混凝土施工外文翻译文献
混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献
混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Concrete technology and developmentPortland cement concrete has clearly emerged as the material of choice for the construction of a large number and variety of structures in the world today. This is attributed mainly to low cost of materials and construction for concrete structures as well as low cost of maintenance.Therefore, it is not surprising that many advancements in concrete technology have occurred as a result of two driving forces, namely the speed of construction and the durability of concrete.During the period 1940-1970, the availability of high early strength portland cements enabled the use of high water content in concrete mixtures that were easy to handle. This approach, however, led to serious problems with durability of structures, especially those subjected to severe environmental exposures.With us lightweight concrete is a development mainly of the last twenty years.Concrete technology is the making of plentiful good concrete cheaply. It includes the correct choice of the cement and the water, and the right treatment of the aggregates. Those which are dug near by and therefore cheap, must be sized, washed free of clay or silt, and recombined in the correct proportions so as to make a cheap concrete which is workable at a low water/cement ratio, thus easily comoacted to a high density and therefore strong.It hardens with age and the process of hardening continues for a long time after the concrete has attained sufficient strength.Abrams’law, perhaps the oldest law of concrete technology, states that the strength of a concrete varies inversely with its water cement ratio. This means that the sand content (particularly the fine sand which needs much water) must be reduced so far as possible. The fact that the sand “drinks” large quantities of water can easily be established by mixing several batches of x kg of cement with y kg of stone and the same amount of water but increasing amounts of sand. However if there is no sand the concrete will be so stiff that it will be unworkable thereforw porous and weak. The same will be true if the sand is too coarse. Therefore for each set of aggregates, the correct mix must not be changed without good reason. This applied particularly to the water content.Any drinkable and many undrinkable waters can be used for making concrete, including most clear waters from the sea or rivers. It is important that clay should be kept out of the concrete. The cement if fresh can usually be chosen on the basis of the maker’s certificates of tensile or crushing tests, but these are always made with fresh cement. Where strength is important , and the cement at the site is old, it should be tested.This stress , causing breakage,will be a tension since concretes are from 9 to 11times as strong in compression as in tension, This stress, the modulus of rupture, will be roughly double the direct tensile breaking stress obtained in a tensile testing machine,so a very rough guess at the conpressive strength can be made by multiplying the modulus of rupture by 4.5. The method can be used in combination with the strength results of machine-crushed cubes or cylinders or tensile test pieces but cannot otherwise be regarded as reliable. With these comparisons,however, it is suitable for comparing concretes on the same site made from the same aggregates and cement, with beams cast and tested in the same way.Extreme care is necessary for preparation,transport,plating and finish of concrete in construction works.It is important to note that only a bit of care and supervision make a great difference between good and bad concrete.The following factors may be kept in mind in concreting works.MixingThe mixing of ingredients shall be done in a mixer as specified in the contract.Handling and ConveyingThe handling&conveying of concrete from the mixer to the place of final deposit shall be done as rapidly as practicable and without any objectionable separation or loss of ingredients.Whenever the length of haul from the mixing plant to the place of deposit is such that the concrete unduly compacts or segregates,suitable agitators shall be installed in the conveying system.Where concrete is being conveyed on chutes or on belts,the free fall or drop shall be limited to 5ft.(or 150cm.) unless otherwise permitted.The concrete shall be placed in position within 30 minutes of its removal from the mixer.Placing ConcreteNo concrete shall be placed until the place of deposit has been thoroughly inspected and approved,all reinforcement,inserts and embedded metal properly security in position and checked,and forms thoroughly wetted(expect in freezing weather)or oiled.Placing shall be continued without avoidable interruption while the section is completed or satisfactory construction joint made.Within FormsConcrete shall be systematically deposited in shallow layers and at such rate as to maintain,until the completion of the unit,a plastic surface approximately horizontal throughout.Each layer shall be thoroughly compacted before placing the succeeding layer.CompactingMethod. Concrete shall be thoroughly compacted by means of suitable tools during and immediately after depositing.The concrete shall be worked around all reinforcement,embedded fixtures,and into the comers of the forms.Every precaution shall be taken to keep the reinforcement and embedded metal in proper position and to prevent distortion.Vibrating. Wherever practicable,concrete shall be internally vibrated within the forms,or in the mass,in order to increase the plasticity as to compact effectively to improve the surface texture and appearance,and to facilitate placing of the concrete.Vibration shall be continued the entire batch melts to a uniform appearance and the surface just starts to glisten.A minute film of cement paste shall be discernible between the concrete and the form and around the reinforcement.Over vibration causing segregation,unnecessary bleeding or formation of laitance shall be avoided.The effect spent on careful grading, mixing and compaction of concrete will be largely wasted if the concrete is badly cured. Curing means keeping the concretethoroughly damp for some time, usually a week, until it has reached the desired strength. So long as concrete is kept wet it will continue to gain strength, though more slowly as it grows older.Admixtures or additives to concrete are materials arematerials which are added to it or to the cement so as to improve one or more of the properties of the concrete. The main types are:1. Accelerators of set or hardening,2. Retarders of set or hardening,3. Air-entraining agents, including frothing or foaming agents,4. Gassing agents,5. Pozzolanas, blast-furnace slag cement, pulverized coal ash,6. Inhibitors of the chemical reaction between cement and aggregate, which might cause the aggregate to expand7. Agents for damp-proofing a concrete or reducing its permeability to water,8. Workability agents, often called plasticizers,9. Grouting agents and expanding cements.Wherever possible, admixtures should be avouded, particularly those that are added on site. Small variations in the quantity added may greatly affect the concrete properties in an undesiraale way. An accelerator can often be avoided by using a rapid-hardening cement or a richer mix with ordinary cement, or for very rapid gain of strength, high-alumina cement, though this is very much more expensive, in Britain about three times as costly as ordinary Portland cement. But in twenty-four hours its strength is equal to that reached with ordinary Portland cement in thirty days.A retarder may have to be used in warm weather when a large quantity of concrete has to be cast in one piece of formwork, and it is important that the concrete cast early in the day does not set before the last concrete. This occurs with bridges when they are cast in place, and the formwork necessarily bends underthe heavy load of the wet concrete. Some retarders permanently weaken the concrete and should not be used without good technical advice.A somewhat similar effect,milder than that of retarders, is obtained with low-heat cement. These may be sold by the cement maker or mixed by the civil engineering contractor. They give out less heat on setting and hardening, partly because they harden more slowly, and they are used in large casts such as gravity dams, where the concrete may take years to cool down to the temperature of the surrounding air. In countries like Britain or France, where pulverized coal is burnt in the power stations, the ash, which is very fine, has been mixed with cement to reduce its production of heat and its cost without reducing its long-term strength. Up to about 20 per cent ash by weight of the cement has been successfully used, with considerable savings in cement costs.In countries where air-entraining cement cement can be bought from the cement maker, no air-entraining agent needs to be mixed in .When air-entraining agents draw into the wet cement and concrete some 3-8 percent of air in the form of very small bubbles, they plasticize the concrete, making it more easily workable and therefore enable the water |cement ratio to be reduced. They reduce the strength of the concrete slightly but so little that in the United States their use is now standard practice in road-building where heavy frost occur. They greatly improve the frost resistance of the concrete.Pozzolane is a volcanic ash found near the Italian town of Puzzuoli, which is a natural cement. The name has been given to all natural mineral cements, as well as to the ash from coal or the slag from blast furnaces, both of which may become cementswhen ground and mixed with water. Pozzolanas of either the industrial or the mineral type are important to civil engineers because they have been added to oridinary Portland cement in proportions up to about 20 percent without loss of strength in the cement and with great savings in cement cost. Their main interest is in large dams, where they may reduce the heat given out by the cement during hardening. Some pozzolanas have been known to prevent the action between cement and certain aggregates which causes the aggregate to expand, and weaken or burst the concrete.The best way of waterproof a concrete is to reduce its permeability by careful mix design and manufacture of the concrete, with correct placing and tighr compaction in strong formwork ar a low water|cement ratio. Even an air-entraining agent can be used because the minute pores are discontinuous. Slow, careful curing of the concrete improves the hydration of the cement, which helps to block the capillary passages through the concrete mass. An asphalt or other waterproofing means the waterproofing of concrete by any method concerned with the quality of the concrete but not by a waterproof skin.Workability agents, water-reducing agents and plasticizers are three names for the same thing, mentioned under air-entraining agents. Their use can sometimes be avoided by adding more cement or fine sand, or even water, but of course only with great care.The rapid growth from 1945 onwards in the prestressing of concrete shows that there was a real need for this high-quality structural material. The quality must be high because the worst conditions of loading normally occur at the beginning of the life of the member, at the transfer of stress from the steel to theconcrete. Failure is therefore more likely then than later, when the concrete has become stronger and the stress in the steel has decreased because of creep in the steel and concrete, and shrinkage of the concrete. Faulty members are therefore observed and thrown out early, before they enter the structure, or at least before it The main advantages of prestressed concrete in comparison with reinforced concrete are :①The whole concrete cross-section resists load. In reinforced concrete about half the section, the cracked area below the neutral axis, does no useful work. Working deflections are smaller.②High working stresses are possible. In reinforced concrete they are not usually possible because they result in severe cracking which is always ugly and may be dangerous if it causes rusting of the steel.③Cracking is almost completely avoided in prestressed concrete.The main disadvantage of prestressed concrete is that much more care is needed to make it than reinforced concrete and it is therefore more expensive, but because it is of higher quality less of it needs to be needs to be used. It can therefore happen that a solution of a structural problem may be cheaper in prestressed concrete than in reinforced concrete, and it does often happen that a solution is possible with prestressing but impossible without it.Prestressing of the concrete means that it is placed under compression before it carries any working load. This means that the section can be designed so that it takes no tension or very little under the full design load. It therefore has theoretically no cracks and in practice very few. The prestress is usually applied by tensioning the steel before the concrete in which it isembedded has hardened. After the concrete has hardened enough to take the stress from the steel to the concrete. In a bridge with abutments able to resist thrust, the prestress can be applied without steel in the concrete. It is applied by jacks forcing the bridge inwards from the abutments. This methods has the advantage that the jacking force, or prestress, can be varied during the life of the structure as required.In the ten years from 1950 to 1960 prestressed concrete ceased to be an experinmental material and engineers won confidence in its use. With this confidence came an increase in the use of precast prestressed concrete particularly for long-span floors or the decks of motorways. Whereever the quantity to be made was large enough, for example in a motorway bridge 500 m kong , provided that most of the spans could be made the same and not much longer than 18m, it became economical to usefactory-precast prestressed beams, at least in industrial areas near a precasting factory prestressed beams, at least in industrial areas near a precasting factory. Most of these beams are heat-cured so as to free the forms quickly for re-use.In this period also, in the United States, precast prestressed roof beams and floor beams were used in many school buildings, occasionally 32 m long or more. Such long beams over a single span could not possibly be successful in reinforced concrete unless they were cast on site because they would have to be much deeper and much heavier than prestressed concrete beams. They would certainlly be less pleasing to the eye and often more expensive than the prestressed concrete beams. These school buildings have a strong, simple architectural appeal and will be a pleasure to look at for many years.The most important parts of a precast prestressed concrete beam are the tendons and the concrete. The tendons, as the name implies, are the cables, rods or wires of steel which are under tension in the concrete.Before the concrete has hardened (before transfer of stress), the tendons are either unstressed (post-tensioned prestressing) or are stressed and held by abutments outside the concrete ( pre-tensioned prestressing). While the concrete is hardening it grips each tendon more and more tightly by bond along its full length. End anchorages consisting of plates or blocks are placed on the ends of the tendons of post-tensioned prestressed units, and such tendons are stressed up at the time of transfer, when the concrete has hardened sufficiently. In the other type of pretressing, with pre-tensioned tendons, the tendons are released from external abutments at the moment of transfer, and act on the concrete through bond or archorage or both, shortening it by compression, and themselves also shortening and losing some tension.Further shortening of the concrete (and therefore of the steel) takes place with time. The concrete is said to creep. This means that it shortens permanently under load and spreads the stresses more uniformly and thus more safely across its section. Steel also creeps, but rather less. The result of these two effects ( and of the concrete shrinking when it dries ) is that prestressed concrete beams are never more highly stressed than at the moment of transfer.The factory precasting of long prestressed concrete beams is likely to become more and more popular in the future, but one difficulty will be road transport. As the length of the beam increases, the lorry becomes less and less manoeuvrable untileventually the only suitable time for it to travel is in the middle of the night when traffic in the district and the route, whether the roads are straight or curved. Precasting at the site avoids these difficulties; it may be expensive, but it has often been used for large bridge beams.混凝土工艺及发展波特兰水泥混凝土在当今世界已成为建造数量繁多、种类复杂结构的首选材料。
