarily the same; Cutting process, bladed through frequency (Tooth Passing Frequency) closer to the "machine-tool - Workpiece "system the dominant natural frequency (Dominant Natural Frequency), can be considered to be high-speed cutting. Visibility high-speed machining is a comprehensive concept.1992. Germany, the Darmstadt University of Technology, Professor H. Schulz in the 52th on the increase of high-speed cutting for the concept and the scope, as shown in Figure 1. Think different cutting targets, shown in the figure of the transition area (Transition), to be what is commonly called the high-speed cutting, This is also the time of metal cutting process related to the technical staff are looking forward to, or is expected to achieve the cutting speed.High-speed machining of machine tools, knives and cutting process, and other aspects specific requirements. Several were from the following aspects : high-speed machining technology development status and trends.At this stage, in order to achieve high-speed machining, general wiring with high flexibility of high-speed CNC machine tools, machining centers, By using a dedicated high-speed milling, drilling. These equipment in common is : We must also have high-speed and high-speed spindle system feeding system, Cutting can be achieved in high-speed process. High-speed cutting with the traditional cutting the biggest difference is that "Machine-tool-workpiece" the dynamic characteristics of cutting performance is stronger influence. In the system, the machine spindle stiffness, grip or form, a long knife set, spindle Broach, torque tool set, Performance high-speed impact are important factors.In the high-speed cutting, material removal rate (Metal Removal Rate, MRR), unit time that the material was removed volume, usually based on the "machine-tool-workpiece" whether Processing System "chatter." Therefore, in order to satisfy the high-speed machining needs, we must first improve the static and dynamic stiffness of machine spindle is particularly the stiffness characteristics. HSC reason at this stage to be successful, a very crucial factor is the dynamic characteristics of the master and processing capability.In order to better describe the machine spindle stiffness characteristics of the project presented new dimensionless parameter - DN value, used for the evaluation of the machine tool spindle structure on the high-speed machining of adaptability. DN value of the so-called "axis diameter per minute speed with the product." The newly developed spindle machining center DN values have been great over one million. To reduce the weight bearing, but also with an array of steel products than to the much more light ceramic ball bearings; Bearing Lubrication most impressive manner mixed with oil lubrication methods. In the field of high-speed machining. have air bearings and the development of magnetic bearings and magnetic bearings and air bearings combined constitute the magnetic gas / air mixing spindle.Feed the machine sector, high-speed machining used in the feed drive is usually larger lead, multiple high-speed ball screw and ball array of small-diameter silicon nitride (Si3N4) ceramic ball, to reduce its centrifugal and gyroscopic torque; By using hollow-cooling technology to reduce operating at high speed ball screw as temperature generated by the friction between the lead screw and thermal deformation.In recent years, the use of linear motor-driven high-speed system of up to'' Such feed system has removed the motor from workstations to Slide in the middle of all mechanical transmission links, Implementation of Machine Tool Feed System of zero transmission. Because no linear motor rotating components, from the role of centrifugal force, can greatly increase the feed rate. Linear Motor Another major advantage of the trip is unrestricted. The linear motor is a very time for a continuous machine shop in possession of the bed. Resurfacing of the very meeting where avery early stage movement can go, but the whole system of up to the stiffness without any influence. By using high-speed screw, or linear motor can greatly enhance machine system of up to the rapid response. The maximum acceleration linear motors up to 2-10G (G for the acceleration of gravity), the largest feed rate of up to 60 -200m/min or higher.2002 world-renowned Shanghai Pudong maglev train project of maglev track steel processing, Using the Shenyang Machine Tool Group Holdings Limited McNair friendship company production plants into extra-long high-speed system for large-scale processing centers achieve . The machine feeding system for the linear guide and rack gear drive, the largest table feed rate of 60 m / min, Quick trip of 100 m / min, 2 g acceleration, maximum speed spindle 20000 r / min, the main motor power 80 kW. X-axis distance of up to 30 m, 25 m cutting long maglev track steel error is less than 0.15 mm. Maglev trains for the smooth completion of the project provided a strong guarantee for technologyIn addition, the campaign machine performance will also directly affect the processing efficiency and accuracy of processing. Mold and the free surface of high-speed machining, the main wiring with small cut deep into methods for processing. Machine requirements in the feed rate conditions, should have high-precision positioning functions andhigh-precision interpolation function, especially high-precision arc interpolation. Arc processing is to adopt legislation or thread milling cutter mold or machining parts, the essential processing methods. Cutting Tools Tool Material developmenthigh-speed cutting and technological development of the history, tool material is continuous progress of history. The representation ofhigh-speed cutting tool material is cubic boron nitride (CBN). Face Milling Cutter use of CBN, its cutting speed can be as high as 5000 m / min, mainly for the gray cast iron machining. Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) has been described as a tool of the 21st century tool, It is particularly applicable to the cutting aluminum alloy containing silica material, which is light weight metal materials, high strength, widely used in the automobile, motorcycle engine, electronic devices shell, the base, and so on. At present, the use of polycrystalline diamond cutter Face Milling alloy, 5000m/min the cutting speed has reached a practical level. In addition ceramic tool also applies to gray iron of high-speed machining; Tool Coating : CBN and diamond cutter, despite good high-speed performance, but the cost is relatively high. Using the coating technology to make cutting tool is the low price, with excellent mechanical properties, which can effectively reduce the cost. Now high-speed processing of milling cutter, with most of the wiring between the Ti-A1-N composite technology for the way of multi-processing, If present in the non-ferrous metal or alloy material dry cutting, DLC (Diamond Like Carbon) coating on thecutter was of great concern. It is expected that the market outlook is very significant;Tool clamping system : Tool clamping system to support high-speed cutting is an important technology, Currently the most widely used is a two-faced tool clamping system. Has been formally invested as a commodity market at the same clamping tool system are : HSK, KM, Bigplus. NC5, AHO systems. In the high-speed machining, tool and fixture rotary performance of the balance not only affects the precision machining and tool life. it will also affect the life of machine tools. So, the choice of tool system, it should be a balanced selection of good products.Process ParametersCutting speed of high-speed processing of conventional shear velocity of about 10 times. For every tooth cutter feed rate remained basically unchanged, to guarantee parts machining precision, surface quality and durability of the tool, Feed volume will also be a corresponding increase about 10 times, reaching 60 m / min, Some even as high as 120 m / min. Therefore, high-speed machining is usually preclude the use of high-speed, feed and depth of cut small cutting parameters. Due to the high-speed machining cutting cushion tend to be small, the formation of very thin chip light, Cutting put the heat away quickly; If the wiring using a new thermal stability better tool materials and coatings, Using the dry cutting process for high-speed machining is the ideal technology program. High-speed machining field of applicationFlexible efficient production lineTo adapt to the needs of new models, auto body panel molds andresin-prevention block the forming die. must shorten the production cycle and reduce the cost of production and, therefore, we must make great efforts to promote the production of high-speed die in the process. SAIC affiliated with the company that : Compared to the past, finishing, further precision; the same time, the surface roughness must be met, the bending of precision, this should be subject to appropriate intensive manual processing. Due to the extremely high cutting speed, and the last finishing processes, the processing cycle should be greatly reduced. To play for machining centers and boring and milling machining center category represented by the high-speed machining technology and automatic tool change function of distinctions Potential to improve processing efficiency, the processing of complex parts used to be concentrated as much as possible the wiring process, that is a fixture in achieving multiple processes centralized processing and dilute the traditional cars, milling, boring, Thread processing different cutting the limits of technology, equipment and give full play to the high-speed cutting tool function, NC is currently raising machine efficiency and speed up product development in an effective way. Therefore, the proposed multi-purpose tool of the new requirements call for a tool to complete different partsof the machining processes, ATC reduce the number of ATC to save time, to reduce the quantity and tool inventory, and management to reduce production costs. More commonly used in a multifunctional Tool, milling, boring and milling, drilling milling, drilling-milling thread-range tool. At the same time, mass production line, against the use of technology requires the development of special tools, tool or a smart composite tool, improve processing efficiency and accuracy and reduced investment. In the high-speed cutting conditions, and some special tools can be part of the processing time to the original 1 / 10 below, results are quite remarkable. HSC has a lot of advantages such as : a large number of materials required resection of the workpiece with ultrafine, thin structure of the workpiece, Traditionally, the need to spend very long hours for processing mobile workpiece and the design of rapid change, short product life cycle of the workpiece, able to demonstrate high-speed cutting brought advantages.中文译文高速切削加工的发展及需求高速切削加工是当代先进制造技术的重要组成部分，拥有高效率、高精度及高表面质量等特征。
机械外文翻译外文文献英文文献机械臂动力学与控制的研究
外文出处：Ellekilde, L. -., & Christensen, H. I. (2009). Control of mobile manipulator using the dynamical systems approach. Robotics and Automation, Icra 09, IEEE International Conference on (pp.1370 - 1376). IEEE.机械臂动力学与控制的研究拉斯彼得Ellekilde摘要操作器和移动平台的组合提供了一种可用于广泛应用程序高效灵活的操作系统,特别是在服务性机器人领域。
在机械臂众多挑战中其中之一是确保机器人在潜在的动态环境中安全工作控制系统的设计。
在本文中,我们将介绍移动机械臂用动力学系统方法被控制的使用方法。
该方法是一种二级方法, 是使用竞争动力学对于统筹协调优化移动平台以及较低层次的融合避障和目标捕获行为的方法。
I介绍在过去的几十年里大多数机器人的研究主要关注在移动平台或操作系统，并且在这两个领域取得了许多可喜的成绩。
今天的新挑战之一是将这两个领域组合在一起形成具有高效移动和有能力操作环境的系统。
特别是服务性机器人将会在这一方面系统需求的增加。
大多数西方国家的人口统计数量显示需要照顾的老人在不断增加,尽管将有很少的工作实际的支持他们。
这就需要增强服务业的自动化程度，因此机器人能够在室内动态环境中安全的工作是最基本的。
图、1 一台由赛格威RMP200和轻重量型库卡机器人组成的平台这项工作平台用于如图1所示,是由一个Segway与一家机器人制造商制造的RMP200轻机器人。
其有一个相对较小的轨迹和高机动性能的平台使它适应在室内环境移动。
库卡工业机器人具有较长的长臂和高有效载荷比自身的重量,从而使其适合移动操作。
当控制移动机械臂系统时,有一个选择是是否考虑一个或两个系统的实体。
在参考文献[1]和[2]中是根据雅可比理论将机械手末端和移动平台结合在一起形成一个单一的控制系统。
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology(机械类英文文献+翻译)
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology—MachiningSerope kalpakjian；Steven R.Schmid机械工业出版社2004年3月第1版20.9 MACHINABILITYThe machinability of a material usually defined in terms of four factors:1、Surface finish and integrity of the machined part;2、Tool life obtained;3、Force and power requirements;4、Chip control.Thus, good machinability good surface finish and integrity, long tool life, and low force And power requirements. As for chip control, long and thin (stringy) cured chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone.Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material. In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most important factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available in the example below.20.9.1 Machinability Of SteelsBecause steels are among the most important engineering materials (as noted in Chapter 5), their machinability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been mainly improved by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steels.Resulfurized and Rephosphorized steels. Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up easily and are small; this improves machinability. The size, shape, distribution, and concentration of these inclusions significantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium, which are both chemically similar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers inresulfurized steels.Phosphorus in steels has two major effects. It strengthens the ferrite, causing increased hardness. Harder steels result in better chip formation and surface finish. Note that soft steels can be difficult to machine, with built-up edge formation and poor surface finish. The second effect is that increased hardness causes the formation of short chips instead of continuous stringy ones, thereby improving machinability.Leaded Steels. A high percentage of lead in steels solidifies at the tip of manganese sulfide inclusions. In non-resulfurized grades of steel, lead takes the form of dispersed fine particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and alumin um and their alloys. Because of its low shear strength, therefore, lead acts as a solid lubricant (Section 32.11) and is smeared over the tool-chip interface du ring cutting. This behavior has been verified by the presence of high concentra tions of lead on the tool-side face of chips when machining leaded steels.When the temperature is sufficiently high-for instance, at high cutting spee ds and feeds (Section 20.6)—the lead melts directly in front of the tool, acting as a liquid lubricant. In addition to this effect, lead lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, reducing cutting forces and power consumption. Lead can be used in every grade of steel, such as 10xx, 11xx, 12xx, 41xx, etc. Le aded steels are identified by the letter L between the second and third numeral s (for example, 10L45). (Note that in stainless steels, similar use of the letter L means “low carbon,”a condition that improves their corrosion resistance.)However, because lead is a well-known toxin and a pollutant, there are se rious environmental concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4500 tons of lead consumption every year in the production of steels). Consequently, there is a continuing trend toward eliminating the use of lead in steels (lead-free ste els). Bismuth and tin are now being investigated as possible substitutes for lea d in steels.Calcium-Deoxidized Steels. An important development is calcium-deoxidize d steels, in which oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSo) are formed. These f lakes, in turn, reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, decreasing tool-chip interface and wear. Temperature is correspondingly reduced. Consequently, these steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds.Stainless Steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels are generally difficult to mac hine. Chatter can be s problem, necessitating machine tools with high stiffness. However, ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good machinability. M artensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive, tend to form a built-up edge, and req uire tool materials with high hot hardness and crater-wear resistance. Precipitati on-hardening stainless steels are strong and abrasive, requiring hard and abrasio n-resistant tool materials.The Effects of Other Elements in Steels on Machinability. The presence of aluminum and silicon in steels is always harmful because these elements com bine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and silicates, which are hard and a brasive. These compounds increase tool wear and reduce machinability. It is es sential to produce and use clean steels.Carbon and manganese have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on their composition. Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15% C) c an produce poor surface finish by forming a built-up edge. Cast steels are mor e abrasive, although their machinability is similar to that of wrought steels. To ol and die steels are very difficult to machine and usually require annealing pr ior to machining. Machinability of most steels is improved by cold working, w hich hardens the material and reduces the tendency for built-up edge formation.Other alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vana dium, which improve the properties of steels, generally reduce machinability. T he effect of boron is negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrog en can have particularly detrimental effects on the properties of steel. Oxygen has been shown to have a strong effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese sulfide inclusions; the higher the oxygen content, the lower the aspect ratio an d the higher the machinability.In selecting various elements to improve machinability, we should consider the possible detrimental effects of these elements on the properties and strengt h of the machined part in service. At elevated temperatures, for example, lead causes embrittlement of steels (liquid-metal embrittlement, hot shortness; see Se ction 1.4.3), although at room temperature it has no effect on mechanical prop erties.Sulfur can severely reduce the hot workability of steels, because of the fo rmation of iron sulfide, unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent such formation. At room temperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on the orientation of the deformed manganese sulfide inclusions (aniso tropy). Rephosphorized steels are significantly less ductile, and are produced so lely to improve machinability.20.9.2 Machinability of Various Other MetalsAluminum is generally very easy to machine, although the softer grades te nd to form a built-up edge, resulting in poor surface finish. High cutting speed s, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended. Wrought aluminu m alloys with high silicon content and cast aluminum alloys may be abrasive; they require harder tool materials. Dimensional tolerance control may be a pro blem in machining aluminum, since it has a high thermal coefficient of expans ion and a relatively low elastic modulus.Beryllium is similar to cast irons. Because it is more abrasive and toxic, t hough, it requires machining in a controlled environment.Cast gray irons are generally machinable but are. Free carbides in castings reduce their machinability and cause tool chipping or fracture, necessitating to ols with high toughness. Nodular and malleable irons are machinable with hard tool materials.Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work-hardening. They require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials and low feeds and speeds.Wrought copper can be difficult to machine because of built-up edge form ation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine. Brasses are easy to ma chine, especially with the addition pf lead (leaded free-machining brass). Bronz es are more difficult to machine than brass.Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface finish and prolong ed tool life. However care should be exercised because of its high rate of oxi dation and the danger of fire (the element is pyrophoric).Molybdenum is ductile and work-hardening, so it can produce poor surfac e finish. Sharp tools are necessary.Nickel-based alloys are work-hardening, abrasive, and strong at high tempe ratures. Their machinability is similar to that of stainless steels.Tantalum is very work-hardening, ductile, and soft. It produces a poor surf ace finish; tool wear is high.Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity (indeed, the lowest of all metals), causing significant temperature rise and built-up edge; they can be difficult to machine.Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive, so its machinability is low, although it greatly improves at elevated temperatures.Zirconium has good machinability. It requires a coolant-type cutting fluid, however, because of the explosion and fire.20.9.3 Machinability of Various MaterialsGraphite is abrasive; it requires hard, abrasion-resistant, sharp tools.Thermoplastics generally have low thermal conductivity, low elastic modul us, and low softening temperature. Consequently, machining them requires tools with positive rake angles (to reduce cutting forces), large relief angles, small depths of cut and feed, relatively high speeds, and proper support of the work piece. Tools should be sharp.External cooling of the cutting zone may be necessary to keep the chips f rom becoming “gummy”and sticking to the tools. Cooling can usually be achi eved with a jet of air, vapor mist, or water-soluble oils. Residual stresses may develop during machining. To relieve these stresses, machined parts can be an nealed for a period of time at temperatures ranging from to ( to ), and then cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature.Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to thermal gradients during cutting. Their machinability is generally similar to that of thermoplastics.Because of the fibers present, reinforced plastics are very abrasive and are difficult to machine. Fiber tearing, pulling, and edge delamination are significa nt problems; they can lead to severe reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the component. Furthermore, machining of these materials requires careful rem oval of machining debris to avoid contact with and inhaling of the fibers.The machinability of ceramics has improved steadily with the development of nanoceramics (Section 8.2.5) and with the selection of appropriate processi ng parameters, such as ductile-regime cutting (Section 22.4.2).Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult to machine, d epending on the properties of the individual components, i.e., reinforcing or wh iskers, as well as the matrix material.20.9.4 Thermally Assisted MachiningMetals and alloys that are difficult to machine at room temperature can be machined more easily at elevated temperatures. In thermally assisted machinin g (hot machining), the source of heat—a torch, induction coil, high-energy bea m (such as laser or electron beam), or plasma arc—is forces, (b) increased too l life, (c) use of inexpensive cutting-tool materials, (d) higher material-removal rates, and (e) reduced tendency for vibration and chatter.It may be difficult to heat and maintain a uniform temperature distribution within the workpiece. Also, the original microstructure of the workpiece may be adversely affected by elevated temperatures. Most applications of hot machi ning are in the turning of high-strength metals and alloys, although experiment s are in progress to machine ceramics such as silicon nitride.SUMMARYMachinability is usually defined in terms of surface finish, tool life, force and power requirements, and chip control. Machinability of materials depends n ot only on their intrinsic properties and microstructure, but also on proper sele ction and control of process variables.20.9 可机加工性一种材料的可机加工性通常以四种因素的方式定义：1、分的表面光洁性和表面完整性。
机械手设计英文参考文献原文翻译
翻译人：王墨墨山东科技大学文献题目：Automated Calibration of Robot Coordinatesfor Reconfigurable Assembly Systems翻译正文如下：针对可重构装配系统的机器人协调性的自动校准T.艾利，Y.米达，H.菊地，M.雪松日本东京大学，机械研究院，精密工程部摘要为了实现流水工作线更高的可重构性，以必要设备如机器人的快速插入插出为研究目的。
当一种新的设备被装配到流水工作线时，应使其具备校准系统。
该研究使用两台电荷耦合摄像机，基于直接线性变换法，致力于研究一种相对位置/相对方位的自动化校准系统。
摄像机被随机放置，然后对每一个机械手执行一组动作。
通过摄像机检测机械手动作，就能捕捉到两台机器人的相对位置。
最佳的结果精度为均方根值0.16毫米。
关键词：装配，校准，机器人1 介绍21世纪新的制造系统需要具备新的生产能力，如可重用性，可拓展性，敏捷性以及可重构性[1]。
系统配置的低成本转变，能够使系统应对可预见的以及不可预见的市场波动。
关于组装系统，许多研究者提出了分散的方法来实现可重构性[2][3]。
他们中的大多数都是基于主体的系统，主体逐一协同以建立一种新的配置。
然而，协同只是目的的一部分。
在现实生产系统中，例如工作空间这类物理问题应当被有效解决。
为了实现更高的可重构性，一些研究人员不顾昂贵的造价，开发出了特殊的均匀单元[4][5][6]。
作者为装配单元提出了一种自律分散型机器人系统，包含多样化的传统设备[7][8]。
该系统可以从一个系统添加/删除装配设备，亦或是添加/删除装配设备到另一个系统；它通过协同作用，合理地解决了工作空间的冲突问题。
我们可以把该功能称为“插入与生产”。
在重构过程中，校准的装配机器人是非常重要的。
这是因为，需要用它们来测量相关主体的特征，以便在物理主体之间建立良好的协作关系。
这一调整必须要达到表1中所列到的多种标准要求。
机械手臂应用领域的外文文献以及翻译
机械手臂应用领域的外文文献以及翻译1. Introduction机械手臂是一种用于执行各种任务的自动化设备，其应用领域广泛。
本文档提供了一些关于机械手臂应用领域的外文文献，并附有简要的翻译。
2. 文献1: "Advancements in Robotic Arm Control Systems"- Author: John Smith- Published: 2020这篇文献详细介绍了机械手臂控制系统的最新进展。
作者讨论了各种控制算法、传感器和执行器的应用，以提高机械手臂的性能和精确度。
3. 文献2: "Applications of Robotic Arms in Manufacturing Industry"- Author: Emily Chen- Published: 2018作者在这篇文献中研究了机械手臂在制造业中的应用。
她列举了多个实例，包括机械手臂在装配、焊接和搬运等任务中的应用，以及通过使用机械手臂能够提高生产效率和质量的案例。
4. 文献3: "Robot-Assisted Surgery: The Future of Medical Industry"- Author: David Johnson- Published: 2019这篇文献探讨了机械手臂在医疗行业中的应用，特别是机器人辅助外科手术。
作者解释了机械手臂在手术过程中的优势，包括更小的切口、更高的精确度和减少术后恢复时间等方面。
5. 文献4: "Exploring the Potential of Robotic Arms in Agriculture"- Author: Maria Rodriguez- Published: 2021这篇文献研究了机械手臂在农业领域的潜力。
作者探讨了机械手臂在种植、收割和除草等农业任务中的应用，以及如何通过机械化技术改善农业生产的效率和可持续性。
机械设计类英文文献及翻译
The Sunflower Seed Huller and Oil PressBy Jeff Cox-— from Organic Gardening，April 1979, Rodale PressIN 2,500 SQUARE FEET, a family of four can grow each year enough sunflower seed to produce three gallons of homemade vegetable oil suitable for salads or cooking and 20 pounds of nutritious, dehulled seed —- with enough broken seeds left over to f eed a winter’s worth of birds。
Theproblem，heretofore，with sunflower seeds was the difficulty of dehullingthem at home，and the lack of a device for expressing oil from the seeds。
About six months ago, we decided to change all that. The job was to find out who makes a sunflower seed dehuller or to devise one if none were manufactured. And to either locate a home—scale oilseed press or deviseone. No mean task。
Our researches took us from North Dakota -— hub of commercial sunflower activity in the nation —— to a search of the files in the U.S. Patent Office，with stops in between。
机械类英文文献+翻译
机械类英文文献+翻译20.9 MACHINABILITYThe machinability of a material usually defined in terms of four factors:1、Surface finish and integrity of the machined part;2、Tool life obtained;3、Force and power requirements;4、Chip control.Thus, good machinability good surface finish and integrity, long tool life, and low force And power requirements. As for chip control, long and thin (stringy) cured chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone.Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material. In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most important factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available in the example below.20.9.1 Machinability Of SteelsBecause steels are among the most important engineering materials (as noted in Chapter 5), their machinability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been mainly improved by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steels.Resulfurized and Rephosphorized steels. Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up easily and are small; this improves machinability. The size, shape, distribution, and concentration of these inclusions significantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium, which are both chemically similar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers in resulfurized steels.Phosphorus in steels has two major effects. It strengthens the ferrite, causingincreased hardness. Harder steels result in better chip formation and surface finish. Note that soft steels can be difficult to machine, with built-up edge formation and poor surface finish. The second effect is that increased hardness causes the formation of short chips instead of continuous stringy ones, thereby improving machinability.Leaded Steels. A high percentage of lead in steels solidifies at the tip of manganese sulfide inclusions. In non-resulfurized grades of steel, lead takes the form of dispersed fine particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and alumin um and their alloys. Because of its low shear strength, therefore, lead acts as a solid lubricant (Section 32.11) and is smeared over the tool-chip interface du ring cutting. This behavior has been verified by the presence of high concentra tions of lead on the tool-side face of chips when machining leaded steels.When the temperature is sufficiently high-for instance, at high cutting spee ds and feeds (Section 20.6)—the lead melts directly in front of the tool, acting as a liquid lubricant. In addition to this effect, lead lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, reducing cutting forces and power consumption. Lead can be used in every grade of steel, such as 10xx, 11xx, 12xx, 41xx, etc. Le aded steels are identified by the letter L between the second and third numeral s (for example, 10L45). (Note that in stainless steels, similar use of the letter L means 〝low carbon,〞a condition that improves their corrosion resistance.)However, because lead is a well-known toxin and a pollutant, there are se rious environmental concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4500 tons of lead consumption every year in the production of steels). Consequently, there is a continuing trend toward eliminating the use of lead in steels (lead-free ste els). Bismuth and tin are now being investigated as possible substitutes for lea d in steels.Calcium-Deoxidized Steels. An important development is calcium-deoxidize d steels, in which oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSo) are formed. These f lakes, in turn, reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, decreasing tool-chip interface and wear. Temperature is correspondingly reduced. Consequently, these steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds.Stainless Steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels are generally difficult to mac hine. Chatter can be s problem, necessitating machine tools with high stiffness.However, ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good machinability. M artensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive, tend to form a built-up edge, and req uire tool materials with high hot hardness and crater-wear resistance. Precipitati on-hardening stainless steels are strong and abrasive, requiring hard and abrasio n-resistant tool materials.The Effects of Other Elements in Steels on Machinability. The presence of aluminum and silicon in steels is always harmful because these elements com bine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and silicates, which are hard and a brasive. These compounds increase tool wear and reduce machinability. It is es sential to produce and use clean steels.Carbon and manganese have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on their composition. Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15% C) c an produce poor surface finish by forming a built-up edge. Cast steels are mor e abrasive, although their machinability is similar to that of wrought steels. To ol and die steels are very difficult to machine and usually require annealing pr ior to machining. Machinability of most steels is improved by cold working, w hich hardens the material and reduces the tendency for built-up edge formation.Other alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vana dium, which improve the properties of steels, generally reduce machinability. T he effect of boron is negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrog en can have particularly detrimental effects on the properties of steel. Oxygen has been shown to have a strong effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese sulfide inclusions; the higher the oxygen content, the lower the aspect ratio an d the higher the machinability.In selecting various elements to improve machinability, we should consider the possible detrimental effects of these elements on the properties and strengt h of the machined part in service. At elevated temperatures, for example, lead causes embrittlement of steels (liquid-metal embrittlement, hot shortness; see Se ction 1.4.3), although at room temperature it has no effect on mechanical prop erties.Sulfur can severely reduce the hot workability of steels, because of the fo rmation of iron sulfide, unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent suchformation. At room temperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on the orientation of the deformed manganese sulfide inclusions (aniso tropy). Rephosphorized steels are significantly less ductile, and are produced so lely to improve machinability.20.9.2 Machinability of Various Other MetalsAluminum is generally very easy to machine, although the softer grades te nd to form a built-up edge, resulting in poor surface finish. High cutting speed s, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended. Wrought aluminu m alloys with high silicon content and cast aluminum alloys may be abrasive; they require harder tool materials. Dimensional tolerance control may be a pro blem in machining aluminum, since it has a high thermal coefficient of expans ion and a relatively low elastic modulus.Beryllium is similar to cast irons. Because it is more abrasive and toxic, t hough, it requires machining in a controlled environment.Cast gray irons are generally machinable but are. Free carbides in castings reduce their machinability and cause tool chipping or fracture, necessitating to ols with high toughness. Nodular and malleable irons are machinable with hard tool materials.Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work-hardening. They require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials and low feeds and speeds.Wrought copper can be difficult to machine because of built-up edge form ation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine. Brasses are easy to ma chine, especially with the addition pf lead (leaded free-machining brass). Bronz es are more difficult to machine than brass.Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface finish and prolong ed tool life. However care should be exercised because of its high rate of oxi dation and the danger of fire (the element is pyrophoric).Molybdenum is ductile and work-hardening, so it can produce poor surfac e finish. Sharp tools are necessary.Nickel-based alloys are work-hardening, abrasive, and strong at high tempe ratures. Their machinability is similar to that of stainless steels.Tantalum is very work-hardening, ductile, and soft. It produces a poor surf ace finish; tool wear is high.Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity (indeed, the lowest of all metals), causing significant temperature rise and built-up edge; they can be difficult to machine.Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive, so its machinability is low, although it greatly improves at elevated temperatures.Zirconium has good machinability. It requires a coolant-type cutting fluid, however, because of the explosion and fire.20.9.3 Machinability of Various MaterialsGraphite is abrasive; it requires hard, abrasion-resistant, sharp tools.Thermoplastics generally have low thermal conductivity, low elastic modul us, and low softening temperature. Consequently, machining them requires tools with positive rake angles (to reduce cutting forces), large relief angles, small depths of cut and feed, relatively high speeds, and proper support of the work piece. Tools should be sharp.External cooling of the cutting zone may be necessary to keep the chips f rom becoming 〝gummy〞and sticking to the tools. Cooling can usually be a chieved with a jet of air, vapor mist, or water-soluble oils. Residual stresses m ay develop during machining. To relieve these stresses, machined parts can be annealed for a period of time at temperatures ranging from to ( to ), and th en cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature.Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to thermal gradients during cutting. Their machinability is generally similar to that of thermoplastics.Because of the fibers present, reinforced plastics are very abrasive and are difficult to machine. Fiber tearing, pulling, and edge delamination are significa nt problems; they can lead to severe reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the component. Furthermore, machining of these materials requires careful rem oval of machining debris to avoid contact with and inhaling of the fibers.The machinability of ceramics has improved steadily with the development of nanoceramics (Section 8.2.5) and with the selection of appropriate processi ng parameters, such as ductile-regime cutting (Section 22.4.2).Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult to machine, d epending on the properties of the individual components, i.e., reinforcing or wh iskers, as well as the matrix material.20.9.4 Thermally Assisted MachiningMetals and alloys that are difficult to machine at room temperature can be machined more easily at elevated temperatures. In thermally assisted machinin g (hot machining), the source of heat—a torch, induction coil, high-energy bea m (such as laser or electron beam), or plasma arc—is forces, (b) increased too l life, (c) use of inexpensive cutting-tool materials, (d) higher material-removal rates, and (e) reduced tendency for vibration and chatter.It may be difficult to heat and maintain a uniform temperature distribution within the workpiece. Also, the original microstructure of the workpiece may be adversely affected by elevated temperatures. Most applications of hot machi ning are in the turning of high-strength metals and alloys, although experiment s are in progress to machine ceramics such as silicon nitride.SUMMARYMachinability is usually defined in terms of surface finish, tool life, force and power requirements, and chip control. Machinability of materials depends n ot only on their intrinsic properties and microstructure, but also on proper sele ction and control of process variables.20.9 可机加工性一种材料的可机加工性通常以四种因素的方式定义：1、分的表面光洁性和表面完整性。
机械手臂外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
机械手臂外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译外文出处：《Manufacturing Engineering and Technology—Machining》附件1：外文原文XXXRobot XXX decades as high-XXX branch of industrial robots. It features can be programmed to perform tasks in a variety of expectations, in both structure and performance advantages of their own people and machines, in particular, XXX the work in the field of national economy and there are broad prospects for development. With the development of industrial automation, there has been CNC machining center, it is in reducing labor intensity, XXX, the upper and lower common in CNC machining processesmaterial, usually still use XXX relay-controlled semi-automatic device. The former time-consuming and labor intensive, inefficient; XXX, require more relays, XXX, XXX interference, XXX, XXX Programmable Logic Controller PLC-controlled robot control system formaterials up and down movement is simple, circuit design is reasonable, with a strong anti-jamming capability, ensuring the system'XXX, reduced maintenance rate,and XXXmechanics, mechanics, XXX, XXX, XXX and other fields of science, is a cross-disciplinary XXX.First, an overview of industrial manipulatorRobot is a kind of positioning control can be automated and can be re-programmedto change in multi-functional machine, which has multiple degrees of freedom can beused to carry an object in order to XXX China, plastic products industry, although still a labor-intensive, XXX1Europe and the United XXX, XXX-intensive South China, East China's coastal areas, XXX, because they have to face a high turnover rate of workers, as well as for theworkers to pay work-related injuries XXX.With the rapid development of China's industrial production, especially the reformand XXX workpiece handling, steering, XXX brazing, spray gun, wrenches and other tools for processing and assembly operations since, which has more and more attracted our attention. Robot is to imitate the manual part of the action,according toa given program, track and requirements for automatic capture, XXX.In real life, you will find this a problem. In the machine shop, the processing of parts loading time is not annoying, and labor productivity is not high, the cost of production major, and sometimes man-made incidents will occur, resulting in processing wereinjured. Think about what could replace it with the processing time of a tour as long as there are a few people, and can operate 24 hours saturated human right? The answeris yes, but the robot can come to replace it.XXX can increase XXX; XXX, ensuring product quality, to achieve safe production; particularly in the high-temperature, high pressure, low temperature, low pressure, dust, explosive, XXX the normal working people. Here I would like to think of designing a robot tobe used in actual production.XXX power: pneumatic robot refersto the compressed air as power source-driven robot. With pressure-driven and other energy-driven comparison have the following advantages: 1. Air inexhaustible, used XXX, does not require recycling and disposal,do not pollute the XXX. (Concept of environmental protection) 2. Air stick is small, the pi2peline pressure loss is small (typically less than asphalt gas path pressure drop of one-thousandth), to facilitate long-distance transport. 3. Compressed air of the working pressure is low (usually 4 to 8 kg / per square centimeter), and therefore moving the material components and XXX. With the hydraulic transmission, compared to its faster action and reaction, which is one of the advantages pneumatic outstanding. 5. The air cleaner media, it will not degenerate, not easy to plug the pipeline. But there are also places where it fly in the ointment: 1. As the compressibility of air, XXX the work, XXX as the precision of the velocity and not easily controlled. 2. As the use of low atmospheric pressure, the output power can not be too large; in order to increase the output power is bound to the structure of the entire pneumatic system size increased.With pneumatic drive and compare with other energy sources drive has the following advantages:Air inexhaustible, used XXX, without recycling anddisposal, do not pollute the XXX or a small amount of leakage would not be a XXX of air is small, the pipeline pressure loss also is very small, easy long-distance transport.The lower working pressure of compressed air, XXX general, reciprocating thrust in 1 to 2 tons XXX.Compared with the hydraulic transmission, and its faster action and reaction, XXX.Clean air medium, it will not degenerate, not easy to plug the pipeline. It can be safely used in flammable, XXX.Second, XXX, mechanical handRobot in the form of a variety of forms, some relatively simple, some more complicated, but the basic form is the same as the composition of the , Usually by the implementing agencies, transmission systems, control systems and auxiliary devices compose3d.1.Implementing agenciesXXX hands, wrists, arms, pillars. Hands are crawling institutions, is used to clamp and release the workpiece, and similar to human fingers, XXXXXX used to support the arm can also be made mobile as needed.2. TransmissionXXX, hydraulic transmission, XXX.3. Control SystemManipulator control system's main role is to control the robot according to certain procedures, direction, position, speed of action, a simple mechanical hand is generallynot set up a dedicated control system, using only trip switches, relays, control valves and circuits can be achieved dynamic drive system control, so that XXX of action. Action will have to use complex programmable robot controller, the micro-computer control.Three, XXX characteristicsXXX: the first is the general machinerydoes not require manual hand. It is an independent not affiliated with a particular hostdevice. It can be programmed according to the needs of thetask to complete the operation of the provisions. It is XXX, alsohas general machinery, memory, XXX second categoryis the need to manually do it, called the operation of aircraft. It originated in the atom,military industry, first through the operation of machines to complete a particular job,XXX such as the Moon. Used in industrial manipulator also fall into this category. The third category is dedicated manipulator, the XXX auto4matic lines, to solve the machine up and down the XXX known as the "Mechanical Hand", which is the host of services, from the host-driven; exception of a few outside the XXX, XXX.Main features:First, mechanical hand (the upper and lower material robot, assembly robot, handling robot, stacking robot, help robot, vacuum handling machines, vacuum suction crane,labor-saving spreader, pneumatic balancer, etc.).Second, cantilever cranes (cantilever crane, electric chain hoist crane, air balance the hanging, etc.)Third, rail-type transport system (hanging rail, light rail, single girder cranes, double-beam crane)Four, industrial machinery, application of handXXX of the production process developed a new type of device. In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of high-tech fields has XXX, XXX, XXX.Although the robot is not as flexible as staff, but it has to the continuous duplicationof work and labor, I do not know fatigue, not afraid of danger, XXX characteristics when compared with manual large, therefore, mechanical hand has been of great importance to many sectors, and increasingly has been applied widely, forexample:(1) Machining the workpiece loading and unloading, especially in the automatic lathe, combination machine tool use is more common.(2) XXX industry, it can beused to assemble printed circuit boards, XXX industry It can be used to assemble parts and components.(3) The working conditions may be poor, monotonous, repetitive easy to sub-fatigu5XXX.(4) XXX, XXX, XXX..(5) XXX.(6), XXX and testing.Help mechanical hands: also known as the balancer, balance suspended, labor-savingspreader, manual Transfer machine is a kind of weightlessness of manual load system,a novel, time-XXX,belonging to kinds of non-standard design of series products. Customer application needs, XXX of the automatic machinery, it can be a fixed program draws﹑XXX. Application of robot can replace the peopleengaged in monotonous﹑XXX, XXX of production, instead of people in hazardous XXX, XXX personal safety. The late 20th century, 40, the United XXX experiments, the first use of radioactive material handling robot, human robot in a safe room to XXX 50 years later, XXX, for the temperatures, polluted areas, and loading and unloading to take place the work piece material, but also as an auxiliary device in automaticmachine tools, machine tools, automatic production lines and processing center applications, the completion of the upper and lower material, or From the library take place XXX operation. Robot body mainly by the hand and sports XXX with the use of hands and operation of objects of different occasions, often there are clamping﹑XXX﹑﹑XXX﹑XXX, generally 2 to 3 degrees of XXX industry, machinery manufacture, XXX some of the staff and arm motor function, a fixd procedure for the captu6re, handling objects or operating tools, automatic operation device. It can replace human labor in order to achieve the production of heavy XXX the personal safety, which is XXX, metallurgy, electronics, light industry and nuclear power sectors. Mechanical hand tools or other XXX used for additional devices, such as the automatic machines or automatic production line handling and transmission of the workpiece, XXX centers, etc. generally do not have a separate control device. Some operating devices XXX.XXX and sports XXX. Task of hand is holding the workpiece (or tool) components, according to grasping objects by shape, size,weight, material and XXX structural forms, such as clamp type,type and adsorption-based care such as holding. Sports organizations, XXX (swing), XXX the required action, to change the location of objects by grasping and posture.Robot is the automated production of a kind used in the process of crawling and moving piece features automatic device, which is XXX a new type of device. In recent years, as electronic technology, especially computer extensive use of robot development and production of high-tech fields has XXX, XXX, XXX. Robot can replace humans completed the risk of duplication ofboring work, to reduce human XXX widely, in the machinery industry, it can be used for parts assembly, work piece handling, loading and unloadingXXX component of the FMC. The machine tool equip7XXX a flexible manufacturing cell, it was adapted to small and medium volume production, you can save a huge amount of the work piece conveyor device, compact, and adaptable. When the work piece changes, flexible production system is very easy to change will help XXX, improve product quality, and better adapt to market XXX, China'XXX isa certain distance, application andindustrialization of the size of the low level of robot research and development of a direct impact on raising the level of automation in China, from the economy, XXX, the study of mechanical hand design is very meaningful.8附件1：外文资料翻译译文呆板手机械手是近几十年发展起来的一种高科技自动化生产设备。
机械设计外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
机械设计外文文献翻译、中英文翻译unavailable。
The first step in the design process is to define the problem and XXX are defined。
the designer can begin toXXX evaluated。
and the best one is XXX。
XXX.Mechanical DesignA XXX machines include engines。
turbines。
vehicles。
hoists。
printing presses。
washing machines。
and XXX and methods of design that apply to XXXXXX。
cams。
valves。
vessels。
and mixers.Design ProcessThe design process begins with a real need。
Existing apparatus may require XXX。
efficiency。
weight。
speed。
or cost。
while new apparatus may be XXX。
To start。
the designer must define the problem and XXX。
ideas and concepts are generated。
evaluated。
and refined until the best one is XXX。
XXX.XXX。
assembly。
XXX.During the preliminary design stage。
it is important to allow design XXX if some ideas may seem impractical。
they can be corrected early on in the design process。
机械类数控车床外文翻译外文文献英文文献数控
数控加工中心技术开展趋势与对策原文来源：Zhao Chang-ming Liu Wang-ju(C Machining Processand equipment,2002,China)一、摘要Equip the engineering level, level of determining the whole national economy of the modernized degree and modernized degree of industry, numerical control technology is it develop new developing new high-tech industry and most advanced industry to equip (such as information technology and his industry, biotechnology and his industry, aviation, spaceflight, etc. national defense industry) last technology and getting more basic most equipment.Numerical control technology is the technology controlled to mechanical movement and working course with digital information, integrated products of electromechanics that the numerical control equipment is the new technology represented by numerical control technology forms to the manufacture industry of the tradition and infiltration of the new developing manufacturing industry,Keywords:Numerical ControlTechnology, E quipment,industry二、译文数控技术和装备开展趋势与对策装备工业的技术水平和现代化程度决定着整个国民经济的水平和现代化程度，数控技术与装备是开展新兴高新技术产业和尖端工业〔如信息技术与其产业、生物技术与其产业、航空、航天等国防工业产业〕的使能技术和最根本的装备。
机械动力学论文外文翻译文献
机械运动和动力学外文翻译文献英文资料Kinematics and dynamics of machineryOne princple aim of kinemarics is to creat the designed motions of the subject mechanical parts and then mathematically compute the positions, velocities ,and accelerations ,which those motions will creat on the parts. Since ,for most earthbound mechanical systems ,the mass remains essentially constant with time,defining the accelerations as a function of time then also defines the dynamic forces as a function of time. Stress,in turn, will be a function of both applied and inerials forces . since engineering design is charged with creating systems which will not fail during their expected service life,the goal is to keep stresses within acceptable limits for the materials chosen and the environmental conditions encountered. This obvisely requies that all system forces be defined and kept within desired limits. In mechinery , the largest forces encountered are often those due to the dynamics of the machine itself. These dynamic forces are proportional to acceletation, which brings us back to kinematics ,the foundation of mechanical design. Very basic and early decisions in the design process invovling kinematics wii prove troublesome and perform badly.Any mechanical system can be classified according to the number of degree of freedom which it possesses.the systems DOF is equal to the number of independent parameters which are needed to uniquely define its posion in space at any instant of time.A rigid body free to move within a reference frame will ,in the general case, have complex motoin, which is simultaneous combination of rotation and translation. In three-dimensional space , there may be rotation about any axis and also simultaneous translation which can be resoled into componention along three axes, in a plane ,or two-dimentional space ,complex motion becomes a combination of simultaneous along two axes in the plane. For simplicity ,we will limit our present discusstions to the case of planar motion:Pure rotation the body pessesses one point (center of rotation)which has no motion with respect to the stationary frame of reference. All other points on the body describe arcs about that center. A reference line drawn on the body through the center changes only its angulai orientation.Pure translation all points on the body describe parallel paths. A reference line drawn on thebody changes its linear posion but does not change its angular oriention.Complex motion a simulaneous combination of rotion and translationm . any reference line drawn on the body will change both its linear pisition and its angular orientation. Points on the body will travel non-parallel paths ,and there will be , at every instant , a center of rotation , which will continuously change location.Linkages are the bacis building blocks of all mechanisms. All common forms of mechanisms (cams , gears ,belts , chains ) are in fact variations of linkages. Linkages are made up of links and kinematic pairs.A link is an (assumed)rigid body which possesses at least two or more links (at their nodes), which connection allows some motion, or potential motion,between the connected links.The term lower pair is used tohe moving parts .we next want te use newton’s second law to caculate the dynamic forces, but to do so we need to know the masses of all the moving parts which have these known acceletations. These parts do not exit yet ! as with any design in order to make a first pass at the caculation . we will then have to itnerate to better an better solutions as we generate more information.A first estimate of your parts’masses can be obtained by assuming some reasonable shapes and size for all the parts and choosing approriate materials. Then caculate the volume of each part and multipy its volume by material’s mass density (not weight density ) to obtain a first approximation of its mass . these mass values can then be used in Newton’s equation.How will we know whether our chosen sizes and shapes of links are even acceptable, let alone optimal ? unfortunately , we will not know untill we have carried the computations all the way through a complete stress and deflection analysis of the parts. It it often the case ,especially with long , thin elements such as shafts or slender links , that the deflections of the parts, redesign them ,and repeat the force ,stress ,and deflection analysis . design is , unavoidably ,an iterative process .It is also worth nothing that ,unlike a static force situation in which a failed design might be fixed by adding more mass to the part to strenthen it ,to do so in a dynamic force situation can have a deleterious effect . more mass with the same acceleration will generate even higher forces and thus higher stresses ! the machine desiger often need to remove mass (in the right places) form parts in order to reduce the stesses and deflections due to F=ma, thus the designer needs to have a good understanding of both material properties and stess and deflection analysis to properlyshape and size parts for minimum mass while maximzing the strength and stiffness needed to withstand the dynamic forces.One of the primary considerations in designing any machine or strucre is that the strength must be sufficiently greater than the stress to assure both safety and reliability. To assure thatmechanical parts do not fail in service ,it is necessary to learn why they sometimes do fail. Then we shall be able to relate the stresses with the strenths to achieve safety .Ideally, in designing any machine element,the engineer should have at his disposal should have been made on speciments having the same heat treatment ,surface roughness ,and size as the element he prosses to design ;and the tests should be made under exactly the same loading conditions as the part will experience in service . this means that ,if the part is to experience a bending and torsion,it should be tested under combined bending and torsion. Such tests will provide very useful and precise information . they tell the engineer what factor of safety to use and what the reliability is for a given service life .whenever such data are available for design purposes,the engineer can be assure that he is doing the best justified if failure of the part may endanger human life ,or if the part is manufactured in sufficiently large quantities. Automobiles and refrigrerators, for example, have very good reliabilities because the parts are made in such large quantities that they can be thoroughly tested in advance of manufacture , the cost of making these is very low when it is divided by the total number of parts manufactrued.You can now appreciate the following four design categories :(1)failure of the part would endanger human life ,or the part ismade in extremely large quantities ;consequently, an elaborate testingprogram is justified during design .(2)the part is made in large enough quantities so that a moderate serues of tests is feasible.(3)The part is made in such small quantities that testing is not justified at all ; or the design must be completed so rapidlly that there is not enough time for testing.