沥青混凝土中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文对照翻译Asphalt Mixtures-Applications, Theory andPrinciples1 . ApplicationsAsphalt materials find wide usage in the construction industry. The use of asphalt as a cementing agent in pavements is the most common of its applications, however,and the one that will be considered here.Asphalt products are used to produce flexible pavements for highways andairports. The term “flexible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement, which are classified as rigid pavements, that is, having beam strength. This distinction is important because it provides they key to the design approach which must be used for successful flexible pavement structures.The flexible pavement classification may be further broken down into high andlow types, the type usually depending on whether a solid or liquid asphalt product is used. The low types of pavement are made with the cutback, or emulsion, liquid products and are very widely used throughout this country. Descriptive terminology附 录has been developed in various sections of the country to the extent that one pavement type may have several names. However, the general process followed in constructionis similar for most low-type pavements and can be described as one in which the aggregate and the asphalt product are usually applied to the roadbed separately and there mixed or allowed to mix, forming the pavement.The high type of asphalt pavements is made with asphalt cements of some selected penetration grade.中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献Fig. ·1 A modern asphalt concrete highway. Shoulder striping is used as a safely feature.Fig. ·2 Asphalt concrete at the San Francisco International Airport.They are used when high wheel loads and high volumes of traffic occur and are, therefore, often designed for a particular installation.2 . Theory of asphalt concrete mix designHigh types of flexible pavement are constructed by combining an asphalt cement, often in the penetration grade of 85 to 100, with aggregates that are usually divided into three groups, based on size. The three groups are coarse aggregates, fineaggregates, and mineral filler. These will be discussed in detail in later chapter.Each of the constituent parts mentioned has a particular function in the asphaltmixture, and mix proportioning or design is the process of ensuring that no function is neglected. Before these individual functions are examined, however, the criteria for pavement success and failure should be considered so that design objectives can be established.A successful flexible pavement must have several particular properties. First, itmust be stable, that is to resistant to permanent displacement under load. Deformation of an asphalt pavement can occur in three ways, two unsatisfactory and one desirable.附 录Plastic deformation of a pavement failure and which is to be avoided if possible. Compressive deformation of the pavement results in a dimensional change in the pavement, and with this change come a loss of resiliency and usually a degree of roughness. This deformation is less serious than the one just described, but it, too, leads to pavement failure. The desirable type of deformation is an elastic one, which actually is beneficial to flexible pavements and is necessary to their long life.The pavement should be durable and should offer protection to the subgrade. Asphalt cement is not impervious to the effects of weathering, and so the design must minimize weather susceptibility. A durable pavement that does not crack or ravel will probably also protect the roadbed. It must be remembered that flexible pavements transmit loads to the subgrade without significant bridging action, and so a dry firm base is absolutely essential.Rapidly moving vehicles depend on the tire-pavement friction factor for control and safety. The texture of the pavement surfaces must be such that an adequate skid resistance is developed or unsafe conditions result. The design procedure should be used to select the asphalt material and aggregates combination which provides a skid resistant roadway.Design procedures which yield paving mixtures embodying all these properties are not available. Sound pavements are constructed where materials and methods are selected by using time-tested tests and specifications and engineering judgments along with a so-called design method.The final requirement for any pavement is one of economy. Economy, again, cannot be measured directly, since true economy only begins with construction cost and is not fully determinable until the full useful life of the pavement has been recorded. If, however, the requirements for a stable, durable, and safe pavement are met with a reasonable safety factor, then the best interests of economy have probably been served as well.With these requirements in mind, the functions of the constituent parts can be examined with consideration give to how each part contributes to now-established objectives or requirements. The functions of the aggregates is to carry the load imposed on the pavement, and this is accomplished by frictional resistance and interlocking between the individual pieces of aggregates. The carrying capacity of the asphalt pavement is, then, related to the surface texture (particularly that of the fine aggregate) and the density, or “compactness,”, of the aggregates. Surfa ce texture中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献varies with different aggregates, and while a rough surface texture is desired, this may not be available in some localities. Dense mixtures are obtained by using aggregates that are either naturally or artificially “well graded”. This means tha that are either naturally or artificially “well graded”. This means that the fine t the fineaggregate serves to fill the voids in the coarser aggregates. In addition to affecting density and therefore strength characteristics, the grading also influences workability. When an excess of coarse aggregate is used, the mix becomes harsh and hard to work. When an excess of mineral filler is used, the mixes become gummy and difficult to manage.The asphalt cement in the flexible pavement is used to bind the aggregateparticles together and to waterproof the pavements. Obtaining the proper asphalt content is extremely important and bears a significant influence on all the items marking a successful pavement. A chief objective of all the design methods which have been developed is to arrive at the best asphalt content for a particularcombination of aggregates.3 . Mix design principlesCertain fundamental principles underlie the design procedures that have beendeveloped. Before these procedures can be properly studied or applied, someconsideration of these principles is necessary.Asphalt pavements are composed of aggregates, asphalt cement, and voids.Considering the aggregate alone, all the space between particles is void space. The volume of aggregate voids depends on grading and can vary widely. When the asphalt cement is added, a portion of these aggregate voids is filled and a final air-voidvolume is retained. The retention of this air-void volume is very important to thecharacteristics of the mixture. The term air-void volume is used, since these voids are weightless and are usually expressed as a percentage of the total volume of thecompacted mixture.An asphalt pavement carries the applied load by particle friction and interlock. If the particles are pushed apart for any reason , then the pavement stability is destroyed. This factor indicates that certainly no more asphalt should be added than the aggregate voids can readily hold. However ,asphalt cement is susceptible to volume change and the pavement is subject to further compaction under use. If the pavement has no air voids when placed, or if it loses them under traffic, then the expanding asphalt will overflow in a condition known as bleeding. The loss of asphalt cement throughbleeding weakens the pavement and also reduces surface friction, making the roadway附 录hazardous.Fig. ·3 Cross section of an asphalt concrete pavement showing the aggregate framework bound together by asphalt cement.The need for a minimum air-void volume (usually 2 or 3 per cent ) has been established. In addition, a maximum air-void volume of 5 to 7 per cent should not be exceed. An excess of air voids promotes raveling of the pavement and also permits water to enter and speed up the deteriorating processes. Also, in the presence of excess air the asphalt cement hardens and ages with an accompanying loss of durability and resiliency.The air-void volume of the mix is determined by the degree of compaction as well as by the asphalt content. For a given asphalt content, a lightly compacted mix will have a large voids volume and a lower density and a greater strength will result. In the laboratory, the compaction is controlled by using a specified hammer and regulating the number of blows and the energy per blow. In the field, the compaction and the air voids are more difficult to control and tests must be made no specimens taken from the compacted pavement to cheek on the degree of compaction being obtained. Traffic further compact the pavement, and allowance must be made for this in the design. A systematic checking of the pavement over an extended period is needed to given factual information for a particular mix. A change in density of several per cent is not unusual, however.Asphalt content has been discussed in connection with various facets of the ix design problem. It is a very important factor in the mix design and has a bearing an all the characteristics ld a successful pavement: stability, skid resistance, durability, and economy. As has been mentioned, the various design procedures are intended to provide a means for selecting the asphalt content . These tests will be considered in中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献detail in a future chapter ,but the relationship between asphalt content and the measurable properties of stability, unit weight, and air voids will be discussed here.Fig.4 Variations in stability, unit weight, and air-void content with asphalt cement content.If the gradation and type of aggregate, the degree of compaction, and the type of asphalt cement are controlled, then the strength varies in a predictable manner. The strength will increase up to some optimum asphalt content and then decrease with further additions. The pattern of strength variation will be different when the other mix factors are changed, and so only a typical pattern can be predicted prior to actual testing.Unit weight varies in the same manner as strength when all other variable arecontrolled. It will reach some peak value at an asphalt content near that determined from the strength curve and then fall off with further additions.As already mentioned, the air-void volume will vary with asphalt content. However, the manner of variation is different in that increased asphalt content willdecrease air-void volume to some minimum value which is approached asymptotically. With still greater additions of asphalt material the particles of aggregate are only pushed apart and no change occurs in air-void volume. In summary, certain principles involving aggregate gradation, air-void volume, asphalt content, and compaction mist be understood before proceeding to actual mix design. The proper design based on these principles will result in sound pavements. If these principles are overlooked, the pavement may fail by one or more of therecognized modes of failure: shoving, rutting, corrugating, becoming slick when the max is too …rich‟; raveling, cracking,having low durability when the mix is too …lean‟.It should be again emphasized that the strength of flexible is, more accurately, a附 录stability and does not indicate any ability to bridge weak points in the subgrade by beam strength. No asphalt mixture can be successful unless it rests on top of a properly designed and constructed base structure. This fact, that the surface is no better than the base, must be continually in the minds of those concerned with any aspect of flexible pavement work.中英文对照外文翻译文献中英文对照外文翻译文献译文：译文：沥青混合料的应用、理论和原则1、应用沥青材料如今在建筑行业广泛使用。
混凝土外文参考文献
混凝土外文参考文献参考文献1. ACI Committee 211. (2011). Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete (ACI 211.1-91) (Reapproved 2009). American Concrete Institute.2. ASTM International. (2018). Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete (ASTM C94/C94M-18a). ASTM International.3. Neville, A.M., & Brooks, J.J. (2010). Concrete Technology (2nd ed.). Pearson Education Limited.4. Mehta, P.K., & Monteiro, P.J.M. (2013). Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.5. Mindess, S., Young, J.F., & Darwin D. (2003). Concrete (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.6. Kosmatka, S.H., Kerkhoff B., & Panarese W.C. (2002). Designand Control of Concrete Mixtures (14th ed.). Portland Cement Association.7. ACI Committee 318M-14 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary Metric Version. American Concrete Institute.8. ACI Committee 301-16 Specifications for Structural Concrete with Commentary Metric Version.American Concrete Institute.9. ACI Committee 308R-16 Guide to External Curing of Concrete.American Concrete Institute.10.Wang Lijiu，Wang Qiaoling，Yang Xiaoyong，et al．Research on the Properties of High Performance Steel Fiber Reinforced Self-compacting Lightweight AggregateConcrete[J]．Journal of Wuhan University of Technology （Materials Science Edition），2017（4）：821-826．11.Li Junjie，Li Xiaojun，Liu Yanjun．Experimental Study on the Mechanical Properties of High-strength Concrete Reinforced with Carbon Fiber[J]．Journal of Building Materials，2017（4）：501-508．12.Zhang Ying，Liu Haiqing，Zhang Jian．Experimental Studyon the Properties of Steel Fiber ReinforcedConcrete[J]．Building Science Research of Sichuan，2017（1）：103-106．13.Zhang Xiaojun，Wang Zhiqiang，Liu Xuejun．Experimental Study on the Mechanical Properties of Recycled Aggregate Concrete[J]．Journal of Building Materials，2017（2）：177-183．14.Wang Lijuan，Li Junjie，Li Xiaojun．Experimental Study on the Mechanical Properties of High-strength Lightweight Aggregate Concrete[J]．Journal of Building Materials，2017（3）：395-401．15.Wang Lijuan, Li Junjie, & Li Xiaojun. (2018). Experimental study on the mechanical properties and durability of high-performance concrete reinforced with polypropylene fiber. Construction and Building Materials, 190, 29-36.16.Li Junjie, Wang Lijuan, & Li Xiaojun. (2018). Experimental study on the mechanical properties and durability of high-performance concrete reinforced with basalt fiber. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology-Materials Science Edition, 33(2), 337-343.17.Wang Lijuan, Li Junjie, & Li Xiaojun. (2019). Experimental study on the mechanical properties and durability of high-performance concrete reinforced with steel fiber and polypropylene fiber. Construction and Building Materials, 225, 1128-1135.18.Li Junjie, Wang Lijuan, & Li Xiaojun. (2020). Experimental study on the mechanical properties and durability of high-performance concrete reinforced with hybrid fibers. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology-Materials Science Edition, 35(4), 739-746.19.Wang Lijuan, Li Junjie, & Li Xiaojun. (2021). Experimental study on the mechanical properties and durability of high-performance concrete reinforced with recycled steel fiber. Construction and Building Materials, 291, 123267.。