(4) The part has already been designed, manufactured, and tested and found to be unsatisfactory. Analysis is required to understand why the part is unsatisfactory and what to do to improve it .It is with the last three categories that we shall be mostly concerned.this means that the designer will usually have only published values of yield strenth , ultimate strength,and percentage elongation . with this meager information the engieer is expected to design against static and dynamic loads, biaxial and triaxial stress states , high and low temperatures,and large and small parts! The data usually available for design have been obtained from the simple tension test , where the load was applied gradually and the strain given time to develop. Yet these same data must be used in designing parts with complicated dynamic loads applied thousands of times per minute . no wonder machine parts sometimes fail.To sum up, the fundamental problem of the designer is to use the simple tension test data and relate them to the strength of the part , regardless of the stress or the loading situation.It is possible for two metal to have exactly the same strength and hardness, yet one of these metals may have a supeior ability to aborb overloads, because of the property called ductility.Dutility is measured by the percentage elongation which occurs in the material at frature. The usual divding line between ductility and brittleness is 5 percent elongation. Amaterial having less than 5 percent elongation at fracture is said to bebrittle, while one having more is said to be ductile.The elongation of a material is usuallu measured over 50mm gauge length.siece this did not a measure of the actual strain, another method of determining ductility is sometimes used . after the speciman has been fractured, measurements are made of the area of the cross section at the fracture. Ductility can then be expressed as the percentage reduction in cross sectional area.The characteristic of a ductile material which permits it to aborb largeoverloads is an additional safety factot in design. Ductility is also important because it is a measure of that property of a material which permits it to be cold-worked .such operations as bending and drawing are metal-processing operations which require ductile materials.When a materals is to be selected to resist wear , erosion ,or plastic deformaton, hardness is generally the most important property. Several methods of hardness testing are available, depending upon which particular property is most desired. The four hardness numbers in greatest usse are the Brinell, Rockwell,Vickers, and Knoop.Most hardness-testing systems employ a standard load which is applied to a ball or pyramid in contact with the material to be tested. The hardness is an easy property to measure , because the test is nondestructive and test specimens are not required . usually the test can be conducted directly on actual machine element .Virtually all machines contain shafts. The most common shape for shafts is circular and the cross section can be either solid or hollow (hollow shafts can result in weight savings). Rectangular shafts are sometimes used ,as in screw driver bladers ,socket wrenches and control knob stem.A shaft must have adequate torsional strength to transmit torque and not be over stressed. If must also be torsionally stiff enough so that one mounted component does not deviate excessively from its original angular position relative to a second component mounted on the same shaft. Generally speaking,the of length between bearing supports.In addition .the shaft must be able to sustain a combination of bending and torsional loads. Thus an equivalent load must be considered which takes into account both torsion and bending . also ,the allowable stress must contain a factor of safety which includes fatigue, since torsional and bending stress reversals occur.For fiameters less than 3 in ,the usual shaft material is cold-rolled steel containing about 0.4 percent carbon. Shafts ate either cold-rolled or forged in sizes from 3in. to 5 in. for sizes above 5 in. shafts are forged and machined to size . plastic shafts are widely used for light loadapplications . one advantage of using plastic is safty in electrical applications, since plastic is a poor confuctor of electricity.Components such as gears and pulleys are mounted on shafts by means of key. The design of the key and the corresponding keyway in the shaft must be properly evaluated. For example, stress concentrations occur in shafts due to keyways , and the material removed to form the keyway further weakens the shaft.If shafts are run at critical speeds , severe vibrations can occur which can seriously damage a machine .it is important to know the magnitude of these critical speeds so that they can be avoided. As a general rule of thumb , the difference betweem the operating speed and the critical speed should be at least 20 percent.Many shafts are supported by three or more bearings, which means that the problem is statically indeterminate .text on strenth of materials give methods of soving such problems. The design effort should be in keeping with the economics of a given situation , for example , if one line shaft supported by three or more bearings id needed , it probably would be cheaper to make conservative assumptions as to moments and design it as though it were determinate . the extra cost of an oversize shaft may be less than the extra cost of an elaborate design analysis.Another important aspect of shaft design is the method of directly connecting one shaft to another , this is accomplished by devices such as rigid and flexiable couplings.A coupling is a device for connecting the ends of adjacent shafts. In machine construction , couplings are used to effect a semipermanent connection between adjacent rotating shafts , the connection is permanent in the sense that it is not meant to be broken during the useful life of the machinem , but it can be broken and restored in an emergency or when worn parts are replaced.There are several types of shaft couplings, their characteristics depend on the purpose for which they are used , if an exceptionally long shaft is required in a manufacturing plant or a propeller shaft on a ship , it is made in sections that are coupled together with rigid couplings. A common type of rigid coupling consists of two mating radial flanges that are attached by key driven hubs to the ends of adjacent shaft sections and bolted together through the flanges to form a rigid connection. Alignment of the connected shafts in usually effected by means of a rabbet joint on the face of the flanges.In connecting shafts belonging to separate device ( such as an electric motor and a gearbox),precise aligning of the shafts is difficult and a fkexible coupling is used . this coupling connects the shafts in such a way as to minimize the harmful effects of shafts misalignment of loads and to move freely(float) in the axial diection without interfering with one another . flexiable couplings can also serve to reduce the intensity of shock loads and vibrationstransmitted from one shaft to another .中文翻译机械运动和动力学运动学的基本目的是去设计一个机械零件的理想运动，然后再用数学的方法去描绘该零件的位置，速度和加速度，再运用这些参数来设计零件。
《机械外文翻译文献翻译液压传动》
英文原文Hydraulic SystemHydraulic presser drive and air pressure drive hydraulic fluid as the transmission is made according to the 17th century, Pascal's principle of hydrostatic pressure to drive the development of an emerging technology, the United Kingdo m in 1795 • Braman Joseph (Joseph Braman ,1749-1814), in London water as a medium to form hydraulic press used in industry, the birth of the world's first hydraulic press. Media work in 1905 will be replaced by oil-water and further improved.Hydraulic transmission There are many outstanding advantages, it is widely used, such as general industr- ial use of plastics processing machinery, the pressure of machinery, machine tools, etc.; operating machinery engineering machinery, construction machinery, agricultural machinery, automobiles, etc.; iron and steel indu- stry metallurgical machinery, lifting equipment, such as roller adjustment device; civil water projects with flo- od control and dam gate devices, bed lifts installations, bridges and other manipulation of institutions; speed turbine power plant installations, nuclear power plants, etc.; ship from the deck heavy machinery (winch), the bow doors, bulkhead valve, stern thruster, etc.; special antenna technology giant with control devices, measu- rement buoys, movements such as rotating stage; military-industrial control devices used in artillery, ship anti- rolling devices, aircraft simulation, aircraft retractable landing gear and rudder control devices and other devi- ces.A complete hydraulic system consists of five parts, namely, power components, the implementation of co- mponents, control components, auxiliary components and hydraulic oil.The role of dynamic components of the original motive fluid into mechanical energy to the pressure that the hydraulic system of pumps, it is to power the entire hydraulic system. The structure of the form of hydra- ulic pump gears are generally pump, vane pump and piston pump.Implementation of components (such as hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors) which is the pressure of the liquid can be converted to mechanical energy to drive the load for a straight line reciprocating movement or rotational movement.Control components (that is, the various hydraulic valves) in the hydraulic system to control and regulate the pressure of liquid, flow rate and direction. According to the different control functions, hydraulic pressure control valve can be divided into valves, flow control valves and directional control valve. Pressure control valves are divided into benefits flow valve (safety valve), pressure relief valve, sequence valve, pressure relays, etc.; flow control valves including throttle, adjusting the valves, flow diversion valve sets, etc.; directional control valve includes a one-way valve , one-way fluid control valve, shuttle valve, valve and so on. Under the control of different ways, can be divided into the hydraulic valve control switch valve, control valve and set the value of the ratio control valve.Auxiliary components, including fuel tanks, oil filters, tubing and pipe joints, seals, pressure gauge, oil level, such as oil dollars.Hydraulic oil in the hydraulic system is the work of the energy transfer medium, there are a variety of mineral oil, emulsion oil hydraulic molding Hop categories.The role of the hydraulic system is to help humanity work. Mainly by the implementation of components to rotate or pressure into a reciprocating motion.Hydraulic system and hydraulic power control signal is composed of two parts, the signal control of some parts of the hydraulic power used to drive the control valve movement.Part of the hydraulic power means that the circuit diagram used to show the different functions of the interrelationship between components. Containing the source of hydraulic pump, hydraulic motor and auxiliary components; hydraulic control part contains a variety of control valves, used to control the flow of oil, pressure and direction; operative or hydraulic cylinder with hydraulic motors, according to the actual requirements of their choice.In the analysis and design of the actual task, the general block diagram shows the actual operation of equi - pment. Hollow arrow indicates the signal flow, while the solid arrows that energy flow.Basic hydraulic circuit of the action sequence - Control components (two four-way valve) and the spring to reset for the implementation of components (double-acting hydraulic cylinder), as well as the extending and retracting the relief valve opened and closed . For the implementation of components and control components, presentations are based on the corresponding circuit diagram symbols, it also introduced ready made circuit diagram symbols.Working principle of the system, you can turn on all circuits to code. If the first implementation of components numbered 0, the control components associated with the identifier is 1. Out with the implementation of components corresponding to the identifier for the even components, then retracting and implementation of components corresponding to the identifier for the odd components. Hydraulic circuit carried out not only to deal with numbers, but also to deal with the actual device ID, in order to detect system failures.DIN ISO1219-2 standard definition of the number of component composition, which includes the following four parts: device ID, circuit ID, component ID and component ID. The entire system if only one device, device number may be omitted.Practice, another way is to code all of the hydraulic system components for numbers at this time, components and component code should be consistent with the list of numbers. This method is particularly applicable to complex hydraulic control system, each control loop are the corresponding number with the systemWith mechanical transmission, electrical transmission compared to the hydraulic drive has the following advantages:1, a variety of hydraulic components, can easily and flexibly to layout.2, light weight, small size, small inertia, fast response.3, to facilitate manipulation of control, enabling a wide range of stepless speed regulation (speed range of 2000:1).4, to achieve overload protection automatically.5, the general use of mineral oil as a working medium, the relative motion can be self-lubricating surface, long service life;6, it is easy to achieve linear motion /7, it is easy to achieve the automation of machines, when the joint control of the use of electro-hydraulic, not only can achieve a higher degree of process automation, and remote control can be achieved.The shortcomings of the hydraulic system:1, as a result of the resistance to fluid flow and leakage of the larger, so less efficient. If not handled properly, leakage is not only contaminated sites, but also may cause fire and explosion.2, vulnerable performance as a result of the impact of temperature change, it would be inappropriate in the high or low temperature conditions.3, the manufacture of precision hydraulic components require a higher, more expensive and hence the price. 4, due to the leakage of liquid medium and the compressibility and can not be strictly the transmission ratio. 5, hydraulic transmission is not easy to find out the reasons for failure; the use and maintenance requirements for a higher level of technology.In the hydraulic system and its system, the sealing device to prevent leakage of the work of media within and outside the dust and the intrusion of foreign bodies. Seals played the role of components, namely seals. Medium will result in leakage of waste, pollution and environmental machinery and even give rise to malfunctioning machinery and equipment for personal accident. Leakage within the hydraulic system will cause a sharp drop in volumetric efficiency, amounting to less than the required pressure, can not even work. Micro-invasive system of dust particles, can cause or exacerbate friction hydraulic component wear, and further lead to leakage.Therefore, seals and sealing device is an important hydraulic equipment components. The reliability of its机械专业中英文文献翻译work and life, is a measure of the hydraulic system an important indicator of good or bad. In addition to the closed space, are the use of seals, so that two adjacent coupling surface of the gap between the need to control the liquid can be sealed following the smallest gap. In the contact seal, pressed into self-seal-style and self-styled self-tight seal (ie, sealed lips) two.The three hydraulic system diseases1, as a result of heat transmission medium (hydraulic oil) in the flow velocity in various parts of the existence of different, resulting in the existence of a liquid within the internal friction of liquids and pipelines at the sam- e time there is friction between the inner wall, which are a result of hydraulic the reasons for the oil tempera- ture. Temperature will lead to increased internal and external leakage, reducing its mechanical efficiency. At the same time as a result of high temperature, hydraulic oil expansion will occur, resulting in increased com- pression, so that action can not be very good control of transmission. Solution: heat is the inherent characte -ristics of the hydraulic system, not only to minimize eradication. Use a good quality hydraulic oil, hydraulic piping arrangement should be avoided as far as possible the emergence of bend, the use of high-quality pipe and fittings, hydraulic valves, etc.2, the vibration of the vibration of the hydraulic system is also one of its malaise. As a result of hydraulic oil in the pipeline flow of high-speed impact and the control valve to open the closure of the impact of the process are the reasons for the vibration system. Strong vibration control action will cause the system to error, the system will also be some of the more sophisticated equipment error, resulting in system failures. Solutions: hydraulic pipe should be fixed to avoid sharp bends. To avoid frequent changes in flow direction, can not avoid damping measures should be doing a good job. The entire hydraulic system should have a good damping measures, while avoiding the external local oscillator on the system.3, the leakage of the hydraulic system leak into inside and outside the leakage leakage. Leakage refers to the process with the leak occurred in the system, such as hydraulic piston-cylinder on both sides of the leakage, the control valve spool and valve body, such as between the leakage. Although no internal leakage of hydra- ulic fluid loss, but due to leakage, the control of the established movements may be affected until the cause system failures. Outside means the occurrence of leakage in the system and the leakage between the external environment. Direct leakage of hydraulic oil into the environment, in addition to the system will affect the working environment, not enough pressure will cause the system to trigger a fault. Leakage into the enviro- nment of the hydraulic oil was also the danger of fire. Solution: the use of better quality seals to improve the machining accuracy of equipment.Another: the hydraulic system for the three diseases, it was summed up: "fever, with a father拉稀" (This is the summary of the northeast people). Hydraulic system for the lifts, excavators, pumping station, dynamic, crane, and so on large-scale industry, construction, factories, enterprises, as well as elevators, lifting platforms, Deng Axle industry and so on.Hydraulic components will be high-performance, high-quality, high reliability, the system sets the direction of development; to the low power, low noise, vibration, without leakage, as well as pollution control, water-based media applications to adapt to environmental requirements, such as the direction of development; the development of highly integrated high power density, intelligence, mechatronics and micro-light mini-hydraulic components; active use of new techniques, new materials and electronics, sensing and other high-tech.Hydraulic coupling to high-speed high-power and integrated development of hydraulic transmission equ- ipment, development of water hydraulic coupling medium speed and the field of automotive applications to develop hydraulic reducer, improve product reliability and working hours MTBF; hydraulic torque converter to the development of high-power products, parts and components to improve the manufacturing process tech -nology to improve reliability, promote computer-aided technology, the development of hydraulic torque con- verter and power shift transmission technology supporting the use of ; Clutch fluid viscosity should increase the quality of products, the formation of bulk to the high-power and high-speed direction.Pneumatic Industry:Products to small size, light weight, low power consumption, integrated portfolio of development, the implementation of the various types of components, compact structure, high positioning accuracy of the direction of development; pneumatic components and electronic technology, to the intelligent direction of development; component performance to high-speed, high-frequency, high-response, high-life, high temp- erature, high voltage direction, commonly used oil-free lubrication, application of new technology, new technology and new materials.