外文翻译---混凝土,钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土
Concrete, Reinforced Concrete, andPrestressedConcreteConcrete is a stone like material obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture of cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate, and water to harden in forms of the shape and dimensions of the desired structure. The bulk of the material consists of fine and coarse aggregate.Cement and water interact chemically to bind the aggregate particles into a solid mass. Additional water, over and above that needed for this chemical reaction, is necessary to give the mixture workability that enables it to fill the forms and surround the embedded reinforcing steel prior to hardening. Concretes with a wide range of properties can be obtained by appropriates adjustment of the proportions of the constituent materials.Special cements,special aggregates, and special curing methods permit an even wider variety of properties to be obtained.These properties depend to a very substantial degree on the proportions of the mix, on the thoroughness with which the various constituents are intermixed, and on the conditions of humidity and temperature in which the mix is maintained from the moment it is placed in the forms of humidity and hardened. The process of controlling conditions after placement is known as curing.To protect against the unintentional production of substandard concrete, a high degree of skillful control and supervision is necessary throughout the process,from the proportioning by weight of the individual components, trough mixing and placing, until the completion of curing.The factors that make concrete a universal building material are so pronounced that it has been used, in more primitive kinds and ways than at present, for thousands of years, starting with lime mortars from 12,000 to 600 B.C. in Crete, Cyprus, Greece, and the Middle East. The facility with which , while plastic, it can be deposited and made to fill forms or molds of almost any practical shape is one of these factors. Its high fire and weather resistance are evident advantages.Most of the constituent materials,with the exception of cement and additives,are usually available at low cost locally or at small distances from the construction site. Its compressive strength, like that of natural stones,is high,which makes it suitable for members primarily subject to compression, such as columns and arches. On the other hand, again as in natural stones,it is a relatively brittle material whose tensile strength is small compared with its compressive strength. This prevents its economical use in structural members that ate subject to tension either entirely or over part of their cross sections.To offset this limitation,it was found possible,in the second half of thenineteenth century,to use steel with its high tensile strength to reinforce concrete, chiefly in those places where its low tensile strength would limit the carrying capacity of the member. The reinforcement, usually round steel rods with appropriate surface deformations to provide interlocking, is places in the forms in advance of the concrete. When completely surrounded by the hardened concrete mass, it forms an integral part of the member.The resulting combination of two materials,known as reinforced concrete,combines many of the advantages of each:the relatively low cost,good weather and fire resistance, good compressive strength, and excellent formability of concrete and the high tensile strength and much greater ductility and toughness of steel.It is this combination that allows the almost unlimited range of uses and possibilities of reinforced concrete in the construction of buildings,bridges,dams, tanks, reservoirs, and a host of other structures.In more recent times, it has been found possible to produce steels, at relatively low cost, whose yield strength is 3 to 4 times and more that of ordinary reinforcing steels.Likewise,it is possible to produce concrete4to5times as strong in compression as the more ordinary concrete. These high-strength materials offer many advantages, including smaller member cross sections, reduced dead load, and longer spans. However, there are limits to the strengths of the constituent materials beyond which certain problems arise.To be sure,the strength of such a member would increase roughly in proportion to those of the materials. However, the high strains that result from the high stresses that would otherwise be permissible would lead to large deformations and consequently large deflections of such member under ordinary loading conditions.Equally important,the large strains in such high-strength reinforcing steel would induce large cracks in the surrounding low tensile strength concrete, cracks that would not only be unsightly but that could significantly reduce the durability of the structure.This limits the useful yield strength of high-strength reinforcing steel to 80 ksi according to many codes and specifications; 60 ksi steel is most commonly used.A special way has been found, however, to use steels and concrete of very high strength in combination. This type of construction is known as prestressed concrete. The steel,in the form of wires,strands,or bars, is embedded in the concrete under high tension that is held in equilibrium by compressive stresses in the concrete after hardening,Because of this precompression,the concrete in a flexural member will crack on the tension side at a much larger load than when not so precompressed. Prestressing greatly reduces both the deflections and the tensile cracks at ordinaryloads in such structures, and thereby enables these high-strength materials to be used effectively. Prestressed concrete has extended, to a very significant extent, the range of spans of structural concrete and the types of structures for which it is suited.混凝土，钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土混凝土是一种经过水泥，沙子和砂砾或其他材料聚合得到经过细致配比的混合物，在液体变硬使材料石化后可以得到理想的形状和结构尺寸。
钢筋混凝土中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料对照外文翻译目录1 中文翻译 (1)1.1钢筋混凝土 (1)1.2土方工程 (2)1.3结构的安全度 (3)2 外文翻译 (6)2.1 Reinforced Concrete (6)2.2 Earthwork (7)2.3 Safety of Structures (9)1 中文翻译1.1钢筋混凝土素混凝土是由水泥、水、细骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空气，通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成。
将可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板内，并将其捣实，然后进行养护，以加速水泥与水的水化反应，最后获得硬化的混凝土。
其最终制成品具有较高的抗压强度和较低的抗拉强度。
其抗拉强度约为抗压强度的十分之一。
因此，截面的受拉区必须配置抗拉钢筋和抗剪钢筋以增加钢筋混凝土构件中较弱的受拉区的强度。
由于钢筋混凝土截面在均质性上与标准的木材或钢的截面存在着差异，因此，需要对结构设计的基本原理进行修改。
将钢筋混凝土这种非均质截面的两种组成部分按一定比例适当布置，可以最好的利用这两种材料。
这一要求是可以达到的。
因混凝土由配料搅拌成湿拌合物，经过振捣并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一种需要的形状。
如果拌制混凝土的各种材料配合比恰当，则混凝土制成品的强度较高，经久耐用，配置钢筋后，可以作为任何结构体系的主要构件。
浇筑混凝土所需要的技术取决于即将浇筑的构件类型，诸如：柱、梁、墙、板、基础，大体积混凝土水坝或者继续延长已浇筑完毕并且已经凝固的混凝土等。
对于梁、柱、墙等构件，当模板清理干净后应该在其上涂油，钢筋表面的锈及其他有害物质也应该被清除干净。
浇筑基础前，应将坑底土夯实并用水浸湿6英寸，以免土壤从新浇的混凝土中吸收水分。
一般情况下，除使用混凝土泵浇筑外，混凝土都应在水平方向分层浇筑，并使用插入式或表面式高频电动振捣器捣实。
必须记住，过分的振捣将导致骨料离析和混凝土泌浆等现象，因而是有害的。
水泥的水化作用发生在有水分存在，而且气温在50°F以上的条件下。
混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献
混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献混凝土工艺中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Concrete technology and developmentPortland cement concrete has clearly emerged as the material of choice for the construction of a large number and variety of structures in the world today. This is attributed mainly to low cost of materials and construction for concrete structures as well as low cost of maintenance.Therefore, it is not surprising that many advancements in concrete technology have occurred as a result of two driving forces, namely the speed of construction and the durability of concrete.During the period 1940-1970, the availability of high early strength portland cements enabled the use of high water content in concrete mixtures that were easy to handle. This approach, however, led to serious problems with durability of structures, especially those subjected to severe environmental exposures.With us lightweight concrete is a development mainly of the last twenty years.Concrete technology is the making of plentiful good concrete cheaply. It includes the correct choice of the cement and the water, and the right treatment of the aggregates. Those which are dug near by and therefore cheap, must be sized, washed free of clay or silt, and recombined in the correct proportions so as to make a cheap concrete which is workable at a low water/cement ratio, thus easily comoacted to a high density and therefore strong.It hardens with age and the process of hardening continues for a long time after the concrete has attained sufficient strength.Abrams’law, perhaps the oldest law of concrete technology, states that the strength of a concrete varies inversely with its water cement ratio. This means that the sand content (particularly the fine sand which needs much water) must be reduced so far as possible. The fact that the sand “drinks” large quantities of water can easily be established by mixing several batches of x kg of cement with y kg of stone and the same amount of water but increasing amounts of sand. However if there is no sand the concrete will be so stiff that it will be unworkable thereforw porous and weak. The same will be true if the sand is too coarse. Therefore for each set of aggregates, the correct mix must not be changed without good reason. This applied particularly to the water content.Any drinkable and many undrinkable waters can be used for making concrete, including most clear waters from the sea or rivers. It is important that clay should be kept out of the concrete. The cement if fresh can usually be chosen on the basis of the maker’s certificates of tensile or crushing tests, but these are always made with fresh cement. Where strength is important , and the cement at the site is old, it should be tested.This stress , causing breakage,will be a tension since concretes are from 9 to 11times as strong in compression as in tension, This stress, the modulus of rupture, will be roughly double the direct tensile breaking stress obtained in a tensile testing machine,so a very rough guess at the conpressive strength can be made by multiplying the modulus of rupture by 4.5. The method can be used in combination with the strength results of machine-crushed cubes or cylinders or tensile test pieces but cannot otherwise be regarded as reliable. With these comparisons, however, it is suitable for comparing concretes on the same site made from the same aggregates and cement, with beams cast and tested in the same way.Extreme care is necessary for preparation,transport,plating and finish of concrete in construction works.It is important to note that only a bit of care and supervision make a great difference between good and bad concrete.The following factors may be kept in mind in concreting works.MixingThe mixing of ingredients shall be done in a mixer as specified in the contract.Handling and ConveyingThe handling&conveying of concrete from the mixer to the place of final deposit shall be done as rapidly as practicable and without any objectionable separation or loss of ingredients.Whenever the length of haul from the mixing plant to the place of deposit is such that the concrete unduly compacts or segregates,suitable agitators shall be installed in the conveying system.Where concrete is being conveyed on chutes or on belts,the free fall or drop shall be limited to 5ft.(or 150cm.) unless otherwise permitted.The concrete shall be placed in position within 30 minutes of its removal from the mixer.Placing ConcreteNo concrete shall be placed until the place of deposit has been thoroughly inspected and approved,all reinforcement,inserts and embedded metal properly security in position and checked,and forms thoroughly wetted(expect in freezing weather)or oiled.Placing shall be continued without avoidable interruption while the section is completed or satisfactory construction joint made.Within FormsConcrete shall be systematically deposited in shallow layers and at such rate as to maintain,until the completion of the unit,a plastic surface approximately horizontal throughout.Each layer shall be thoroughly compacted before placing the succeeding layer.CompactingMethod. Concrete shall be thoroughly compacted by means of suitable tools during and immediately after depositing.The concrete shall be worked around all reinforcement,embedded fixtures,and into the comers of the forms.Every precaution shall be taken to keep the reinforcement and embedded metal in proper position and to prevent distortion.Vibrating. Wherever practicable,concrete shall be internally vibrated within the forms,or in the mass,in order to increase the plasticity as to compact effectively to improve the surface texture and appearance,and to facilitate placing of the concrete.Vibration shall be continued the entire batch melts to a uniform appearance and the surface just starts to glisten.A minute film of cement paste shall be discernible between the concrete and the form and around the reinforcement.Over vibration causing segregation,unnecessary bleeding or formation of laitance shall be avoided.The effect spent on careful grading, mixing and compaction of concrete will be largely wasted if the concrete is badly cured. Curing means keeping the concretethoroughly damp for some time, usually a week, until it has reached the desired strength. So long as concrete is kept wet it will continue to gain strength, though more slowly as it grows older.Admixtures or additives to concrete are materials are materials which are added to it or to the cement so as to improve one or more of the properties of the concrete. The main types are:1. Accelerators of set or hardening,2. Retarders of set or hardening,3. Air-entraining agents, including frothing or foaming agents,4. Gassing agents,5. Pozzolanas, blast-furnace slag cement, pulverized coal ash,6. Inhibitors of the chemical reaction between cement and aggregate, which might cause the aggregate to expand7. Agents for damp-proofing a concrete or reducing its permeability to water,8. Workability agents, often called plasticizers,9. Grouting agents and expanding cements.Wherever possible, admixtures should be avouded, particularly those that are added on site. Small variations in the quantity added may greatly affect the concrete properties in an undesiraale way. An accelerator can often be avoided by using a rapid-hardening cement or a richer mix with ordinary cement, or for very rapid gain of strength, high-alumina cement, though this is very much more expensive, in Britain about three times as costly as ordinary Portland cement. But in twenty-four hours its strength is equal to that reached with ordinary Portland cement in thirty days.A retarder may have to be used in warm weather when a large quantity of concrete has to be cast in one piece of formwork, and it is important that the concrete cast early in the day does not set before the last concrete. This occurs with bridges when they are cast in place, and the formwork necessarily bends under the heavy load of the wet concrete. Some retarders permanently weaken the concrete and should not be used without good technical advice.A somewhat similar effect,milder than that of retarders, is obtained with low-heat cement. These may be sold by the cement maker or mixed by the civil engineering contractor. They give out less heat on setting and hardening, partly because they harden more slowly, and they are used in large casts such as gravity dams, where the concrete may take years to cool down to the temperature of the surrounding air. In countries like Britain or France, where pulverized coal is burnt in the power stations, the ash, which is very fine, has been mixed with cement to reduce its production of heat and its cost without reducing its long-term strength. Up to about 20 per cent ash by weight of the cement has been successfully used, with considerable savings in cement costs.In countries where air-entraining cement cement can be bought from the cement maker, no air-entraining agent needs to be mixed in .When air-entraining agents draw into the wet cement and concrete some 3-8 percent of air in the form of very small bubbles, they plasticize the concrete, making it more easily workable and therefore enable the water |cement ratio to be reduced. They reduce the strength of the concrete slightly but so little that in the United States their use is now standard practice in road-building where heavy frost occur. They greatly improve the frost resistance of the concrete.Pozzolane is a volcanic ash found near the Italian town of Puzzuoli, which is a natural cement. The name has been given to all natural mineral cements, as well as to the ash from coal or the slag from blast furnaces, both of which may become cements when ground and mixed with water. Pozzolanas of either the industrial or the mineral type are important to civil engineers because they have been added to oridinary Portland cement in proportions up to about 20 percent without loss of strength in the cement and with great savings in cement cost. Their main interest is in large dams, where they may reduce the heat given out by the cement during hardening. Some pozzolanas have been known to prevent the action between cement and certain aggregates which causes the aggregate to expand, and weaken or burst the concrete.The best way of waterproof a concrete is to reduce its permeability by careful mix design and manufacture of the concrete, with correct placing and tighr compaction in strong formwork ar a low water|cement ratio. Even an air-entraining agent can be used because the minute pores are discontinuous. Slow, careful curing of the concrete improves the hydration of the cement, which helps to block the capillary passages through the concrete mass. An asphalt or other waterproofing means the waterproofing of concrete by any method concerned with the quality of the concrete but not by a waterproof skin.Workability agents, water-reducing agents and plasticizers are three names for the same thing, mentioned under air-entraining agents. Their use can sometimes be avoided by adding more cement or fine sand, or even water, but of course only with great care.The rapid growth from 1945 onwards in the prestressing of concrete shows that there was a real need for this high-quality structural material. The quality must be high because the worst conditions of loading normally occur at the beginning of the life of the member, at the transfer of stress from the steel to the concrete. Failure is therefore more likely then than later, when the concrete has become stronger and the stress in the steel has decreased because of creep in the steel and concrete, and shrinkage of the concrete. Faulty members are therefore observed and thrown out early, before they enter the structure, or at least before it The main advantages of prestressed concrete in comparison with reinforced concrete are :①The whole concrete cross-section resists load. In reinforced concrete about half the section, the cracked area below the neutral axis, does no useful work. Working deflections are smaller.②High working stresses are possible. In reinforced concrete they are not usually possible because they result in severe cracking which is always ugly and may be dangerous if it causes rusting of the steel.③Cracking is almost completely avoided in prestressed concrete.The main disadvantage of prestressed concrete is that much more care is needed to make it than reinforced concrete and it is therefore more expensive, but because it is of higher quality less of it needs to be needs to be used. It can therefore happen that a solution of a structural problem may be cheaper in prestressed concrete than in reinforced concrete, and it does often happen that a solution is possible with prestressing but impossible without it.Prestressing of the concrete means that it is placed under compression before it carries any working load. This means that the section can be designed so that it takes no tension or very little under the full design load. It therefore has theoretically no cracks and in practice very few. The prestress is usually applied by tensioning the steel before the concrete in which it is embedded has hardened. After the concrete has hardened enough to take the stress from the steel to the concrete. In a bridge with abutments able to resist thrust, the prestress can be applied without steel in the concrete. It is applied by jacks forcing the bridge inwards from the abutments. This methods has the advantage that the jacking force, or prestress, can be varied during the life of the structure as required.In the ten years from 1950 to 1960 prestressed concrete ceased to be an experinmental material and engineers won confidence in its use. With this confidence came an increase in the use of precast prestressed concrete particularly for long-span floors or the decks of motorways. Whereever the quantity to be made was large enough, for example in a motorway bridge 500 m kong , provided that most of the spans could be made the same and not much longer than 18m, it became economical to usefactory-precast prestressed beams, at least in industrial areas near a precasting factory prestressed beams, at least in industrial areas near a precasting factory. Most of these beams are heat-cured so as to free the forms quickly for re-use.In this period also, in the United States, precast prestressed roof beams and floor beams were used in many school buildings, occasionally 32 m long or more. Such long beams over a single span could not possibly be successful in reinforced concrete unless they were cast on site because they would have to be much deeper and much heavier than prestressed concrete beams. They would certainlly be less pleasing to the eye and often more expensive than the prestressed concrete beams. These school buildings have a strong, simple architectural appeal and will be a pleasure to look at for many years.The most important parts of a precast prestressed concrete beam are the tendons and the concrete. The tendons, as the name implies, are the cables, rods or wires of steel which are under tension in the concrete.Before the concrete has hardened (before transfer of stress), the tendons are either unstressed (post-tensioned prestressing) or are stressed and held by abutments outside the concrete ( pre-tensioned prestressing). While the concrete is hardening it grips each tendon more and more tightly by bond along its full length. End anchorages consisting of plates or blocks are placed on the ends of the tendons of post-tensioned prestressed units, and such tendons are stressed up at the time of transfer, when the concrete has hardened sufficiently. In the other type of pretressing, with pre-tensioned tendons, the tendons are released from external abutments at the moment of transfer, and act on the concrete through bond or archorage or both, shortening it by compression, and themselves also shortening and losing some tension.Further shortening of the concrete (and therefore of the steel) takes place with time. The concrete is said to creep. This means that it shortens permanently under load and spreads the stresses more uniformly and thus more safely across its section. Steel also creeps, but rather less. The result of these two effects ( and of the concrete shrinking when it dries ) is that prestressed concrete beams are never more highly stressed than at the moment of transfer.The factory precasting of long prestressed concrete beams is likely to become more and more popular in the future, but one difficulty will be road transport. As the length of the beam increases, the lorry becomes less and less manoeuvrable until eventually the only suitable time for it to travel is in the middle of the night when traffic in the district and the route, whether the roads are straight or curved. Precasting at the site avoids these difficulties; it may be expensive, but it has often been used for large bridge beams.混凝土工艺及发展波特兰水泥混凝土在当今世界已成为建造数量繁多、种类复杂结构的首选材料。
建筑施工混凝土裂缝预防与处理外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure.Keyword: Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material ofquality brittleness not and all material. Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality. The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger. But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property safety. A lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result that. Modern age science research with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope inside. The reinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision: Some structures at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of width. But at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possibleavoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack: Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack; Have outside carry the crack that the function cause; Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect. Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1. Stem Suo crack and preventionStem the Suo crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week. In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation stem Suo, and this kind of constringency is can't negative. Stem Suo crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result: The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface stem the Suo transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack. The relative humidity is more low, cement syrup body stem Suo more big, stem the Suo crack be more easy creation. Stem the Suo crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm, the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short to distribute. Stem Suo crack usually the anti- Shen of influence concrete, cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influenceconcrete of loading dint etc. Concrete stem the Suo be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure: While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of cement. Two is a concrete of stem the Suo be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, stem Suo more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce water. Three is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use water quantity. Four is the earlier periods which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete time. Winter constructions want to be appropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and Tu2 Shua protect to protect. Five is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.2. The Su constringency crack and preventionSu constringency is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency. The Su constringency crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends be in the center thin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance. Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm.It creation of main reason is: The concrete is eventually almost having no strength or strength before the Ning very small, perhaps concrete just eventually Ning but strength very hour, be subjected to heator compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharply constringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, therefore creation cracked. The influence concrete Su constringency open the main factor of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..Main prevention measure: One is choose to use stem the Suo value smaller higher Huo sour salt of the earlier period strength or common the Huo sour brine mire. Two is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of dosage. Three is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak through. Four is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually before the Ning surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete surface. Five is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities, protect in time.3. Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that; Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack. This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have somethingto do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 ° Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation. Crack width under the influence of temperature variety smaller. The foundations after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure: One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soil foundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity of Hang solid with reinforce. Two is the strength that assurance template is enough and just degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dint even. Three is keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by water. Four is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want to notice to dismantle a mold order of sequence. Five is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.4. Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in big surface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete structure. Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500 kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge cold Suodissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint. When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under construction period. In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind of crack usually just in more shallow scope of the concrete surface creation.The alignment of the temperature crack usually none settle regulation, big area structure the crack often maneuver interleave; The size bigger structure of the beam plank length, the crack run parallel with short side more; Thorough with pierce through sex of temperature crack general and short side direction parallelism or close parallelism, crack along long side cent the segment appear, in the center more airtight. Crack width the size be different, be subjected to temperature variety influence more obvious, winter compare breadth, summer more narrow. The concrete temperature crack that the heat inflation cause is usually in the center the thick both ends be thin, but cold Suo crack of thick thin variety not too obvious. The emergence of the this kind crack will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, the anti- jelly which lower concrete melt, anti- tired and anti- Shen ability etc..Main prevention measure: One is as far as possible choose to use low hot or medium hot water mire, like mineral residue cement, powder ash from stove cement...etc.. Two is a decrease cement dosage, cement dosage as far as possible the control is in the 450 kg/m 3 following. Three is to lower water ash ratio, water ash of the general concrete ratio controlbelow 0.6.Four is improvement the bone anticipates class to go together with, the Chan add powder ash from stove or efficiently reduce water etc. to come to reduce cement dosage and lower water to turn hot. Five is an improvement concrete of mix blend to process a craft, lower sprinkle of concrete to build temperature. Six is the in addition that the Chan add a have of fixed amount to reduce water and increase Su, slow Ning etc. function in the concrete, improvement the concrete mix to match a thing of mobility, protect water, lower water to turn hot, postpone hot Feng of emergence time. Seven is the heat season sprinkle to build can the adoption take to establish to hide sun plank etc. assistance measure control concrete of Wen Sheng, lower to sprinkle temperature of build the concrete. Eight is the temperature of big physical volume concrete should the dint relate to structure size, concrete structure size more big, temperature should dint more big, so want reasonable arrangement construction work preface, layering, cent the piece sprinkle to build, for the convenience of in spread hot, let up control. Nine is at great inner part constitution of the physical volume concrete cool off piping, cold water perhaps cold air cool off, let up concrete of inside outside difference in temperature. Ten is the supervision which strengthen concrete temperature, adopt to cool off in time, protection measure.11 is to reserve temperature constringency to sew.12 is to let up to control, sprinkle proper before building concrete in the Ji rock and old concrete top build a 5 mm or so sand mat a layer or usage asphalt etc. material Tu2 Shua.13 is to strengthen concrete to protect, the concrete after sprinkle build use moist grass Lian in time, hemp slice's etc. overlay, and attention sprinkle water to protect, appropriate extension protect time, assurance the concrete surface be slow-moving cool off. At the cold season, concrete surface should constitution heat preservation measure, in order to prevent cold wave assault.14 is the allocation be a littleamount in the concrete of reinforcing bar perhaps add fiber material concrete of temperature crack control at certain of scope inside.5. Crack and prevention that the chemical reaction causeAlkali bone's anticipating the crack that reaction crack and reinforcing bar rust eclipse cause is the most familiar in the reinforced concrete structure of because of chemical reaction but cause of crack.The concrete blend a future reunion creation some alkalescency ion, these ion with some activity the bone anticipate creation chemical reaction and absorb surroundings environment in of water but the physical volume enlarge, make concrete crisp loose, inflation open crack. In this kind of crack general emergence concrete structure usage period, once appear very difficult remediable, so should at under construction adopt valid the measure carry on prevention. Main of prevention measure: While being to choose to anticipate with the alkali activity small freestone bone. Two is the in addition which choose to use low lye mire with low alkali or have no alkali. Three is the Chan which choose to use accommodation with anticipate to repress an alkali bone to anticipate reaction.Because the concrete sprinkle to build, flap Dao bad perhaps is a reinforcing bar protection layer thinner, the harmful material get into concrete to make reinforcing bar creation rust eclipse, the reinforcing bar physical volume of the rust eclipse inflation, cause concrete bulge crack, the crack of this kind type much is a crack lengthways, follow the position of reinforcing bar appear. Usually of prevent measure from have: One is assurance reinforcing bar protection the thickness of the layer. Two is a concrete class to go together with to want good. Three is a concrete to sprinkle to note and flap Dao airtight solid. Four is a reinforcing bar surface layer Tu2 Shua antisepsis coating.Crack processingThe emergence of the crack not only would influence structure of whole with just degree, return will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, acceleration concrete of carbonization, lower durable and anti- of concrete tired, anti- Shen ability. Therefore according to the property of crack and concrete circumstance we want differentiation to treat, in time processing, with assurance building of safety usage.The repair measure of the concrete crack is main to have the following some method: Surface repair method, infuse syrup, the Qian sew method, the structure reinforce a method, concrete displacement method, electricity chemistry protection method and imitate to living from heal method.Surface repair the method be a kind of simple, familiar of repair method, it main be applicable to stability and to structure loading the ability don't have the surface crack of influence and deep enter crack of processing. The processing measure that is usually is a surface in crack daubery cement syrup, the wreath oxygen gum mire or at concrete surface Tu2 Shua paint, asphalt etc. antisepsis material, at protection of in the meantime for keeping concrete from continue under the influence of various function to open crack, usually can adoption the surface in crack glue to stick glass fiber cloth etc. measure.1, infuse syrup, the Qian sew methodInfuse a syrup method main the concrete crack been applicable to have influence or have already defend Shen request to the structure whole of repair, it is make use of pressure equipments gum knot the material press into the crack of concrete, gum knot the material harden behind and concrete formation one be whole, thus reinforce of purpose. The in common use gum knot material has the cement the syrup, epoxy, A Ji C Xi sour ester and gather ammonia ester to equalize to learn material.The Qian sew a method is that the crack be a kind of most in commonuse method in, it usually is follow the crack dig slot, the Qian fill Su in the slot or rigid water material with attain closing crack of purpose. The in common use Su material has PVC gum mire, plastics ointment, the D Ji rubber etc.In common use rigid water material is the polymer cement sand syrup.2, the structure reinforce a methodWhen the crack influence arrive concrete structure of function, will consideration adopt to reinforce a method to carry on processing to the concrete structure. The structure reinforce medium in common use main have the following a few method: The piece of enlargement concrete structure in every aspect accumulate, outside the Cape department of the Gou piece pack type steel, adoption prepare should the dint method reinforce, glue to stick steel plate to reinforce, increase to establish fulcrum to reinforce and jet the concrete compensation reinforce.3, concrete displacement methodConcrete displacement method is processing severity damage concrete of a kind of valid method, this method be first will damage of the concrete pick and get rid of, then again displacement go into new of concrete or other material. The in common use displacement material have: Common concrete or the cement sand syrup, polymer or change sex polymer concrete or sand syrup.4, the electricity chemistry protection methodThe electricity chemistry antisepsis is to make use of infliction electric field in lie the quality of electricity chemical effect, change concrete or reinforced concrete the environment appearance of the place, the bluntness turn reinforcing bar to attain the purpose of antisepsis. Cathode protection method, chlorine salt's withdrawing a method, alkalescency to recover a method is a chemistry protection method in three kinds of in common use but valid method. The advantage of this kind ofmethod is a protection method under the influence of environment factor smaller, apply reinforcing bar, concrete of long-term antisepsis, since can used for crack structure already can also used for new set up structure.5, imitate to living from legal moreImitate to living from heal the method be a kind of new crack treatment, its mimicry living creature organization secrete a certain material towards suffering wound part auto, but make the wound part heal of function, join some and special composition(such as contain to glue knot of the liquid Xin fiber or capsule) in the concrete of the tradition the composition, at concrete inner part formation the intelligence type imitate to living from heal nerve network system, be the concrete appear crack secrete a parts of liquid Xin fiber can make the crack re- heal.ConclusionThe crack is widespread in the concrete structure existence of a kind of phenomenon, it of emergence not only will lower the anti- Shen of building ability, influence building of usage function, and will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, lower the durable of material, influence building of loading ability, so want to carry on to the concrete crack earnest research, differentiation treat, adoption reasonable of the method carry on processing, and at under construction adopt various valid of prevention measure to prevention crack of emergence and development, assurance building and Gou piece safety, stability work.From《CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING》翻译译文建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理摘要混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
建筑施工中英文对照外文翻译文献
建筑施工中英文对照外文翻译文献建筑施工中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文：Building construction concrete crack ofprevention and processingAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering, and aim at concrete the circumstance put forward some prevention, processing measure.Keyword:Concrete crack prevention processingForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete building and Gou piece usually all take sewer to make of, because of crack of existence and development usually make inner part of reinforcing bar etc. material creation decay, lower reinforced concrete material of loading ability, durable and anti- Shen ability, influence building of external appearance, service life, severity will threat arrive people's life and property safety.A lot of all of crash of engineerings is because of the unsteady development of the crack with the result that.Modern age scienceresearch with a great deal of of the concrete engineering practice certificate, in the concrete engineering crack problem is ineluctable, also acceptable in certainly of the scope just need to adopt valid of measure will it endanger degree control at certain of scope inside.The reinforced concrete norm is also explicit provision:Some structure at place of dissimilarity under the condition allow existence certain the crack of width.But at under construction should as far as possible adopt a valid measure control crack creation, make the structure don't appear crack possibly or as far as possible decrease crack of amount and width, particularly want to as far as possible avoid harmful crack of emergence, insure engineering quality thus.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have already transformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect.Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1.Stem Suo crack and preventionStem the Suo crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week.In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation stem Suo, and this kind of constringency is can't negative.Stem Suo crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result:The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface stem the Suo transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack.The relative humidity is more low, cement syrup body stem Suo more big, stem the Suo crack be more easy creation.Stem the Suo crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm, the flat surface part much see in the big physical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short todistribute.Stem Suo crack usually the anti- Shen of influence concrete, cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete stem the Suo be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.Main prevention measure:While being to choose to use the constringency quantity smaller cement, general low hot water mire and powder ash from stove cement in the adoption, lower the dosage of cement.Two is a concrete of stem the Suo be subjected to water ash ratio of influence more big, water ash ratio more big, stem Suo more big, so in the concrete match the ratio the design should as far as possible control good water ash ratio of choose to use, the Chan add in the meantime accommodation of reduce water.Three is strict control concrete mix blend with under construction of match ratio, use of concrete water quantity absolute can't big in match ratio design give settle of use water quantity.Four is the earlier period which strengthen concrete to protect, and appropriate extension protect of concrete time.Winter construction want to be appropriate extension concrete heat preservation to overlay time, and Tu2 Shua protect to protect.Five is a constitution the accommodation is in the concrete structure of the constringency sew.2.The Su constringency crack and preventionSu constringency is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency.The Su constringency crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends be in the centerthin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance.Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm.It creation of main reason is:The concrete is eventually almost having no strength or strength before the Ning very small, perhaps concrete just eventually Ning but strength very hour, be subjected to heat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharplyconstringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, therefore creation cracked.The influence concrete Su constringency open the main factor of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..Main prevention measure:One is choose to use stem the Suo value smaller higher Huo sour salt of the earlier period strength or common the Huo sour brine mire.Two is strict the control water ash ratio, the Chan add to efficiently reduce water to increment the collapse of concrete fall a degree and with easy, decrease cement and water of dosage.Three is to sprinkle before building concrete, water basic level and template even to soak through.Four is in time to overlay the perhaps damp grass mat of the plastics thin film, hemp slice etc., keep concrete eventually before the Ning surface is moist, perhaps spray to protect etc. to carry on protect in the concrete surface.Five is in the heat and strong wind the weather to want to establish to hide sun and block breeze facilities, protect in time.3.Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack.This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 °Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation.Crack width under the influence of temperature variety smaller.The foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.Main prevention measure:One is rightness loose soft soil, return to fill soil foundation a construction at the upper part structure front should carry on necessity ofHang solid with reinforce.Two is the strength that assurance template is enough and just degree, and prop up firm, and make the foundation be subjected to dint even.Three is keep concrete from sprinkle infusing the foundation in the process is soak by water.Four is time that template tore down to can't be too early, and want to notice to dismantle a mold order of sequence.Five is at jelly soil top take to establish template to notice to adopt certain of prevention measure.4.Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in big surface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth area of the concrete structure.Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500 kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge cold Suo dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint.When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under construction period.In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind of crack usually just in more shallow scope of the concrete surface creation.The alignment of the temperature crack usually none settle regulation, big area structure the crack often maneuver interleave;The size bigger structure of the beam plank length, the crack run parallel with short side more;Thorough with pierce throughsex of temperature crack general and short side direction parallelism or close parallelism, crack along long side cent the segment appear, in the center more airtight.Crack width the size be different, be subjected to temperature variety influence more obvious, winter compare breadth, summer more narrow.The concrete temperature crack that the heat inflation cause is usually in the center the thick both ends be thin, but cold Suo crack of thick thin variety not too obvious.The emergence of the this kind crack will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, the anti- jelly which lower concrete melt, anti- tired and anti- Shen ability etc..Main prevention measure:One is as far as possible choose to use low hot or medium hot water mire, like mineral residue cement, powder ash from stove cement...etc..Two is a decrease cement dosage, cement dosage as far as possible the control is in the 450 kg/m 3 following.Three is to lower water ash ratio, water ash of the general concrete ratio control below 0.6.Four is improvement the bone anticipate class to go together with, the Chan add powder ash from stove or efficiently reduce water etc. to come to reduce cement dosage and lower water to turn hot.Five is an improvement concrete of mix blend to process a craft, lower sprinkle of concrete to build temperature.Six is the in addition that the Chan add a have of fixed amount to reduce water and increase Su, slow Ning etc. function in the concrete, improvement the concrete mix to match a thing of mobility, protect water, lower water to turn hot, postpone hot Feng of emergence time.Seven is the heat season sprinkle to build can the adoption take to establish to hide sun plank etc. assistance measure control concrete of Wen Sheng, lower to sprinkle temperature of build the concrete.Eight is the temperature of big physical volume concrete should the dint relate to structure size, concrete structure size more big, temperature should dint more big, so want reasonable arrangement construction work preface, layering, cent the piece sprinkle to build, for the convenience of in spread hot, let up control.Nine is at great inner part constitution of the physical volume concrete cool off piping, cold water perhaps cold air cool off, let up concrete of inside outside difference in temperature.Ten is the supervision which strengthen concrete temperature, adopt to cool off in time, protection measure.11 is to reserve temperature constringency to sew.12 is to let up to control, sprinkle proper before building concrete in the Ji rockand old concrete top build a 5 mm or so sand mat a layer or usage asphalt etc. material Tu2 Shua.13 is to strengthen concrete to protect, the concrete after sprinkle build use moist grass Lian in time, hemp slice's etc. overlay, and attention sprinkle water to protect, appropriate extension protect time, assurance the concrete surface be slow-moving cool off.At the cold season, concrete surface should constitution heat preservation measure, in order to prevent cold wave assault.14 is the allocation be a little amount in the concrete of reinforcing bar perhaps add fiber material concrete of temperature crack control at certain of scope inside.5.Crack and prevention that the chemical reaction causeAlkali bone's anticipating the crack that reaction crack and reinforcing bar rust eclipse cause is the most familiar in the reinforced concrete structure of because of chemical reaction but cause of crack.The concrete blend a future reunion creation some alkalescence ion, these ion with some activity the bone anticipate creation chemical reaction and absorb surroundings environment in of water but the physical volume enlarge, make concrete crisp loose, inflation open crack.In this kind of crack general emergence concrete structure usage period, once appear very difficult remediable, so should at under construction adopt valid the measure carry on prevention.Main of prevention measure:While being to choose to anticipate with the alkali activity small freestone bone.Two is the in addition which choose to use low lye mire with low alkali or have no alkali.Three is the Chan which choose to use accommodation with anticipate to repress an alkali bone to anticipate reaction.Because the concrete sprinkle to build, flap Dao bad perhaps is a reinforcing bar protection layer thinner, the harmful material get into concrete to make reinforcing bar creation rust eclipse, the reinforcing bar physical volume of the rust eclipse inflation, cause concrete bulge crack, the crack of this kind type much is a crack lengthways, follow the position of reinforcing bar ually of prevent measure from have:One is assurance reinforcing bar protection the thickness of the layer.Two is a concrete class to go together with to want good.Three is a concrete to sprinkle to note and flap Dao airtight solid.Four is a reinforcing bar surface layer Tu2 Shua antisepsiscoating.Crack processingThe emergence of the crack not only would influence structure of whole with just degree, return will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, acceleration concrete of carbonization, lower durable and anti- of concrete tired, anti- Shen ability.Therefore according to the property of crack and concrete circumstance we want differentiation to treat, in time processing, with assurance building of safety usage.The repair measure of the concrete crack is main to have the following some method:Surface repair method, infuse syrup, the Qian sew method, the structure reinforce a method, concrete displacement method, electricity chemistry protection method and imitate to living from heal method.Surface repair the method be a kind of simple, familiar of repair method, it main be applicable to stability and to structure loading the ability don't have the surface crack of influence and deep enter crack of processing.The processing measure that is usually is a surface in crack daubery cement syrup, the wreath oxygen gum mire or at concrete surface Tu2 Shua paint, asphalt etc. antisepsis material, at protection of in the meantime for keeping concrete from continue under the influence of various function to open crack, usually can adoption the surface in crack glue to stick glass fiber cloth etc. measure.1, infuse syrup, the Qian sew methodInfuse a syrup method main the concrete crack been applicable to have influence or have already defend Shen request to the structure whole of repair, it is make use of pressure equipments gum knot the material press into the crack of concrete, gum knot the material harden behind and concrete formation one be whole, thus reinforce of purpose.The in common use gum knot material has the cement the syrup, epoxy, A Ji C Xi sour ester and gather ammonia ester to equalize to learn material.The Qian sew a method is that the crack be a kind of most in common use method in, it usually is follow the crack dig slot, the Qian fill Su in the slot or rigid water material with attain closing crack of purpose.The in common use Su material has PVC gum mire,plastics ointment, the D Ji rubber etc.;In common use rigid water material is the polymer cement sand syrup.2, the structure reinforce a methodWhen the crack influence arrive concrete structure of function, will consideration adopt to reinforce a method to carry on processing to the concrete structure.The structure reinforce medium in common use main have the following a few method:The piece of enlargement concrete structure in every aspect accumulate, outside the Cape department of the Gou piece pack type steel, adoption prepare should the dint method reinforce, glue to stick steel plate to reinforce, increase to establish fulcrum to reinforce and jet the concrete compensation reinforce.3, concrete displacement methodConcrete displacement method is processing severity damage concrete of a kind of valid method, this method be first will damage of the concrete pick and get rid of, then again displacement go into new of concrete or other material.The in common use displacement material have:Common concrete or the cement sand syrup, polymer or change sex polymer concrete or sand syrup.4, the electricity chemistry protection methodThe electricity chemistry antisepsis is to make use of infliction electric field in lie the quality of electricity chemical effect, change concrete or reinforced concrete the environment appearance of the place, the bluntness turn reinforcing bar to attain the purpose of antisepsis.Cathode protection method, chlorine salt's withdrawing a method, alkalescence to recover a method is a chemistry protection method in three kinds of in common use but valid method.The advantage of this kind of method is a protection method under the influence of environment factor smaller, apply reinforcing bar, concrete of long-term antisepsis, since can used for crack structure already can also used for new set up structure.5, imitate to living from legal moreImitate to living from heal the method be a kind of new crack treatment, its mimicry living creature organization secrete a certain material towards suffering wound part auto, but make the wound part heal of function, join some and special composition(suchas contain to glue knot of the liquid Xin fiber or capsule) in the concrete of the tradition the composition, at concrete inner part formation the intelligence type imitate to living from heal nerve network system, be the concrete appear crack secrete a parts of liquid Xin fiber can make the crack re- heal.ConclusionThe crack is widespread in the concrete structure existence of a kind of phenomenon, it of emergence not only will lower the anti- Shen of building ability, influence building of usage function, and will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, lower the durable of material, influence building of loading ability, so want to carry on to the concrete crack earnest research, differentiation treat, adoption reasonable of the method carry on processing, and at under construction adopt various valid of prevention measure to prevention crack of emergence and development, assurance building and Gou piece safety, stability work.From《CANADIAN JOURNAL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING》译文：建筑施工混凝土裂缝的预防与处理混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析，并针对具体情况提出了一些预防、处理措施。
建筑土木工程外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土桥梁
建筑土木工程外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土桥梁Concrete BridgesConcrete is the most-used construction material for bridges in the United States, and indeed in the world. The application of prestressing to bridges has grown rapidly and steadily, beginning in 1949 with high-strength steel wires in the Walnut Lane Bridge in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. According to the Federal Highway Administration’s 1994 National Bridge Inventory data, from 1950 to the early 1990s, prestressed concrete bridges have gone from being virtually nonexistent to representing over 50 percent of all bridges built in the United States.Prestressing has also played an important role in extending the span capability of concrete bridges. By the late 1990s, spliced-girder spans reached a record 100 m (330 ft). Construction of segmental concrete bridges began in the United States in 1974.Curretly, close to 200 segmental concrete bridges have been built or are under construction, with spans up to 240 m (800 ft).Late in the 1970s, cable-stayed construction raised the bar for concrete bridges. By 1982, the Sunshine Skyway Bridge in Tampa, Florida, had set a new record for concrete bridges, with a main span of 365 m (1,200 ft). The next year, the Dames Point Bridge in Jacksonville, Florida, extended the record to 400 m (1,300 ft).HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETECompressive StrengthFor many years the design of precast prestressed concrete girders was based on concrete compressive strengths of 34 to 41 MPa (5,000 to 6,000 psi). This strength level served the industrywell and provided the basis for establishing the prestressed concrete bridge industry in the United States. In the 1990s the industry began to utilize higher concrete compressive strengths in design, and at the start of the new millennium the industry is poised to accept the use of concrete compressive strengths up to 70 MPa (10,000 psi).For the future, the industry needs to seek ways to effectively utilize even higher concrete compressive strengths. The ready-mixed concrete industry has been producing concretes with compressive strengths in excess of 70 MPa for over 20 years. Several demonstration projects have illustrated that strengths above 70 MPa can be achieved for prestressed concrete girders. Barriers need to be removed to allow the greater use of these materials. At the same time, owners, designers, contractors, and fabricators need to be more receptive to the use of higher-compressive-strength concretes.DurabilityHigh-performance concrete (HPC) can be specified as high compressive strength (e.g., in prestressed girders) or as conventional compressive strength with improved durability (e.g., in cast-in-place bridge decks and substructures). There is a need to develop a better understanding of all the parameters that affect durability, such asresistance to chemical, electrochemical, and environmental mechanisms that attack the integrity of the material. Significant differences might occur in the long-term durability of adjacent twin structures constructed at the same time using identical materials. This reveals our lack of understanding and control of the parameters that affect durability. NEW MATERIALS Concrete design specifications have in the past focusedprimarily on the compressive strength. Concrete is slowly moving toward an engineered material whose direct performance can be altered by the designer. Material properties such as permeability, ductility, freeze-thaw resistance, durability, abrasion resistance, reactivity, and strength will be specified. The HPC initiative has gone a long way in promoting these specifications, but much more can be done. Additives, such a fibers or chemicals, can significantly alter the basic properties of concrete. Other new materials, such as fiber-reinforced polymer composites, nonmetallic reinforcement (glass fiber-reinforced and carbon fiber-reinforced plastic, etc.), new metallic reinforcements, or high-strength steel reinforcement can also be used to enhance the performance of what is considered to be a traditional material. Higher-strength reinforcement could be particularly useful when coupled with high-strength concrete. As our natural resources diminish, alternative aggregate sources (e.g., recycled aggregate) and further