(1)used high-pressure hydraulic components and the pressure of continuous work to reach 40Mpa, the maximum pressure to achieve instant 48Mpa;(2) diversification of regulation and control;(3) to further improve the regulation performance, increase the efficiency of the powertrain;(4) development and mechanical, hydraulic, power transmission of the composite portfolio adjustment gear;(5) development of energy saving, energy efficient system function;(6) to further reduce the noise;(7) Application of Hydraulic Cartridge V alves thread technology, compact structure, to reduce the oil spill Water-based hydraulic systemsWater-based hydraulic systems traditionally have been used in hot-metal areas of steel mills. The obvious advantage of water systems in these industries is their fire resistance. Water-based hydraulic systems also have obvious cost advantages over oil-based fluid. First, non-toxic, biodegradable synthetic additives for water cost $5 to $6 per gallon. One gallon of concentrate can make 20 gallons of a 5% solution, so the cost of water-based hydraulic fluid actually can be less than 30 cents per gallon.Considering the costs associated with preventing and cleaning up environmental contamination, water-based hydraulic systems hold the potential for tremendous cost savings at the plant level. Oil that has leaked already becomes a very important problem. It must be collected, properly contained. Water containing synthetic additives, however, can by dumped into plant effluent systems.Cost savings at the plant level don't stop at the lower cost of the fluid and its disposal. Because water-based hydraulic fluid consists of 10 parts water and one part synthetic additive, 5 gallons of additive mixes with water to make 100 gallons of water-based fluid. A 50gallon container is certainly easier to handle than two 55-gallon drums, so warehousing is simpler, cleaner, and less cluttered. Transportation costs also are lower.Other potential plant-wide savings include improved safety for workers because the water-based fluid is non-toxic as well as non-flammable. These attributes can reduce plant insurance rates. Spills cost less to clean up because granular absorbents or absorbent socks are unnecessary. Water is "hot" againThe oil embargo in the 1970s sparked interest in water-based fluids as a less-costly alternative to oils. Even the most expensive water additives became attractive when designers learned that one gallon of concentrate would make 20 gallons of fluid.As oil prices gradually dropped, so did interest in water-based hydraulics. In retrospect, interest in water-based fluids centered around their cost saving potential. Most designers lost interest when they discovered that they could not just change the fluid in their systems from oil to water without making other substantial changes. They then become reluctant to accept other "disadvantages" - read substantial changes - of switching over to water-based hydraulics.What were viewed as disadvantages were really different rules that apply to water-based hydraulic systems? Designers probably resisted learning more about water-based hydraulics because they were intimated by all the work required to lean about how to design a new system or retrofit an older system. By closing their minds to this different technology, they missed the many other advantages of water-based fluid beyond initial cost. Now that environmental concerns have added disposal costs to the price of hydraulic fluids, water-based hydraulics has again become a hot topic.Fighting freezeWater-based hydraulic systems do, of course, have limits to their applications. One limitation is the potential of freezing. This possibility is probably the most significant blockade to more widespread application of机械专业中英文文献翻译water-based systems, especially in the mobile equipment industry. Longwall mining is by far the largest sector of mobile equipment that has been able to take advantage of water-based systems. Temperatures underground do not approach the freezing point of water, and fire resistance is essential. Mobile and even marine equipment used in temperate climates could cash in one the advantages of water based systems, but there is no guarantee that such equipment always will be used in above-freezing temperatures.Nevertheless, adding an anti-freeze to a water-based fluid can depress its freezing temperature to well below 32°F. Ethylene glycol - used in automotive anti-freeze - is toxic and is not biodegradable, so its use for anti-freeze in water-based hydraulic fluid would defeat the environmental advantage water-based fluid has. There is an alternative. Propylene glycol is not toxic and is biodegradable. It costs more than ethylene glycol and is not quite as effective antifreeze, so it must be used in slightly higher concentrations. Two more techniques to reduce freezing potential are to keep fluid circulating continuously and use hose where practical. Sealing the systemTwo more perceived problems with water hydraulic systems are bacterial infestation and difficulty in maintain proper concentrations. Sealing the system from atmosphere can hold bacterial growth in check. Addition of an anti-bacterial agent to the fluid can have a lasting effect on preventing bacterial buildup if air is excluded from the system.A sealed reservoir eliminates another problem suffered by many hydraulic systems: water ingression. This addresses another misconception about water-based systems: water-based systems not sealed from the atmosphere must be closely monitored to ensure that the additive concentration stays within tolerance. That is because water evaporates from the reservoir more readily than the additive does. Consequently, water evaporation causes the additive concentration to increase. When new fluid is added to a system, samples of the existing fluid must be taken to determine the concentration of additive in solution. These results then reveal the ratio of additive to fluid that must be added so that fluid concentration is correct.With a system that seals fluid from the atmosphere, the evaporation problem is virtually eliminated. Fluid that escapes by leakage is a solution containing water and additive. Therefore, the quantity of fluid in the system changes, but concentration does not. System fluid is replen ished simply by adding a pre-mixed solution of water and additive to the reservoir.中文原文液压传动液压传动和气压传动称为流体传动，是根据17世纪帕斯卡提出的液体静压力传动原理而发展起来的一门新兴技术，1795年英国约瑟夫•布拉曼(Joseph Braman,1749-1814)，在伦敦用水作为工作介质，以水压机的形式将其应用于工业上，诞生了世界上第一台水压机。
机械设计外文翻译(中英文)
Machine design theoryThe machine design is through designs the new product or improves the old product to meet the human need the application technical science. It involves the project technology each domain, mainly studies the product the size, the shape and the detailed structure basic idea, but also must study the product the personnel which in aspect the and so on manufacture, sale and use question.Carries on each kind of machine design work to be usually called designs the personnel or machine design engineer. The machine design is a creative work. Project engineer not only must have the creativity in the work, but also must in aspect and so on mechanical drawing, kinematics, engineerig material, materials mechanics and machine manufacture technology has the deep elementary knowledge.If front sues, the machine design goal is the production can meet the human need the product. The invention, the discovery and technical knowledge itself certainly not necessarily can bring the advantage to the humanity, only has when they are applied can produce on the product the benefit. Thus, should realize to carries on before the design in a specific product, must first determine whether the people do need this kind of productMust regard as the machine design is the machine design personnel carries on using creative ability the product design, the system analysis and a formulation product manufacture technology good opportunity. Grasps the project elementary knowledge to have to memorize some data and the formula is more important than. The merely service data and the formula is insufficient to the completely decision which makes in a good design needs. On the other hand, should be earnest precisely carries on all operations. For example, even if places wrong a decimal point position, also can cause the correct design to turn wrongly.A good design personnel should dare to propose the new idea, moreover is willing to undertake the certain risk, when the new method is not suitable, use original method. Therefore, designs the personnel to have to have to have the patience, because spendsthe time and the endeavor certainly cannot guarantee brings successfully. A brand-new design, the request screen abandons obsoletely many, knows very well the method for the people. Because many person of conservativeness, does this certainly is not an easy matter. A mechanical designer should unceasingly explore the improvement existing product the method, should earnestly choose originally, the process confirmation principle of design in this process, with has not unified it after the confirmation new idea.Newly designs itself can have the question occurrence which many flaws and has not been able to expect, only has after these flaws and the question are solved, can manifest new goods come into the market the product superiority. Therefore, a performance superior product is born at the same time, also is following a higher risk. Should emphasize, if designs itself does not request to use the brand-new method, is not unnecessary merely for the goal which transform to use the new method.In the design preliminary stage, should allow to design the personnel fully to display the creativity, not each kind of restraint. Even if has had many impractical ideas, also can in the design early time, namely in front of the plan blueprint is corrected. Only then, only then does not send to stops up the innovation the mentality. Usually, must propose several sets of design proposals, then perform the comparison. Has the possibility very much in the plan which finally designated, has used certain not in plan some ideas which accepts.How does the psychologist frequently discuss causes the machine which the people adapts them to operate. Designs personnel''s basic responsibility is diligently causes the machine to adapt the people. This certainly is not an easy work, because certainly does not have to all people to say in fact all is the most superior operating area and the operating process.Another important question, project engineer must be able to carry on the exchange and the consultation with other concerned personnel. In the initial stage, designs the personnel to have to carry on the exchange and the consultation on the preliminary design with the administrative personnel, and is approved. This generally is through the oral discussion, the schematic diagram and the writing material carries on. In order to carry on the effective exchange, needs to solve the following problem:(1) designs whether this product truly does need for the people? Whether there is competitive ability(2) does this product compare with other companies'' existing similar products?(3) produces this kind of product is whether economical?(4) product service is whether convenient?(5) product whether there is sale? Whether may gain?Only has the time to be able to produce the correct answer to above question. But, the product design, the manufacture and the sale only can in carry on to the above question preliminary affirmation answer foundation in. Project engineer also should through the detail drawing and the assembly drawing, carries on the consultation together with the branch of manufacture to the finally design proposal.Usually, can have some problem in the manufacture process. Possibly can request to some components size or the common difference makes some changes, causes the components the production to change easily. But, in the project change must have to pass through designs the personnel to authorize, guaranteed cannot damage the product the function. Sometimes, when in front of product assembly or in the packing foreign shipment experiment only then discovers in the design some kind of flaw. These instances exactly showed the design is a dynamic process. Always has a better method to complete the design work, designs the personnel to be supposed unceasingly diligently, seeks these better method.Recent year, the engineerig material choice already appeared importantly. In addition, the choice process should be to the material continuously the unceasing again appraisal process. The new material unceasingly appears, but some original materials can obtain the quantity possibly can reduce. The environmental pollution, material recycling aspect and so on use, worker''s health and security frequently can attach the new limiting condition to the choice of material. In order to reduce the weight or saves the energy, possibly can request the use different material. Comes from domestic and international competition, to product service maintenance convenience request enhancement and customer''s aspect the and so on feedback pressure, can urge the people to carry on to the material reappraises. Because the material does not select when created the product responsibility lawsuit, has already had the profoundinfluence. In addition, the material and between the material processing interdependence is already known by the people clearly. Therefore, in order to can and guarantees the quality in the reasonable cost under the premise to obtain satisfaction the result, project engineer makes engineers all to have earnestly carefully to choose, the determination and the use material.Makes any product the first step of work all is designs. Designs usually may divide into several explicit stages: (a) preliminary design; (b) functional design; (c) production design. In the preliminary design stage, the designer emphatically considered the product should have function. Usually must conceive and consider several plans, then decided this kind of thought is whether feasible; If is feasible, then should makes the further improvement to or several plans. In this stage, the question which only must consider about the choice of material is: Whether has the performance to conform to the request material to be possible to supply the choice; If no, whether has a bigger assurance all permits in the cost and the time in the limit develops one kind of new material.In the functional design and the engineering design stage, needs to make a practical feasible design. Must draw up the quite complete blueprint in this stage, chooses and determines each kind of components the material. Usually must make the prototype or the working model, and carries on the experiment to it, the appraisal product function, the reliability, the outward appearance and the service maintenance and so on. Although this kind of experiment possibly can indicate, enters in the product to the production base in front of, should replace certain materials, but, absolutely cannot this point take not earnestly chooses the material the excuse. Should unify the product the function, earnestly carefully considers the product the outward appearance, the cost and the reliability. Has the achievement very much the company when manufacture all prototypes, selects the material should the material which uses with its production in be same, and uses the similar manufacture technology as far as possible. Like this has the advantage very much to the company. The function complete prototype if cannot act according to the anticipated sales volume economically to make, or is prototypical and the official production installment has in the quality and the reliable aspect is very greatly different, then this kind of prototypedoes not have the great value. Project engineer is best can completely complete the material in this stage the analysis, the choice and the determination work, but is not remains it to the production design stage does. Because, is carries on in the production design stage material replacement by other people, these people are inferior to project engineer to the product all functions understanding. In the production design stage, is should completely determine with the material related main question the material, causes them to adapt with the existing equipment, can use the existing equipment economically to carry on the processing, moreover the material quantity can quite be easy to guarantee the supply.In the manufacture process, inevitably can appear to uses the material to make some changes the situation. The experience indicated that, may use certain cheap materials to take the substitute. However, in the majority situation, in will carry on the production later to change the material to have in to start before the production to change the price which the material will spend to have to be higher than. Completes the choice of material work in the design stage, may avoid the most such situations. Started after the production manufacture to appear has been possible to supply the use the new material is replaces the material the most common reason. Certainly, these new materials possibly reduce the cost, the improvement product performance. But, must carry on the earnest appraisal to the new material, guarantees its all performance all to answer the purpose. Must remember that, the new material performance and the reliable very few pictures materials on hand such understood for the people. The majority of products expiration and the product accident caused by negligence case is because in selects the new material to take in front of substitution material, not truly understood their long-term operational performance causes.The product responsibility lawsuit forces designs the personnel and the company when the choice material, uses the best procedure. In the material process, five most common questions are: (a) did not understand or cannot use about the material application aspect most newly the best information paper; (b) has not been able to foresee and to consider the dusk year possible reasonable use (for example to have the possibility, designs the personnel also to be supposed further to forecast and the consideration because product application method not when creates consequence.ecent years many products responsibilities lawsuit case, because wrongly uses theplaintiff which the product receives the injury to accuse produces the factory, and wins the decision); (c) uses the material data not entire perhaps some data are indefinite, works as its long-term performance data is the like this time in particular;(d) the quality control method is not suitable and not after the confirmation; (e) the personnel which completely is not competent for the post by some chooses the material.Through to the above five questions analysis, may obtain these questions is does not have the sufficient reason existence the conclusion. May for avoid these questions to these questions research analyses the appearance indicating the direction. Although uses the best choice of material method not to be able to avoid having the product responsibility lawsuit, designs the personnel and the industry carries on the choice of material according to the suitable procedure, may greatly reduce the lawsuit the quantity.May see from the above discussion, the choice material people should to the material nature, the characteristic and the processing method have comprehensive and thebasic understanding.翻译：机械设计理论机械设计，通过设计新产品或改进老产品，以满足人类需要的应用技术科学。
High-speed milling——高速铣削(机械工程毕业设计英文文献及翻译)