replacement of cementitious materials with recycled products are being examined. Highly reactive cements and reactive aggregates will be concerns of the past as new materials with long-term durability become commonplace.New materials will also find increasing demand in repair and retrofitting. As the bridge inventory continues to get older, increasing the usable life of structures will become critical. Some innovative materials, although not economical for complete bridges, will find their niche in retrofit and repair.OPTIMIZED SECTIONSIn early applications of prestressed concrete to bridges, designers developed their own ideas of the best girder sections. The result is that each contractor used slightly different girder shapes. It was too expensive to design custom girders for eachproject.As a result, representatives for the Bureau of Public Roads (now FHWA), the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) (now AASHTO), and the Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) began work to standardize bridge girder sections. The AASHTO-PCI standard girder sections Types I through IV were developed in the late 1950s and Types V and VI in the early 1960s. There is no doubt that standardization of girders has simplified design, has led to wider utilization of prestressed concrete for bridges, and, more importantly, has led to reduction in cost.With advancements in the technology of prestressed concrete design and construction, numerous states started to refine their designs and to develop their own standard sections. As a result, in the late 1970s, FHWA sponsored a study to evaluate existing standard girder sections and determine the most efficient girders. This study concluded that bulb-tees were the most efficient sections. These sections could lead to reduction in girder weights of up to 35 percent compared with the AASHTO Type VI and cost savings up to 17 percent compared with the AASHTO-PCI girders, for equal spancapability. On the basis of the FHWA study, PCI developed the PCI bulb-tee standard, which was endorsed by bridge engineers at the 1987 AASHTO annual meeting. Subsequently, the PCI bulb-tee cross section was adopted in several states. In addition, similar cross sections were developed and adopted in Florida, Nebraska, and the New England states. These cross sections are also cost-effective with high-strength concretes for span lengths up to about 60 m (200 ft).SPLICED GIRDERSSpliced concrete I-girder bridges are cost-effective for a spanrange of 35 to 90 m (120 to 300 ft). Other shapes besides I-girders include U, T, and rectangular girders, although the dominant shape in applications to date has been the I-girder, primarily because of its relatively low cost. A feature of spliced bridges is the flexibility they provide in selection of span length, number and locations of piers, segment lengths, and splice locations. Spliced girders have the ability to adapt to curved superstructure alignments by utilizing short segment lengths and accommodating the change in direction in the cast-in-place joints. Continuity in spliced girder bridges can be achieved through full-length posttensioning, conventional reinforcement in the deck, high-strength threaded bar splicing, or pretensioned strand splicing, although the great majority of applications utilize full-length posttensioning. The availability of concrete compressive strengths higher than the traditional 34 MPa (5,000 psi) significantly improves the economy of spliced girder designs, in which high flexural and shear stresses are concentrated near the piers. Development of standardized haunched girder pier segments is needed for efficiency in negative-moment zones. Currently, the segment shapes vary from a gradually thickening bottom flange to a curved haunch with constant-sized bottom flange and variable web depth.SEGMENTAL BRIDGESSegmental concrete bridges have become an established type of construction for highway and transit projects on constrained sites. Typical applications include transit systems over existing urban streets and highways, reconstruction of existing interchanges and bridges under traffic, or projects that cross environmentally sensitive sites. In addition, segmental construction has been proved to be appropriate for large-scale,repetitive bridges such as long waterway crossings or urban freeway viaducts or where the aesthetics of the project are particularly important.Current developments suggest that segmental construction will be used on a larger number of projects in the future. Standard cross sections have been developed to allow for wider application of this construction method to smaller-scale projects. Surveys of existing segmental bridges have demonstrated the durability of this structure type and suggest that additional increases in design life are possible with the use of HPC. Segmental bridges with concrete strengths of 55 MPa (8,000 psi) or more have been constructed over the past 5 years. Erection with overhead equipment has extended applications to more congested urban areas. Use of prestressed composite steel and concrete in bridges reduces the dead weight of the superstructure and offers increased span lengths.LOAD RATING OF EXISTING BRIDGESExisting bridges are currently evaluated by maintaining agencies using working stress, load factor, or load testing methods. Each method gives different results, for several reasons. In order to get national consistency, FHWA requests that all states report bridge ratings using the load factor method. However, the new AASHTO Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) bridge design specifications are different from load factor method. A discrepancy exists, therefore, between bridge design and bridge rating.A draft of a manual on condition evaluation of bridges, currently under development for AASHTO, has specifications for load and resistance factor rating of bridges. These specifications represent a significant change from existing ones. States will beasked to compare current load ratings with the LRFD load ratings using a sampling of bridges over the next year, and adjustments will be proposed. The revised specifications and corresponding evaluation guidelines should complete the LRFD cycle of design, construction, and evaluation for the nation's bridges.LIFE-CYCLE COST ANALYSISThe goal of design and management of highway bridges is to determine and implement the best possible strategy that ensures an adequate level of reliability at the lowest possible life-cycle cost. Several recent regulatory requirements call for consideration of life-cycle cost analysis for bridge infrastructure investments. Thus far, however, the integration of life-cycle cost analysis with structural reliability analysis has been limited. There is no accepted methodology for developing criteria for life-cycle cost design and analysis of new and existing bridges. Issues such as target reliability level, whole-life performance assessment rules, and optimum inspection-repair-replacement strategies for bridges must be analyzed and resolved from a life-cycle cost perspective. T o achieve this design and management goal, state departments of transportation must begin to collect the data needed to determine bridge life-cycle costs in a systematic manner. The data must include inspection, maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation expenditures and the timing of these expenditures. At present, selected state departments of transportation are considering life-cycle cost methodologies and software with the goal of developing a standard method for assessing the cost-effectiveness of concrete bridges. DECKS Cast-in-place (CIP) deck slabs are the predominant method of deck construction in the United States. Their main advantage is the ability to provide a smooth riding surface by field-adjustment of the roadway profile during concrete placement. In recent years automation of concrete placement and finishing has made this system cost-effective. However, CIP slabs have disadvantages that include excessive differential shrinkage with the supporting beams and slow construction. Recent innovations in bridge decks have focused on improvement to current practice with CIP decks and development of alternative systems that are cost-competitive, fast to construct, and durable. Focus has been on developing mixes and curing methods that produce performance characteristics such as freeze-thaw resistance, high abrasion resistance, low stiffness, and low shrinkage, rather than high strength. Full-depth precast panels have the advantages of significant reduction of shrinkage effects and increased construction speed and have been used in states with high traffic volumes for deck replacement projects. NCHRP Report 407 on rapid replacement of bridge decks has provided a proposed full-depth panel system with panels pretensioned in the transverse direction and posttensioned in the longitudinaldirection.Several states use stay-in-place (SIP) precast prestressed panels combined with CIP topping for new structures as well as for deck replacement. This system is cost-competitive with CIP decks. The SIP panels act as forms for the topping concrete and also as part of the structural depth of the deck. This system can significantly reduce construction time because field forming is only needed for the exterior girder overhangs. The SIP panel system suffers from reflective cracking, which commonly appears over the panel-to-panel joints. A modified SIP precast panel system has recently been developed in NCHRP Project 12-41.SUBSTRUCTURESContinuity has increasingly been used for precast concrete bridges. For bridges with total lengths less than 300 m (1,000 ft), integral bridge abutments and integral diaphragms at piers allow for simplicity in construction and eliminate the need for maintenance-prone expansion joints. Although the majority of bridge substructure components continue to be constructed from reinforced concrete, prestressing has been increasingly used. Prestressed bents allow for longer spans, improving durability and aesthetics and reducing conflicts with streets and utilities in urban areas. Prestressed concrete bents are also being used for structural steel bridges to reduce the overall structure depth and increase vertical clearance under bridges. Precast construction has been increasingly used for concrete bridge substructure components. Segmental hollow box piers and precast pier caps allow for rapid construction and reduced dead loads on the foundations. Precasting also enables the use of more complex forms and textures in substructure components, improving the aesthetics of bridges in urban and rural areas. RETAINING WALLSThe design of earth retaining structures has changed dramatically during the last century. Retaining wall design has evolved from short stone gravity sections to concrete structures integrating new materials such as geosynthetic soil reinforcements and high-strength tie-back soil anchors.The design of retaining structures has evolved into three distinct areas. The first is the traditional gravity design using the mass of the soil and the wall to resist sliding and overturning forces. The second is referred to as mechanically stabilized earth design. This method uses the backfill soil exclusively as the mass to resist the soil forces by engaging the soil using steel orpolymeric soil reinforcements. A third design method is the tie-back soil or rock anchor design, which uses discrete high-strength rods or cables that are drilled deep into the soil behind the wall to provide a dead anchorage to resist the soil forces.A major advancement in the evolution of earth retaining structures has been the proliferation of innovative proprietary retaining walls. Many companies have developed modular wall designs that are highly adaptable to many design scenarios. The innovative designs combined with the modular standard sections and panels have led to a significant decrease in the cost for retaining walls. Much research has been done to verify the structural integrity of these systems, and many states have embraced these technologies. RESEARCHThe primary objectives for concrete bridge research in the 21st century are to develop and test new materials that will enable lighter, longer, more economical, and more durable concrete bridge structures and to transfer this technology into the hands of the bridge designers for application. The HPCs developed toward the end of the 20th century would be enhanced by development of more durable reinforcement. In addition, higher-strength prestressing reinforcement could more effectively utilize the achievable higher concrete strengths. Lower-relaxation steel could benefit anchor zones. Also, posttensioning tendons and cable-stays could be better designed for eventual repair and replacement. As our natural resources diminish, the investigation of the use of recycled materials is as important as the research on new materials.The development of more efficient structural sections to better utilize the performance characteristics of new materials is important. In addition, more research is required in the areas ofdeck replacement panels, continuity regions of spliced girder sections, and safe,durable, cost-effective retaining wall structures.Research in the areas of design and evaluation will continue into the next millennium.The use of HPC will be facilitated by the removal of the implied strength limitation of 70 MPa (10.0 ksi) and other barriers in the LRFD bridge design specifications. As our nation’s infrastructure continues to age and as the vehicle loads continue to increase, it is important to better evaluate the capacity of existing structures and to develop effective retrofitting techniques. Improved quantification of bridge system reliability is expected through the calibration of system factors to assess the member capacities as a function of the level of redundancy. Data regarding inspection, maintenance, repair, and rehabilitation expenditures and their timing must be systematically collected and evaluated to develop better methods of assessing cost-effectiveness of concrete bridges. Performance-based seismic design methods will require a higher level of computing and better analysis tools.In both new and existing structures, it is important to be able to monitor the “health” of these structures through the development of instrumentation (e.g., fiber optics) to determine the state of stresses and corrosion in the members.CONCLUSIONIntroduced into the United States in 1949, prestressed concrete bridges today represent over 50 percent of all bridges built. This increase has resulted from advancements in design and analysis procedures and the development of new bridge systems and improved materials.The year 2000 sets the stage for even greater advancements. An exciting future lies ahead for concrete bridges!混凝土桥梁在美国甚至在世界桥梁上，混凝土是最常用的建设材料。