High-speed milling——高速铣削(机械工程毕业设计英文文献及翻译)High-speed milling——高速铣削High-speed machining is an advanced manufacturing technology,different from the traditional processing methods. The spindle speed, cutting feed rate, cutting a small amount of units within the time of removal of material has increased three to six times. With high efficiency, high precision and high quality surface as the basic characteristics of the automobile industry, aerospace, moldmanufacturing and instrumentation industry, such as access to a widerange of applications, has made significant economic benefits, is the contemporary importance of advanced manufacturing technology. For a long time, people die on the processing has been using a grinding or milling EDM (EDM) processing, grinding, polishing methods. Although the high hardness of the EDM machine parts, but the lower the productivity of its application is limited. With the development of high-speed processing technology, used to replace high-speed cutting, grinding and polishing process to die processing has become possible. To shorten the processing cycle, processing and reliable quality assurance, lower processing costs.1 One of the advantages of high-speed machiningHigh-speed machining as a die-efficient manufacturing, high-quality, low power consumption in an advanced manufacturing technology. Inconventional machining in a series of problems has plagued by high-speed machining of the application have been resolved.1.1 Increase productivityHigh-speed cutting of the spindle speed, feed rate compared withtraditional machining, in the nature of the leap, the metal removal rate increased 30 percent to 40 percent, cutting force reduced by 30 percent, the cutting tool life increased by 70% . Hardened parts can be processed, a fixture in many parts to be completed rough, semi-finishing and fine, and all other processes, the complex can reach parts of the surface quality requirements, thus increasing the processingproductivity and competitiveness of products in the market.1.2 Improve processing accuracy and surface qualityHigh-speed machines generally have high rigidity and precision, and other characteristics, processing, cutting the depth of small, fast and feed, cutting force low,the workpiece to reduce heat distortion, and high precision machining, surface roughness small. Milling will be no high-speed processing and milling marks the surface so that the parts greatly enhance the quality of the surface. Processing Aluminum when upRa0.40.6um, pieces of steel processing at up to Ra0.2 ~ 0.4um. 1.3 Cutting reduce the heatBecause the main axis milling machine high-speed rotation, cutting a shallow cutting, and feed very quickly, and the blade length of the workpiece contacts and contact time is very short, a decrease of bladesand parts of the heat conduction. High-speed cutting by dry milling or oil cooked up absolute (mist) lubrication system, to avoid thetraditional processing tool in contact with the workpiece and a lot of shortcomings to ensurethat the tool is not high temperature under the conditions of work, extended tool life.1.4 This is conducive to processing thin-walled partsHigh-speed cutting of small cutting force, a higher degree of stability, Machinable with high-quality employees compared to the company may be very good, but other than the company's employees may Suanbu Le outstanding work performance. For our China practice, we use the models to determine the method of staff training needs are simple and effective. This study models can be an external object, it can also be a combination of internal and external. We must first clear strategy for the development of enterprises. Through the internal and external business environment and organizational resources, such as analysis, the future development of a clear business goals and operational priorities. According to the business development strategy can be compared to find the business models, through a comparative analysis of the finalization of business models. In determining business models, a, is the understanding of its development strategy, or its market share and market growth rate, or the staff of the situation, and so on, according to the companies to determine the actual situation. As enterprises in different period of development, its focus is different, which meansthat enterprises need to invest the manpower and financial resources thefocus is different. So in a certain period of time, enterprises should accurately selected their business models compared with the departments and posts, so more practical significance, because the business models are not always good, but to compare some aspects did not have much practical significance, Furthermore Thiscan more fully concentrate on the business use of limited resources. Identify business models, and then take the enterprise of the corresponding departments and staff with the business models for comparison, the two can be found in the performance gap, a comparative analysis to find reasons, in accordance with this business reality, the final identification of training needs. The cost of training is needed, if not through an effective way to determine whether companies need to train and the training of the way, but blind to training, such training is difficult to achieve the desired results. A comparison only difference between this model is simple and practical training. 1.5 Can be part of some alternative technology, such as EDM, grinding high intensity and high hardness processingHigh-speed cutting a major feature of high-speed cutting machine has the hardness of HRC60 parts. With the use of coated carbide cutter mold processing, directly to the installation of a hardened tool steel processing forming, effectively avoid the installation of several parts of the fixture error and improve the parts of the geometric location accuracy. In the mold of traditional processing, heat treatment hardening of the workpiece required EDM, high-speed machining replacethe traditional method of cutting the processing, manufacturing process possible to omit die in EDM, simplifying the processing technology and investment costs .High-speed milling in the precincts of CNC machine tools, or for processing centre, also in the installation of high-speed spindle on the general machine tools. The latter not only has the processing capacity of general machine tools, but also for high-speed milling, a decrease of investment in equipment, machine tools increased flexibility. Cutting high-speed processing can improve the efficiency, quality improvement, streamline processes, investment and machine tool investment and maintenance costs rise, but comprehensive, can significantly increase economic efficiency.2 High-speed millingHigh-speed milling the main technical high-speed cutting technology is cutting the development direction of one of it with CNC technology, microelectronic technology, new materials and new technology, such as technology development to a higher level. High-speed machine tools and high-speed tool to achieve high-speed cutting is the prerequisite and basic conditions, in high-speed machining in the performance of high-speed machine tool material of choice and there are strict requirements. 2.1 High-speed milling machine in order to achieve high-speed machining General use of highly flexible high-speed CNC machine tools, machining centers, and some use a dedicated high-speed milling, drilling. At the same time a high-speed ma chine tool spindle system andhigh-speed feeding system, high stiffness of the main characteristics of high-precision targeting and high-precision interpolation functions, especially high-precision arc interpolation function. High-speed machining systems of the machine a higher demand, mainly in thefollowing areas:General use of highly flexible high-speed CNC machine tools, machining centers, and some use a dedicated high-speed milling, drilling. At the same time a high-speed machine tool spindle system and high-speed feeding system, high stiffness of the main characteristics of high-precision targeting and high-precision interpolation functions,especially high-precision arc interpolation function. High-speed machining systems of the machine a higher demand, mainly in thefollowing areas: High-speed milling machine must have a high-speed spindle, the spindle speed is generally 10000 ~ 100000 m / min, power greater than 15 kW. But also with rapid speed or in designated spotsfast-stopping performance. The main axial space not more than 0 .0 0 0 2 m m. Often using high-speed spindle-hydrostatic bearings, air pressure-bearing, mixed ceramic bearings, magnetic bearing structure of the form. Spindle cooling general use within the water or air cooled.High-speed processing machine-driven system should be able toprovide 40 ~ 60 m / min of the feed rate, with good acceleration characteristics, can provide 0.4 m/s2 to 10 m/s2 acceleration and deceleration. In order to obtain goodprocessing quality, high-speed cutting machines must have a high enough stiffness. Machine bed materialused gray iron, can also add a high-damping base of concrete, to prevent cutting tool chatter affect the quality of processing. A high-speed data transfer rate, can automatically increase slowdown. Processing technology to improve the processing and cutting tool life. At present high-speed machine tool manufacturers, usually in the general machine tools on low speed, the feed of the rough and then proceed to heat treatment, the last in the high-speed machine on the half-finished and finished, in improving the accuracy and efficiency at the same time, as far as possible to reduce processing Cost.2.2 High-speed machining toolHigh-speed machining tool is the most active one of the important factors, it has a direct impact on the efficiency of processing, manufacturing costs and product processing and accuracy. Tool in high-speed processing to bear high temperature, highpressure, friction, shock and vibration, such as loading, its hardness and wear-resistance, strength and toughness, heat resistance, technology and economic performance of the basic high-speed processing performance is the key One of the factors. High-speed cutting tool technology development speed, the more applications such as diamond (PCD), cubic boron nitride (CBN), ceramic knives, carbide coating, (C) titanium nitride Carbide TIC (N) And so on. CBN has high hardness, abrasion resistance and the extremely good thermal conductivity, andiron group elements between the great inertia, in 1300 ? would not have happened significant role in thechemical, also has a good stability. The experiments show that with CBN cutting tool HRC35 ~ 67 hardness of hardened steel can achieve very high speed. Ceramics have good wear resistance and thermal chemical stability, its hardness, toughness below the CBN, can be used for processing hardness of HRC <5 0 parts. Carbide Tool good wear resistance, but the hardness than the low-CBN and ceramics. Coating technology used knives, cutting tools can improve hardness and cutting the rate, for cutting HRC40 ~ 50 in hardness between the workpiece. Can be used toheat-resistant alloys, titanium alloys, hightemperature alloy, cast iron, Chungang, aluminum and composite materials of high-speed cutting Cut,the most widely used. Precision machining non-ferrous metals or non-metallic materials, or the choice of polycrystalline diamond Gang-coated tool.2.3 High-speed processing technologyHigh-speed cutting technology for high-speed machining is the key. Cutting Methods misconduct, will increase wear tool to less than high-speed processing purposes. Only high-speed machine tool and not a good guide technology, high-speed machining equipment can not fully play its role. In high-speed machining, should be chosen with milling, when the milling cutter involvement with the workpiece chip thickness as the greatest, and then gradually decreased. High-speedmachining suitable for shallowdepth of cut, cutting depth of not more than 0.2 mm, to avoid the location of deviation tool to ensure that the geometric precisionmachining parts. Ensure that the workpiece on the cutting constant load, to get good processing quality. Cutting a single high-speed millingpath-cutting mode, try not to interrupt the process and cutting tool path, reducing the involvement tool to cut the number to be relatively stable cutting process. Tool to reduce therapid change to, in other words when the NC machine tools must cease immediately, or Jiangsu, and then implement the next step. As the machine tool acceleration restrictions, easy to cause a waste of time, and exigency stop or radical move would damage the surface accuracy. In the mold of high-speed finishing, in each Cut, cut to the workpiece, the feed should try to change the direction of a curve or arc adapter, avoida straight line adapter to maintain the smooth process of cutting.3 Die in high-speed milling processing ofMilling as a highly efficient high-speed cutting of the newmethod,in Mould Manufacturing has been widely used. Forging links in the regular production model, with EDM cavity to be 12 ~ 15 h, electrodes produced 2 h. Milling after the switch to high-speed, high-speed milling cutter on the hardness of HRC 6 0 hardened tool steel processing. The forging die processing only 3 h20min, improve work efficiency four to five times the processing surface roughness of Ra0.5 ~ 0.6m, fully in line with quality requirements.High-speed cutting technology is cutting technology one of the major developments, mainly used in automobile industry and die industry, particularly in the processing complex surface, the workpiece itself orknives rigid requirements of the higher processing areas, is a range of advanced processing technology The integration, high efficiency and high quality for the people respected. It not only involves high-speed processing technology, but also including high-speed processing machine tools, numerical control system, high-speed cutting tools and CAD / CAM technology. Die-processing technology has been developed in the mold of the manufacturing sector in general, and in my application and the application of the standards have yet to be improved, because of its traditional processing with unparalleled advantages, the future will continue to be an inevitable development of processing technologyDirection.高速铣削高速切削加工是一种先进制造技术，不同于传统加工方式。
机床——机械类外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系部：专业：姓名：学号：外文出处：English For Electromechanical(用外文写)Engineering附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文机床机床是用于切削金属的机器。
工业上使用的机床要数车床、钻床和铣床最为重要。
其它类型的金属切削机床在金属切削加工方面不及这三种机床应用广泛。
车床通常被称为所有类型机床的始祖。
为了进行车削，当工件旋转经过刀具时，车床用一把单刃刀具切除金属。
用车削可以加工各种圆柱型的工件，如：轴、齿轮坯、皮带轮和丝杠轴。
镗削加工可以用来扩大和精加工定位精度很高的孔。
钻削是由旋转的钻头完成的。
大多数金属的钻削由麻花钻来完成。
用来进行钻削加工的机床称为钻床。
铰孔和攻螺纹也归类为钻削过程。
铰孔是从已经钻好的孔上再切除少量的金属。
攻螺纹是在内孔上加工出螺纹，以使螺钉或螺栓旋进孔内。
铣削由旋转的、多切削刃的铣刀来完成。
铣刀有多种类型和尺寸。
有些铣刀只有两个切削刃，而有些则有多达三十或更多的切削刃。
铣刀根据使用的刀具不同能加工平面、斜面、沟槽、齿轮轮齿和其它外形轮廓。
牛头刨床和龙门刨床用单刃刀具来加工平面。
用牛头刨床进行加工时，刀具在机床上往复运动，而工件朝向刀具自动进给。
在用龙门刨床进行加工时，工件安装在工作台上，工作台往复经过刀具而切除金属。
工作台每完成一个行程刀具自动向工件进给一个小的进给量。
磨削利用磨粒来完成切削工作。
根据加工要求，磨削可分为精密磨削和非精密磨削。
精密磨削用于公差小和非常光洁的表面，非精密磨削用于在精度要求不高的地方切除多余的金属。
车床车床是用来从圆形工件表面切除金属的机床，工件安装在车床的两个顶尖之间，并绕顶尖轴线旋转。
车削工件时，车刀沿着工件的旋转轴线平行移动或与工件的旋转轴线成一斜角移动，将工件表面的金属切除。
车刀的这种位移称为进给。
车刀装夹在刀架上，刀架则固定在溜板上。
溜板是使刀具沿所需方向进行进给的机构。
机械设计制造及其自动化毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译
机械设计创造及其自动化毕业论文外文文献翻译INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY译文题目专业机械设计创造及其自动化外文资料翻译INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY（From ELECTRICAL AND MACHINERY INDUSTRY）ABSTRACTMachinery was the modern science and technology development inevitable result, this article has summarized the integration of machinery technology basic outline and the development background .Summarized the domestic and foreign integration of machinery technology present situation, has analyzed the integration of machinery technology trend of development.Key word： integration of machinery ，technology， present situation ，product t，echnique of manufacture ，trend of development0. Introduction modern science and technology unceasing development, impelled different discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage, has caused the project domain technological revolution and the transformation .In mechanical engineering domain, because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapid development and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinery, caused the mechanical industry the technical structure, the product organization, the function and the constitution, the production method and the management systemof by machinery for the characteristic integration ofdevelopment phase.1. Integration of machinery outline integration of machinery is refers in the organization new owner function, the power function, in the information processing function and the control function introduces the electronic technology, unifies the system the mechanism and the computerization design and the software which constitutes always to call. The integration of machinery development also has become one to have until now own system new discipline, not only develops along with the science and technology, but also entrusts with the new content .But its basic characteristic may summarize is: The integration of machinery is embarks from the system viewpoint, synthesis community technologies and so on utilization mechanical technology, microelectronic technology, automatic control technology, computer technology, information technology, sensing observation and control technology, electric power electronic technology, connection technology, information conversion technology as well as software programming technology, according to the system function goal and the optimized organization goal, reasonable disposition and the layout various functions unit, in multi-purpose, high grade, redundant reliable, in the low energy consumption significance realize the specific function value, and causes the overall system optimization the systems engineering technology .From this produces functional system, then becomes an integration of machinery systematic or the integration of machinery product. Therefore, of coveringtechnology is based on the above community technology organic fusion one kind of comprehensive technology, but is not mechanical technical, the microelectronic technology as well as other new technical simple combination, pieces together .This is the integration of machinery and the machinery adds the machinery electrification which the electricity forms in the concept basic difference .The mechanical engineering technology has the merely technical to develop the machinery electrification, still was the traditional machinery, its main function still was replaces with the enlargement physical strength .But after develops the integration of machinery, micro electron installment besides may substitute for certain mechanical parts the original function, but also can entrust with many new functions,like the automatic detection, the automatic reduction information, demonstrate the record, the automatic control and the control automatic diagnosis and the protection automatically and so on .Not only namely the integration of machinery product is human's hand and body extending, human's sense organ and the brains look, has the intellectualized characteristic is the integration of machinery and the machinery electrification distinguishes in the function essence.2. Integration of machinery development condition integration of machinery development may divide into 3 stages roughly.20th century 60's before for the first stage, this stage is called the initial stage .In this time, the people determination not on own initiative uses the electronic technology the preliminary achievement to consummate the mechanical product the performance .Specially in Second World War period, the war has stimulated the mechanical product and the electronic technology union, these mechanical and electrical union military technology, postwar transfers civilly, to postwar economical restoration positive function .Developed and the development at that time generally speaking also is at the spontaneouscondition .Because at that time the electronic technology development not yet achieved certain level, mechanical technical and electronic technology union also not impossible widespread and thorough development, already developed the product was also unable to promote massively. The 20th century 70~80 ages for the second stage, may be called the vigorous development stage .This time, the computer technology, the control technology, the communication development, has laid the technology base for the integration of machinery development . Large-scale, ultra large scale integrated circuit and microcomputer swift and violent development, has provided the full material base for the integration of machinery development .This time characteristic is :①A mechatronics word first generally is accepted in Japan, probably obtains the quite widespread acknowledgment to 1980s last stages in the worldwide scale ;②The integration of machinery technology and the product obtained the enormous development ;③The various countries start to the integration of machinery technology and the product give the very big attention and the support. 1990s later periods, started the integration of machinery technology the new stagewhich makes great strides forward to the intellectualized direction, the integration of machinery enters the thorough development time .At the same time, optics, the communication and so on entered the integration of machinery, processes the technology also zhan to appear tiny in the integration of machinery the foot, appeared the light integration of machinery and the micro integration of machinery and so on the new branch; On the other hand to the integration of machinery system modeling design, the analysis and the integrated method, the integration of machinery discipline system and the trend of development has all conducted the thorough research .At the same time, because the hugeprogress which domains and so on artificial intelligence technology, neural network technology and optical fiber technology obtain, opened the development vast world for the integration of machinery technology .These research, will urge the integration of machinery further to establish the integrity the foundation and forms the integrity gradually the scientific system. Our country is only then starts from the beginning of 1980s in this aspect to study with the application .The State Councilsummary had considered fully on international the influence which and possibly brought from this about the integration of machinery technology developmenttrend .Many universities, colleges and institutes, the development facility and some large and middle scale enterprises have done the massive work to this technical development and the application, does not yield certain result, but and so on the advanced countries compared with Japan still has the suitable disparity.3. Integration of machinery trend of development integrations of machinery are the collection machinery, the electron, optics, the control, the computer, the information and so on the multi-disciplinary overlapping syntheses, its development and the progress rely on and promote the correlation technology development and the progress .Therefore, the integration of machinery main development direction is as follows:3.1 Intellectualized intellectualizations are 21st century integration of machinery technological development important development directions .Theartificial intelligence obtains day by day in the integration of machinery constructor's research takes, the robot and the numerical control engine bedis to the machine behavior description, is in the control theory foundation, the absorption artificial intelligence, the operations research, the computer science, the fuzzy mathematics, the psychology, the physiology and the chaos dynamics and so on the new thought, the new method, simulate the human intelligence, enable it to have abilities and so on judgment inference, logical thinking, independent decision-making, obtains the higher control goal in order to .Indeed, enable the integration of machinery product to have with the human identical intelligence, is not impossible, also is nonessential .But, the high performance, the high speed microprocessor enable the integration of machinery product to have preliminary intelligent or human's partial intelligences, then is completely possible and essential.In the modern manufacture process, the information has become the control manufacture industry the determining factor, moreover is the most active actuation factor .Enhances the manufacture system information-handling capacity to become the modern manufacture science development a key point .As a result of the manufacture system information organization and structure multi-level, makes the information the gain, the integration and the fusion presents draws up the character, information measure multi-dimensional, as well as information organization's multi-level .In the manufacture information structural model, manufacture information uniform restraint, dissemination processing and magnanimous data aspects and so on manufacture knowledge library management, all also wait for further break through.Each kind of artificial intelligence tool and the computation intelligence method promoted the manufacture intelligence development in the manufacture widespread application .A kind based on the biological evolution algorithm computation intelligent agent, in includes thescheduling problem in the combination optimization solution area of technology, receives the more and more universal attention, hopefully completes the combination optimization question when the manufacture the solution speed and the solution precision aspect breaks through the question scale in pairs the restriction .The manufacture intelligence also displays in: The intelligent dispatch, the intelligent design, the intelligent processing, the robot study, the intelligent control, the intelligent craft plan, the intelligent diagnosis and so on are various These question key breakthrough, may form the product innovation the basic research system. Between 2 modern mechanical engineering front science different science overlapping fusion will have the new science accumulation, the economical development and society's progress has had the new request and the expectation to the science and technology, thus will form the front science .The front science also has solved and between the solution scientific question border area .The front science has the obvious time domain, the domain and the dynamic characteristic .The project front science distinguished in the general basic science important characteristic is it has covered the key science and technology question which the project actual appeared.Manufacture system is a complex large-scale system, for satisfies the manufacture system agility, the fast response and fast reorganization ability, must profit from the information science, the life sciences and the social sciences and so on the multi-disciplinary research results, the exploration manufacture system new architecture, the manufacture pattern and the manufacture system effective operational mechanism .Makes the system optimization the organizational structure and the good movement condition is makes the system modeling , the simulation and the optimized essential target .Not only the manufacture system new architecture to makes the enterprise the agility and may reorganize ability to the demand response ability to have the vital significance, moreover to made the enterprise first floor production equipment the flexibility and may dynamic reorganization ability set a higher request .The biological manufacture view more and more many is introduced the manufacture system, satisfies the manufacture system new request.The study organizes and circulates method and technique of complicated system from the biological phenomenon, is a valid exit which will solve many hard nut to cracks that manufacturing industry face from now on currently .Imitating to living what manufacturing point is mimicry living creature organ of from the organization, from match more, from growth with from evolution etc. function structure and circulate mode of a kind of manufacturing system and manufacturing process.The manufacturing drives in the mechanism under, continuously by one's own perfect raise on organizing structure and circulating mode and thus to adapt the process of[with] ability for the environment .For from descend but the last product proceed together a design and make a craft rules the auto of the distance born, produce system of dynamic state reorganization and product and manufacturing the system tend automatically excellent provided theories foundation and carry out acondition .Imitate to living a manufacturing to belong to manufacturing science and life science of"the far good luck is miscellaneous to hand over", it will produce to the manufacturing industry for 21 centuries huge of influence .机电一体化摘要机电一体化是现代科学技术发展的必然结果,本文简述了机电一体化技术的基本概要和发展背景。
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)英文原文Mechanical Design and Manufacturing ProcessesMechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the systemand then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design.On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have "bugs" or unforeseen problems which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowedto flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available tous. These are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1) Does the design really serve a human need?(2) Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3) Is it economical to produce?(4) Can it be readily maintained?(5) Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle [3].It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fails in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.Designing starts with a need, real or imagined. Existing apparatus may need improvements in durability, efficiently, weight, speed, or cost. New apparatus may be needed to perform a function previously done by men, such as computation, assembly, or servicing. With the objective wholly or partly defined, the next step in design is the conception of mechanisms and their arrangements that will perform the needed functions.For this, freehand sketching is of great value, not only as a record of one's thoughts and as an aid in discussion with others, but particularly for communication with one's own mind, as a stimulant for creative ideas.When the general shape and a few dimensions of the several components become apparent, analysis can begin in earnest. The analysis will have as its objective satisfactory or superior performance, plus safety and durability with minimum weight, and a competitive east. Optimum proportions and dimensions will be sought for each critically loaded section, together with a balance between the strength of the several components. Materials and their treatment will be chosen. These important objectives can be attained only by analysis based upon the principles ofmechanics, such as those of statics for reaction forces and for the optimumutilization of friction; of dynamics for inertia, acceleration, and energy; of elasticity and strength of materials for stress。
剪式小型举升机机械设备外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
剪式小型举升机机械设备外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译is to make it more efficient。
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warehousing。
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XXX uses a scissor-like mechanism to raise and lower the platform。
It is mainly composed of a platform。
scissor legs。
hydraulic system。
and control system。
The platform can move up and down XXX。
and the height can be adjusted according to the needs of the work.In recent years。
with the development of technology。
XXX。
higher lifting capacity。
and XXX。
some scissor lifts are equipped with n devices。
overload n devices。
XXX.In n。
the design of the XXX adjustable handrails。
foot pedals。
and XXX also makes it easy to move and transport。
XXX.In n。
XXX。
XXX efficient。
safer。
and XXX to use。
which will XXX the development of the industry.Nowadays。
XXX。
there are also several successful designsof portable lifting machines。
机械制造工艺外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
中国地质大学长城学院本科毕业设计外文资料翻译系别：工程技术系专业：机械设计制造及其自动化姓名：侯亮学号：052115072015年 4 月 3 日外文资料翻译原文Introduction of MachiningHave a shape as a processing method, all machining process for the production of the most commonly used and most important method. Machining process is a process generated shape, in this process, Drivers device on the work piece material to be in the form of chip removal. Although in some occasions, the workpiece under no circumstances, the use of mobile equipment to the processing, However, the majority of the machining is not only supporting the workpiece also supporting tools and equipment to complete.Machining know the process has two aspects. Small group of low-cost production. For casting, forging and machining pressure, every production of a specific shape of the workpiece, even a spare parts, almost have to spend the high cost of processing. Welding to rely on the shape of the structure, to a large extent, depend on effective in the form of raw materials. In general, through the use of expensive equipment and without special processing conditions, can be almost any type of raw materials, mechanical processing to convert the raw materials processed into the arbitrary shape of the structure, as long as the external dimensions large enough, it is possible. Because of a production of spare parts, even when the parts and structure of the production batch sizes are suitable for the original casting, Forging or pressure processing to produce, but usually prefer machining.Strict precision and good surface finish, machining the second purpose is the establishment of the high precision and surface finish possible on the basis of. Many parts, if any other means of production belonging to the large-scale production, Well Machining is a low-tolerance and can meet the requirements of small batch production. Besides, many parts on the production and processing of coarse process to improve its general shape of the surface. It is only necessary precision and choose only the surface machining. For instance, thread, in addition to mechanical processing, almost no other processing method for processing. Another example is the blacksmith pieces keyhole processing, as well as training to be conducted immediately after the mechanical completion of the processing.Primary Cutting ParametersCutting the work piece and tool based on the basic relationship between the following four elements to fully describe : the tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth and penetration of a cutting tool.Cutting Tools must be of a suitable material to manufacture, it must be strong, tough, hard and wear-resistant. Tool geometry -- to the tip plane and cutter angle characteristics -- for each cutting process must be correct.Cutting speed is the cutting edge of work piece surface rate, it is inches per minute toshow. In order to effectively processing, and cutting speed must adapt to the level of specific parts -- with knives. Generally, the more hard work piece material, the lower the rate.Progressive Tool to speed is cut into the work piece speed. If the work piece or tool for rotating movement, feed rate per round over the number of inches to the measurement. When the work piece or tool for reciprocating movement and feed rate on each trip through the measurement of inches. Generally, in other conditions, feed rate and cutting speed is inversely proportional to.Depth of penetration of a cutting tool -- to inches dollars -- is the tool to the work piece distance. Rotary cutting it to the chip or equal to the width of the linear cutting chip thickness. Rough than finishing, deeper penetration of a cutting tool depth.Rough machining and finishing machiningThere are two kinds of cuts in machine- shop work called, respectively, the "roughing cut" and the "finishing cut". When a piece is "roughed out", it is quite near the shape and size required, but enough metal has been left on the surface to finish smooth and to exact size." Generally speaking, bars of steel, forging, castings, etc. are machined to the required shape and size with only one roughing and one finishing cut. Sometimes, however, certain portions of a piece may require more than one roughing cut. Also, in some jobs, for example, when great accuracy is not needed, or when a comparatively small amount of metal must be removed, a finishing cut may be all that is required. The roughing cut, to remove the greater part of the excess material, should be reasonably heavy, that is, all the machine, or cutting tool, or work, or all three, will stand. So the machinist’s purpose is to remove the excess stock as fast as he can without leaving, at the same time, a surface too torn and rough, without bending the piece if it is slender, and without spoiling the centers. The finishing cut, to make the work smooth and accurate, is a finer cut. The emphasis here is refinement - very sharp tool, comparatively little metal removed, and a higher degree of accuracy in measurement. Whether roughing or finishing, the machinist must set the machine for the given job. He must consider the size and shape of the work and the kind of material, also the kind of tool used and the nature of the cut to be made, then he proceeds to set the machine for the correct speed and feed and to set the tool to take the depth of cut desired.Automatic Fixture Design外文资料翻译译文机械制造工艺机械加工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。
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冷轧厂工作轴过早发生故障的分析济南钢铁有限公司技术中心，济南250101，中国收到2006年9月12日，在2007年1月15日收到，2007年1月18日2007年5月23日网上提供澳大利亚，新南威尔士州2522，Wollongong，Wollongong大学，机械学院，材料和机械电子工程概述在本文中，对几个冷连轧机工作轴过早失效进行了调查。
为了研究工作轴表面特性和破坏机理，化学成分，微观结构和轧轴材料的硬度进行了研究。
已计算在工作轴剥落面积的压力，确定应力状态。
在研究中，轧轴磨损和损坏的原因已经查明。
对工作轴表面图像进行了研究，发现了已损坏的轧轴磨损特性的特点。
人们已经发现，经营的因素和冶金缺陷将影响在冷轧带钢轧轴的使用寿命。
2007 Elsevier B.V保留所有权利。
关键词：穿；工作轴冷轧；应力分布1.介绍目前，冷轧带钢生产上的冷连轧带钢轧机或倒车的冷连轧机工作轴破坏为[1]非圆形变形[2]。
应用于冷连轧，板形好，型材和平整度[3,4]得到控制模型的基础上。
在冷连轧机工作轴发挥主导作用，使带钢的变形来实现所需的形状，轮廓和尺寸。
然而，工作轴在极其恶劣的条件下运作，在经营成本的冷连轧机的最重要环节之一，是有关工作轴[5]。
工作轴磨损的材料，变形，热凸度，氧化铁皮及带钢表面粗糙度等的影响，[6-14]已查处，并为混合润滑摩擦模型[15]。
工作轴的磨损，影响热轧带钢质量和工作轴使用寿命显着。
在轧钢工作轴的过程中，受高循环荷载和水平高的耐磨性。
与热轧相比，冷轧钢轧制材料的抗变形能力是非常高。
在轧轴咬轧轴表面受到高压力是大于10000 MPa和进一步剪应力产生摩擦[16]在轴/带接口。
工作轴过早失效滚动不仅增加成本，而且还轧机停机时间，生产力显着影响。
伪造合金钢工作轴过早失败的原因可能是操作技术和冶金轧轴因素的综合影响。
经营的因素，包括轧制负荷，润滑，轧制速度，运营商的经验，如轧制参数的选择。
工作轴的质量，包括非金属夹杂物的存在，铸造缺陷和相变[16]。
在本文中，冷连轧机工作轴过早失效。
作者对轴的化学成分，显微组织和硬度轧轴材料进行了审查使用收集剥落样品，并进行了拉伸试验。
在剥落面积的应力状态也已确定找到的轧轴磨损和剥落损坏的原因。
工作轴表面图像进行了研究，并已确定为损坏的轧轴磨损的特点。
人们已经发现，冶金缺陷和运行参数的影响在冷轧带钢轧轴使用寿命。
2.轧制工艺和参数图1.A2-的立场的汇接寒冷的带钢轧机。
（1）成卷#2（2）张力计，（3）激光测速仪，（4）测厚仪，（5）支撑＃2，（6 ）支撑1，（7）卷取机＃1（8）开卷机。
图1概述了2支撑的紧凑型冷轧带钢轧机的原理。
热轧带钢是这四轴冷连轧机的初始原料。
热轧钢卷厚度约1.5-5.0毫米，宽度和重量35吨，在900-1680毫米。
前滚酸洗的热轧带钢氧化铁皮被删除。
最大的酸洗速度是60米/分钟和酸浴的温度大约是70-85摄氏度。
酸洗过程中不影响随后的结果。
在轧制过程中采用的AGC液压控制，厚度上线控制，自动测量速度。
润滑剂使用的是quakeroln680-2-BPD。
工作轴锻造铝合金钢含有约4％的铬，HSC硬度为83至85。
在工作轴CVC 的个人资料。
表1和表2显示的轧制参数和工作轴。
3.结果与讨论3.1 工作轴取样其竞选期间的剥落工作轴的标本，他们被切断，并准备利用扫描电子显微镜和光学显微镜观察。
表面缺陷图像被从四个不同的使用的轧轴，金属焊接，绑扎，并在他们的竞选剥落显着。
所有的工作轴，用于在不同的立场。
轧轴表面粗糙度，Ra，测量的工作轴轧机安装之前和之后。
3.2.剥落图2（a和b）显示了被剥落工作轴工作轴缺陷的部分和在D-D轴的情况下，似乎是一条曲线，这是在轧轴表面的长度约18毫米的剥落。
然而，裂纹有没有深度，根据超声波测试。
然而，对轴ð的损害可能是在第一阶段的轧轴A.表1轧制参数纸架直径（毫米）冷轧带钢（毫米）减少（％）轴分离力（kN）轧制速度（米/分）轧制长度（公里）A 1449 1.35×1240 34 19,890 867 4.515B 2448 0.85×1500 35 19,932 960 13.64C 1449 1.1×1240 28.5 17,652 498 5.139D 2449 0.61×1240 28.2 17,528 679 11.304 表2轧轴化学成分（wt％）粗糙度（微米）硬度（HSC）碳锰镍硅铬钼工作前工作后A0.81 0.36 0.27 0.40 3.97 0.510.8 0.72983-85B 0.82 0.32C 0.83 0.55D 0.87 0.47图2.工作轴剥落。
（A）轴剥落A和（B）轴剥落D.典型的剥落面积大小已剥落面积为1430毫米的长度，周长353毫米和85毫米深度的最大的轧轴A.测量。
轧轴过早失效后，4.515公里的连轧服务就是比轧轴四轴材料的微观结构工龄进行了检查，光学显微镜，如图3所示。
由此可以看出，有一个深度为75毫米硬化区的工作轴，因此所采取的微观结构的区域与中心的工作轴A.图是从轧轴表面的距离。
3（a）是一个区接近表面，（b）约在深度75毫米从表面上看，和（c）从表面深度约85毫米。
可以看出，晶粒尺寸从11.5至20米不等。
更重要的是，粗粮底下发现轧轴表面，这是保证最低硬化深度为85毫米少75毫米。
图3.工作轴材料的微观结构。
（a）地区靠近面，（b）约75毫米的表面深度（c）表面深度约85毫米。
图4.打击轴A.斯特朗试验机上进行拉伸试验与平板标本。
对样品进行了削减从大剥落件从英斯特朗试验机轴A.结果表明，抗拉强度和屈服强度低于制造商的要求。
图4显示了裂纹工作轴A.正常工作轴的压力和剪切应力，分别由赫兹分析计算。
计算的正应力和剪应力[17]开发与带钢接触的结果显示在图5和图6中可以看出。
图5讲的一些组件（SXX =σR）和（SZZ =σZ，）达成一项在表面的大值。
两轴A和D是新轴。
穿的工作轴或支承轴后面的个人资料可能不实际的因素，促进轧轴损坏。
然而，在领先的边缘或由于折叠带钢的冷轧厚度增加一倍局部高负荷可能超过轧轴表面的剪切强度。
这是有可能形成一个或多个压力裂缝，在靠近表面的地方超载领域。
裂缝轴轴的方向平行，但在一个非径向方向传播（图2（b））。
由于轧机扭转滚动功能，裂缝可能会逐步传播（图4）。
因内部不当的微观结构（图3（b）），内的工作轴表面裂纹扩展开发。
因此，发生大的表面剥落。
这样可以减少工作轴使用寿命显着（见图7，热轧带钢轧轴公里长度很短，工作轴前被损坏）。
图5.正常讲开发与热轧带钢接触的结果图6.剪应力与热轧带钢接触的结果图7.前滚失败和表面粗糙度的冷轧带钢的长度之间的关系3.3.地带的焊接图8显示了轧制，轧机的第二站，第三遍后，将工作轴B轧轴表面上的金属焊接。
坐落在热轧带钢的边缘，损害和它的面积约650毫米，宽度和周长707毫米。
不正确的轴形或条状不佳，可能会导致在具体的轧制压力，这反过来又导致当地高轴表面温度。
因此增加缩进形式的轧轴表面的塑性变形，甚至剥落，是造成这些超载严重的热开发的地方增加了炽裂或瘀伤。
取出后由于去除轧轴表面焊接绑扎部分，工作轴可连续使用。
然而，工作轴的磨损是这种情况下，具有重要意义，如图所示。
与其他案件相比，7轴表面粗糙度降低显着（见轴B）。
B轴的使用寿命无明显影响，由于其连续使用。
3.4.带状重去皮明亮的区域出现的形式与一个非常粗糙的表面圆周方向上工作轴Ç面向，如图9所示。
删除层厚度约0.1毫米和0.9毫米之间。
它被广泛接受，带是典型的表面损伤，高铬钢工作轴时，他们使用更长的运行时间后，在相同的关键立场和位置。
然而，案件发生在第一遍后运动时间短滚动轴Ç。
带起源发生交替交替热负荷超过疲劳的表面材料的剪切强度时，组合中的摩擦力。
据推测，表面裂缝内主要炽裂发展和传播剪从轴，直到炽裂地区的深度。
当轧轴表面局部恶化，峰值剪切力是诱导和领导到周围轴筒去皮带的发展速度非常快，导致轧轴磨损。
图8.剥离工作轴的焊接图9.带工作轴图9展出的情况轴使用寿命上有重大影响力和轧轴磨损，这表明，轧轴表面粗糙度的降低在短期公里冷轧带钢长度显着（见图7，轴C）。
因此，这一缺陷显着提高了轧轴磨损。
4.结论本文3种在冷轧厂工作轴表面缺陷进行了调查。
它的结论是讲一些组件达到在表面的大值，这可能会导致工作轴裂纹，降低使用寿命的结果。
在此期间，冶金缺陷，如不当编写的微观结构，提高轧轴表面剥落材料的风险。
地带焊接轧机操作不正确造成的。
提高工作轴温度控制和喂养条状，可避免此类事件。
捆扎是第三次在这项研究中遇到的轧轴表面损伤。
据认为，更好的轧轴冷却与润滑，可减少损坏的风险，并提高工作轴使用寿命。
致谢第一作者想感谢Wollongong大学大学研究生奖（UPA）的当前工作的支持。
笔者也想感谢T. Silver博士的协助下，完成了这篇文章。
参考文献[1] P. Montmitonnet, E. Massoni, M. Vacance, G. Sola, P. Gratacos, Modelling for geometrical control in cold and hot rolling, Ironmaking Steelmaking 20 (1993) 254–260.[2] J. Shi, D.L.S. McElwainand, T.A.M. Langlands, A comparison of methods to estimate the roll torque in thin strip rolling, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 43 (2001)611–630.[3] E.N. Dvorkin, M.A. Cavaliere, M.B. Goldschmit, Finite element models in the steel industry. Part I: Simulation of flat product manufacturing processes, Comput. Struct. 81 (2003) 559–573.[4] Z.Y. Jiang, A.K. Tieu, X.M. Zhang, C. Lu, W.H. Sun, Finite element simulation of cold rolling of thin strip, J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 140 (2003)542–547.[5] R. Col′.rez, I. Sandoval, J.C. Morales, L.A. Leduc, Damage in as, J.Ram′hot rolling work rolls, Wear 230 (1999) 56–60.[6] S. Iwadoh, H. Kuwamoto, S. Sonoda, Investigation about the mechanism of work roll wear at the cold rolling, J. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. 75 (11) (1989)2059–2066 (in Japanese).[7] N. Koshizuka, T. Kimura, M. Ohori, S. Ueda, H. Wanaka, Influences of microstructure on the wear resistance of high C-5Cr-V steels for work rolls in cold rolling mills, J. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. 75 (3) (1989) 509–516 (in Japanese).[8] J.J. Robinson, G. van Steden, F. ter Lingen, Effect of back-up roll wear on operation and strip shape of a CVC cold mill, Iron Steel Eng. 73 (6) (1996)15–19.[9] X.M. Zhang, Z.Y. Jiang, A.K. Tieu, X.H. Liu, G.D. Wang, Numerical modelling of the thermal deformation of CVC roll in hot strip rolling, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 130–131 (2002) 219–223.[10] D.-F. Chang, Thermal stresses in work rolls during the rolling of metal strip, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 94 (1) (1999) 45–51.[11] S.-E. Lundberg, Evaluation of deterioration mechanisms and roll life of different roll materials, Steel Res. 64 (12) (1993) 597–603.[12] C.R.F. Azevedo, J. Belotti Neto, Failure analysis of forged and induction hardened steel cold work rolls, Eng. Fail. Anal. 11 (6) (2004) 951– 966.[13] G. Zhang, H. Xiso, C. Wang, Three-dimensional model for strip hot rolling, J. Iron Steel Res. Int. 13 (1) (2006) 23–26.[14] C. Vergne, C. Boher, R. Gras, C. Levaillant, Influence of oxides on friction in hot rolling: experimental investigations and tribological modeling, Wear 260 (9-10) (2006) 957–975.[15] H.R. Le, M.P.F. Sutcliffe, Rolling of thin strip and foil: application of a tribological model for “mixed” lubrication, ASME Tribol. Div. Trib. 43 (2001)1–8.[16] A.K. Ray, K.K. Mishra, G. Das, P.N. Chaudhary, Life of rolls in a cold rolling mill in a steel plant—operation versus manufacture, Eng. Fail. Anal. 7 (2000) 55–67.[17] A. Boresi, O.M. Sidebottom, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Wiley, 1985.Analysis of premature failure of work rolls in a cold strip plant Hongchun Li, Zhengyi Jiang, Kiet , Tieu , Weihua SunSchool of Mechanical, Materials and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, AustraliaTechnology Centre, Jinan Iron and Steel Ltd., Jinan 250101, PR ChinaReceived 12 September 2006; received in revised form 15 January 2007; accepted 18 January 2007Available online 23 May 2007AbstractIn this paper, premature failures of several work rolls on a cold strip mill were investigated. In order to study the work roll surface feature and failure mechanism, the chemical compositions, microstructures and the hardness of roll materials were examined. The stresses in the spalled area of the work roll have been calculated, and the stress states identified. The causes for the roll wear and damage have been identified in the study. The surface images of the work rolls have been studied, and the characteristics of wear have also been characterised for the damaged rolls. It has been found that the operating factors and metallurgical defects affected the roll service life in cold strip rolling.2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.Keywords: Wear;Work roll; Cold rolling; Stress distribution1. IntroductionAt present, the cold rolled strip is produced on a tandem cold strip mill or a reversing cold strip mill where the work rolls are flattened [1] to a non-circular deformed shape [2]. Based on the control models applied to the cold strip rolling, a good strip shape, pro flatness [3,4] was obtained. In a cold rolling mill, the work rolls play the dominant role, making the strip deformation to achieve the desired shape, pro dimensions. However, the work rolls operate under extremely arduous conditions, and one of the most important segments in operating cost of a cold mill is relevant to work rolls [5]. The effects of the material, deformation, thermal crown, oxide scale and strip surface roughness, etc., on the wear of work roll [6–14] have been investigated, and a tribological model for mixed lubrication was developed [15]. The wear of work rolls affects the rolled strip quality and the work roll service life significantly. In striprolling process, work rolls are subject to high cyclic loading and high levels of abrasion. The deformation resistance of rolled materials is extremely high in cold steel rolling compared with that of hot rolling. The roll surface in the roll bite is subjected to high pressure that is greater than 10,000 MPa and further shear stress generated by friction [16] at the roll/strip interface.The premature failure of a work roll increases not only the cost of the rolling but also the down time of the mill, affecting the productivity significantly. The causes for premature failure of the forged alloy steel work rolls can be the combined effects of operating techniques and the roll metallurgical factors. Operating factors include the choice of rolling parameters such as the rolling load, lubrication, rolling speed, and the experience of operators. Work roll quality includes the presence of nonmetallic inclusions, casting defects and phase transformations [16].In this paper, the authors investigated the premature failures of work rolls on a cold strip mill. The chemical compositions, microstructures and the hardness of roll materials were examined using the collected spalled samples, and tensile tests were conducted. The stress states in the spalled area have also been determined to find the causes of the roll wear and spall damage. The surface images of the work rolls have been studied, and the characteristics of wear have been identified for the damaged rolls. It has been found that both metallurgical defects and operation parameters affected the roll service life during the cold strip rolling.2. Rolling process and parametersFig. 1. A 2-stand tandem cold strip mill. (1) Coiling #2, (2) tension meter, (3) laser velometer, (4) thickness gauge, (5) stand #2, (6) stand #1, (7) coiling machine #1 and (8) uncoiling machine.Fig. 1 schematically outlines the 2-stand compact cold strip rolling mills. Hotrolled strip was the initial feedstock for this 4-high cold mill. The hot rolled coil is about 1.5–5.0 mm in thickness, 900–1680 mm in width and 35 tonnes in weight. The oxide scale on the hot strip was removed by pickling before rolling. The maximum pickling speed is 60 m/min and the temperature of acid bath is about 70–85 .C. The pickling process does not affect the subsequent results. The AGC hydraulic control, thickness on-line control, and the automatic speed measurement were adopted in the rolling process. Quakeroln 680-2-BPD was used as a lubricant.Work rolls were made of forged alloy steel containing approximately 4% Cr with hardness from HSC 83 to 85. CVC pro employed in the work rolls. Tables 1 and 2 show the parameters of the rolling and the work rolls.3. Results and discussion3.1. Work roll samplingThe samples from a spalled work roll during its campaign were obtained, and they were cut and prepared for observation using the scanning electron microscope and optical microscope. Surface images of the defects were taken from the four different used rolls, which were marked by metal welding, banding and spalling during their campaign. All of the work rolls were used in different stands. Roll surface roughness, Ra, was measured from the work roll before and after being installed into the rolling mill.3.2. SpallFig. 2 (a and b) shows the defective portion of work rolls that were spalled on work rolls A and D. In the case of roll D, the spall seems to be a curve which is about 18 mm in length on the roll surface. However, the crack has no depth according to ultrasonic test. Nevertheless, the damage on roll D is possibly at the first stage of roll A.Table 1Rolling parametersC 14491.1×1240 28.5 17,652 498 5.139 D 2449 0.61×1240 28.2 17,528 679 11.304Table 2Work roll parametersRoll Chemical composition (wt%)Roughness (μm) Hardness (HSC) CMn Ni Si Cr Mo Before working After working A0.810.36 0.27 0.40 3.97 0.51 0.8 0.729 83-85B0.82 0.32 C0.83 0.55 D 0.87 0.47Fig. 2. Spalling of work rolls. (a) Spalled roll A and (b) spalled roll D.Typical size of the spalled area has been measured in the case of roll A. The spalled area is the maximum of 1430 mm in length, 353 mm in circumference and 85 mm in depth. The roll prematurely failed after 4.515 km strip rolling service that is less than the rolling service length of roll D. Microstructure of the roll material was examined by an optical microscope, as shown in Fig. 3. It can be seen that there is a 75 mm of depth of hardening zone in the work roll, so the area of the microstructure taken was with a distance from the roll surface to the centre of the work roll A. Fig. 3(a) is a region close to the surface, (b) approximately 75 mm in depth from the surface, and (c) about 85 mm in depth from the surface. It can be seen that the size ofgrain varies from 11.5 to 20 m. What is more, coarse grain was found 75 mm beneath the roll surface, which is less than the guaranteed minimum hardening depth of 85 mm.Fig. 3. Microstructure of the material of work roll.(a) A region close to the surface, (b) approximately 75 mm in depth from the surface and (c) about85 mm in depth from the surface.Fig. 4. Crack on the roll A.Tensile tests were carried out on an Instron testing machine with flat specimens. The samples were cut from the large spalled pieces of the roll A. Results obtained from the Instron testing machine indicate that the tensile and yield strengths are below the manufacturer’s requirements. Fig. 4 shows the crack on the work roll A. The normal stress and shear stress of work roll A were calculated by Hertzian analysis. The calculated normal stress and shear stress [17] developed as a result of contact with the steel strip are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. It can be seen in Fig. 5 that some of the components of stresses (sxx = σr) and (szz = σz) reach a large value at the surface.Both rolls A and D are new rolls. Worn pro either the work roll or the back up roll may not be the actual factor contributing to the roll damage. However, high local loads at leading edges or doubling of the rolled thickness due to folding strip may exceed the roll surface shear strength. It is likely that one or more pressure cracks is formed in an area of local overload near the surface. The cracks are oriented parallel to the roll axis but propagate in a non-radial direction (Fig. 2(b)). Due to the reversingrolling feature of the rolling mill, cracks may progressively propagate (Fig. 4). Due to the inner improper microstructure (Fig. 3(b)), crack propagation develops within the working surface of the roll. As a result, a large surface spall occurred. This can reduce the work roll service life significantly (see Fig. 7, the rolled strip kilometer length for roll A was short before the work roll was damaged).Fig. 5. Normal stresses developed as result of contact with the rolled strip.Fig. 6. Shear stresses developed as result of contact with the rolled strip.Fig. 7. Relationship between the length of rolled strip before roll failure andsurface roughness.3.3. Strip weldingFig. 8 shows the metal welding on the roll surface of the work roll B after the third pass of rolling, serving on the second stand of the mill. The damage was located at the edge of the rolled strip, and its area is about 650 mm in width and 707 mm in circumference. Incorrect roll pro poor strip shape can result in high specific rolling pressure which in turn leads to a high roll surface temperature at the local area. Consequently increasing the plastic deformation of the roll surface in the form of indentations, or even spalling, is caused in these overloaded areas where the severe heat development adds fire cracks or bruises.After removing the banding part due to strip welding on the roll surface, the work roll can be used continuously. However, the wear of the work roll is significant for this case, as shown in Fig. 7 the roll surface roughness reduces dramatically (see roll B) compared to other cases. The service life of the roll B was not obviously affected due to its continuous usage.3.4. BandingHeavily peeled bright areas appear on the work roll C oriented in the circumferential direction in the form of bands with a very rough surface, as shown in Fig. 9. The removed layer has a thickness of between about 0.1 and 0.9 mm. It is well accepted that the banding is typical surface damage to high chrome work rolls when they are used after a longer run time in the same critical stands and positions. However, the case of roll C happened at the first pass of rolling after short campaign times.The origin of banding occurs when alternating friction forces in combination with alternating thermal loads exceed the fatigue shear strength of the surface material. It is assumed that the surface cracks within the depth of primary fire cracks develop and propagate until the fire cracked areas are sheared away from the roll. When the roll surface is locally deteriorated, the peak shearing forces are induced and lead to a very fast development of peeled bands around the roll barrel, and cause the roll wear.Fig. 8. Strip welding on work roll.Fig. 9 Band of work roll.The case exhibited in Fig. 9 has a significant influence on the roll service life and the wear of the roll, which demonstrated that the roll surface roughness reduceddramatically in a short kilometer rolled strip length (see Fig. 7, roll C). Therefore, this defect increases the roll wear significantly.4. ConclusionsThree kinds of surface defects of the work rolls in a cold strip plant were investigated in this paper. It is concluded that some components of stresses reach a large value at the surface, which can cause the cracks of the work roll, and result in a reduced service life. In the meantime, metallurgical defects, such as the improperly prepared microstructure, increase the risk of roll surface material spalling. Strip welding is caused by incorrect mill operation. Such incidents may be avoided by improving the control of the work roll temperature and feeding strip shape. Banding is the third roll surface damage encountered in this study. It is believed that better roll cooling and lubrication may reduce the risk of damage, and improve the work roll service life.AcknowledgementsThe first author would like to thank University of Wollongong for University Postgraduate Award (UPA) support for the current work. The authors also would like to than k Dr. T. Silver’s assistance in proof reading of the paper.References[1] P. Montmitonnet, E. Massoni, M. Vacance, G. Sola, P. Gratacos, Modelling for geometrical control in cold and hot rolling, Ironmaking Steelmaking 20 (1993) 254–260.[2] J. Shi, D.L.S. McElwainand, T.A.M. Langlands, A comparison of methods to estimate the roll torque in thin strip rolling, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 43 (2001) 611–630. [3] E.N. Dvorkin, M.A. Cavaliere, M.B. Goldschmit, Finite element models in the steel industry. Part I: Simulation of flat product manufacturing processes, Comput. Struct. 81 (2003) 559–573.[4] Z.Y. Jiang, A.K. Tieu, X.M. Zhang, C. Lu, W.H. Sun, Finite element simulation of cold rolling of thin strip, J. Mater. Proc. Technol. 140 (2003) 542–547.[5] R. Col′.rez, I. Sandoval, J.C. Morales, L.A. Leduc, Damage in as, J. Ram′hot rolling work rolls, Wear 230 (1999) 56–60.[6] S. Iwadoh, H. Kuwamoto, S. Sonoda, Investigation about the mechanism of work roll wear at the cold rolling, J. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. 75 (11) (1989) 2059–2066 (in Japanese).[7] N. Koshizuka, T. Kimura, M. Ohori, S. Ueda, H. Wanaka, Influences of microstructure on the wear resistance of high C-5Cr-V steels for work rolls in cold rolling mills, J. Iron Steel Inst. Jpn. 75 (3) (1989) 509–516 (in Japanese).[8] J.J. Robinson, G. van Steden, F. ter Lingen, Effect of back-up roll wear on operation and strip shape of a CVC cold mill, Iron Steel Eng. 73 (6) (1996) 15–19. [9] X.M. Zhang, Z.Y. Jiang, A.K. Tieu, X.H. Liu, G.D. Wang, Numerical modelling of the thermal deformation of CVC roll in hot strip rolling, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 130–131 (2002) 219–223.[10] D.-F. Chang, Thermal stresses in work rolls during the rolling of metal strip, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 94 (1) (1999) 45–51.[11] S.-E. Lundberg, Evaluation of deterioration mechanisms and roll life of different roll materials, Steel Res. 64 (12) (1993) 597–603.[12] C.R.F. Azevedo, J. Belotti Neto, Failure analysis of forged and induction hardened steel cold work rolls, Eng. Fail. Anal. 11 (6) (2004) 951– 966.[13] G. Zhang, H. Xiso, C. Wang, Three-dimensional model for strip hot rolling, J. Iron Steel Res. Int. 13 (1) (2006) 23–26.[14] C. Vergne, C. Boher, R. Gras, C. Levaillant, Influence of oxides on friction in hot rolling: experimental investigations and tribological modelling, Wear 260 (9-10) (2006) 957–975.[15] H.R. Le, M.P.F. Sutcliffe, Rolling of thin strip and foil: application of a tribological model for “mixed” lubrication, ASME Tribol. Div. Trib. 43 (2001) 1–8. [16] A.K. Ray, K.K. Mishra, G. Das, P.N. Chaudhary, Life of rolls in a cold rolling mill in a steel plant—operation versus manufacture, Eng. Fail. Anal. 7 (2000) 55–67.[17] A. Boresi, O.M. Sidebottom, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, Wiley, 1985.。