土木工程专业钢筋混凝土结构设计毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：钢筋混凝土结构设计文献、资料英文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：土木工程班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14毕业设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES原文：DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETESTRUCTURES1. BASIC CONCERPTS AND CHARACERACTERISTICS OF REINFORCED CONCRETEPlain concrete is formed from hardened mixture of cement, water , fine aggregate , coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel ) , air and often other admixtures . The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to accelerate of the chemical hydration of hen cement mix and results in a hardened concrete. It is generally known that concrete has high compressive strength and low resistance to tension. Its tensile strength is approximatelyone-tenth of its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile reinforcement in the tension zone has to be provided to supplement the tensile strength of the reinforced concrete section.For example, a plain concrete beam under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig .1.1(a), when the distributed load increases and reaches a value q=1.37KN/m , the tensile region at the mid-span will be cracked and the beam will fail suddenly . A reinforced concrete beam if the same size but has to steel reinforcing bars (2φ16) embedded at the bottom under a uniformly distributed load q is shown in Fig.1.1(b). The reinforcing bars take up the tension there after the concrete is cracked. When the load q is increased, the width of the cracks, the deflection and thestress of steel bars will increase . When the steel approaches the yielding stress ƒy , thedeflection and the cracked width are so large offering some warning that the compression zone . The failure load q=9.31KN/m, is approximately 6.8 times that for the plain concrete beam.Concrete and reinforcement can work together because there is a sufficiently strong bond between the two materials, there are no relative movements of the bars and the surrounding concrete cracking. The thermal expansion coefficients of the two materials are 1.2×10-5K-1 for steel and 1.0×10-5~1.5×10-5K-1 for concrete .Generally speaking, reinforced structure possess following features :Durability .With the reinforcing steel protected by the concrete , reinforced concreteFig.1.1Plain concrete beam and reinforced concrete beamIs perhaps one of the most durable materials for construction .It does not rot rust , and is not vulnerable to efflorescence .(2)Fire resistance .Both concrete an steel are not inflammable materials .They would not be affected by fire below the temperature of 200℃when there is a moderate amount of concrete cover giving sufficient thermal insulation to the embedded reinforcement bars.(3)High stiffness .Most reinforced concrete structures have comparatively large cross sections .As concrete has high modulus of elasticity, reinforced concrete structures are usuallystiffer than structures of other materials, thus they are less prone to large deformations, This property also makes the reinforced concrete less adaptable to situations requiring certainflexibility, such as high-rise buildings under seismic load, and particular provisions have to be made if reinforced concrete is used.(b)Reinfoced concrete beam(4)Locally available resources. It is always possible to make use of the local resources of labour and materials such as fine and coarse aggregates. Only cement and reinforcement need to be brought in from outside provinces.(5)Cost effective. Comparing with steel structures, reinforced concrete structures are cheaper.(6)Large dead mass, The density of reinforced concrete may reach2400~2500kg/pare with structures of other materials, reinforced concrete structures generally have a heavy dead mass. However, this may be not always disadvantageous, particularly for those structures which rely on heavy dead weight to maintain stability, such as gravity dam and other retaining structure. The development and use of light weight aggregate have to a certain extent make concrete structure lighter.(7)Long curing period.. It normally takes a curing period of 28 day under specified conditions for concrete to acquire its full nominal strength. This makes the progress of reinforced concrete structure construction subject to seasonal climate. The development of factory prefabricated members and investment in metal formwork also reduce the consumption of timber formwork materials.(8)Easily cracked. Concrete is weak in tension and is easily cracked in the tension zone. Reinforcing bars are provided not to prevent the concrete from cracking but to take up the tensile force. So most of the reinforced concrete structure in service is behaving in a cracked state. This is an inherent is subjected to a compressive force before working load is applied. Thus the compressed concrete can take up some tension from the load.2. HISTOEICAL DEVELPPMENT OF CONCRETE STRUCTUREAlthough concrete and its cementitious(volcanic) constituents, such as pozzolanic ash, have been used since the days of Greek, the Romans, and possibly earlier ancient civilization, the use of reinforced concrete for construction purpose is a relatively recent event, In 1801, F. Concrete published his statement of principles of construction, recognizing the weakness if concrete in tension, The beginning of reinforced concrete is generally attributed to Frenchman J. L. Lambot, who in 1850 constructed, for the first time, a small boat with concrete for exhibition in the 1855 World’s Fair in Paris. In England, W. B. Wilkinson registered a patent for reinforced concrete l=floor slab in 1854.J.Monier, a French gardener used metal frames as reinforcement to make garden plant containers in 1867. Before 1870, Monier had taken a series of patents to make reinforcedconcrete pipes, slabs, and arches. But Monier had no knowledge of the working principle of this new material, he placed the reinforcement at the mid-depth of his wares. Then little construction was done in reinforced concrete. It is until 1887, when the German engineers Wayss and Bauschinger proposed to place the reinforcement in the tension zone, the use of reinforced concrete as a material of construction began to spread rapidly. In1906, C. A. P. Turner developed the first flat slab without beams.Before the early twenties of 20th century, reinforced concrete went through the initial stage of its development, Considerable progress occurred in the field such that by 1910 the German Committee for Reinforced Concrete, the Austrian Concrete Committee, the American Concrete Institute, and the British Concrete Institute were established. Various structural elements, such as beams, slabs, columns, frames, arches, footings, etc. were developed using this material. However, the strength of concrete and that of reinforcing bars were still very low. The common strength of concrete at the beginning of 20th century was about 15MPa in compression, and the tensile strength of steel bars was about 200MPa. The elements were designed along the allowable stresses which was an extension of the principles in strength of materials.By the late twenties, reinforced concrete entered a new stage of development. Many buildings, bridges, liquid containers, thin shells and prefabricated members of reinforced concrete were concrete were constructed by 1920. The era of linear and circular prestressing began.. Reinforced concrete, because of its low cost and easy availability, has become the staple material of construction all over the world. Up to now, the quality of concrete has been greatly improved and the range of its utility has been expanded. The design approach has also been innovative to giving the new role for reinforced concrete is to play in the world of construction.The concrete commonly used today has a compressive strength of 20~40MPa. For concrete used in pre-stressed concrete the compressive strength may be as high as 60~80MPa. The reinforcing bars commonly used today has a tensile strength of 400MPa, and the ultimate tensile strength of prestressing wire may reach 1570~1860Pa. The development of high strength concrete makes it possible for reinforced concrete to be used in high-rise buildings, off-shore structures, pressure vessels, etc. In order to reduce the dead weight of concrete structures, various kinds of light concrete have been developed with a density of 1400~1800kg/m3. With a compressive strength of 50MPa, light weight concrete may be used in load bearing structures. One of the best examples is the gymnasium of the University of Illinois which has a span of 122m and is constructed of concrete with a density of 1700kg/m3. Another example is the two 20-story apartment houses at the Xi-Bian-Men in Beijing. The walls of these two buildings are light weight concrete with a density of 1800kg/m3.The tallest reinforced concrete building in the world today is the 76-story Water Tower Building in Chicago with a height of 262m. The tallest reinforced concrete building in China today is the 63-story International Trade Center in GuangZhou with a height a height of 200m. The tallest reinforced concrete construction in the world is the 549m high International Television Tower in Toronto, Canada. He prestressed concrete T-section simply supported beam bridge over the Yellow River in Luoyang has 67 spans and the standard span length is 50m.In the design of reinforced concrete structures, limit state design concept has replaced the old allowable stresses principle. Reliability analysis based on the probability theory has very recently been introduced putting the limit state design on a sound theoretical foundation. Elastic-plastic analysis of continuous beams is established and is accepted in most of the design codes. Finite element analysis is extensively used in the design of reinforced concrete structures and non-linear behavior of concrete is taken into consideration. Recent earthquake disasters prompted the research in the seismic resistant reinforced of concrete structures. Significant results have been accumulated.3. SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE COURSEReinforced concrete is a widely used material for construction. Hence, graduates of every civil engineering program must have, as a minimum requirement, a basic understanding of the fundamentals of reinforced concrete.The course of Reinforced Concrete Design requires the prerequisite of Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, and some if not all, of Theory of Structures, In all these courses, with the exception of Strength of Materials to some extent, a structure is treated of in the abstract. For instance, in the theory of rigid frame analysis, all members have an abstract EI/l value, regardless of what the act value may be. But the theory of reinforced concrete is different, it deals with specific materials, concrete and steel. The values of most parameters must be determined by experiments and can no more be regarded as some abstract. Additionally, due to the low tensile strength of concrete, the reinforced concrete members usually work with cracks, some of the parameters such as the elastic modulus I of concrete and the inertia I of section are variable with the loads.The theory of reinforced concrete is relatively young. Although great progress has been made, the theory is still empirical in nature in stead of rational. Many formulas can not be derived from a few propositions, and may cause some difficulties for students. Besides, due to the difference in practice in different countries, most countries base their design methods on their own experience and experimental results. Consequently, what one learns in one country may be different in another country. Besides, the theory is still in a stage of rapid。
建筑施工混凝土裂缝 毕业论文外文文献翻译
Building construction concrete crackAbstractThe crack problem of concrete is a widespread existence but again difficult in solve of engineering actual problem, this text carried on a study analysis to a little bit familiar crack problem in the concrete engineering. Keyword:Concrete crackForewordConcrete's ising 1 kind is anticipate by the freestone bone, cement, water and other mixture but formation of the in addition material of quality brittleness not and all material.Because the concrete construction transform with oneself, control etc. a series problem, harden model of in the concrete existence numerous tiny hole, spirit cave and tiny crack, is exactly because these beginning start blemish of existence just make the concrete present one some not and all the characteristic of quality.The tiny crack is a kind of harmless crack and accept concrete heavy, defend Shen and a little bit other use function not a creation to endanger.But after the concrete be subjected to lotus carry, difference in temperature etc. function, tiny crack would continuously of expand with connect, end formation we can see without the aid of instruments of macro view the crack be also the crack that the concrete often say in the engineering.Concrete crack creation of the reason be a lot of and have alreadytransformed to cause of crack:Such as temperature variety, constringency, inflation, the asymmetry sink to sink etc. reason cause of crack;Have outside carry the crack that the function cause;Protected environment not appropriate the crack etc. caused with chemical effect.Want differentiation to treat in the actual engineering, work°out a problem according to the actual circumstance.In the concrete engineering the familiar crack and the prevention1.Stem Suo crack and preventionStem the Suo crack much appear after the concrete protect be over of a period of time or concrete sprinkle to build to complete behind of around a week.In the cement syrup humidity of evaporate would creation stem Suo, and this kind of constringency is can't negative.Stem Suo crack of the creation be main is because of concrete inside outside humidity evaporate degree dissimilarity but cause to transform dissimilarity of result:The concrete is subjected to exterior condition of influence, surface humidity loss lead quick, transform bigger, inner part degree of humidity variety smaller transform smaller, bigger surface stem the Suo transform to be subjected to concrete inner part control, creation more big pull should dint but creation crack.The relative humidity is more low, cement syrup body stem Suo more big, stem the Suo crack be more easy creation.Stem the Suo crack is much surface parallel lines form or the net shallow thin crack, width many between 0.05-0.2 mm, the flat surface part much see in the bigphysical volume concrete and follow it more in thinner beam plank short to distribute.Stem Suo crack usually the anti- Shen of influence concrete, cause the durable of the rust eclipse influence concrete of reinforcing bar, under the function of the water pressure dint would creation the water power split crack influence concrete of loading dint etc..Concrete stem the Suo be main with water ash of the concrete ratio, the dosage of the composition, cement of cement, gather to anticipate of the dosage of the property and dosage, in addition etc. relevant.2.The Su constringency crack and preventionSu constringency is the concrete is before condense, surface because of lose water quicker but creation of constringency.The Su constringency crack is general at dry heat or strong wind the weather appear, crack's much presenting in the center breadth, both ends be in the centerthin and the length be different, with each other not coherent appearance.Shorter crack general long 20-30 cm, the longer crack can reach to a 2-3 m, breadth 1-5 mm.It creation of main reason is:The concrete is eventually almost having no strength or strength before the Ning very small, perhaps concrete just eventually Ning but strength very hour, be subjected to heat or compare strong wind dint of influence, the concrete surface lose water to lead quick, result in in the capillary creation bigger negative press but make a concrete physical volume sharply constringency, but at this time the strength of concrete again can't resist its constringency, thereforecreation cracked.The influence concrete Su constringency open the main factor of crack to have water ash ratio, concrete of condense time, environment temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity...etc..3.Sink to sink crack and preventionThe creation which sink to sink crack is because of the structure foundation soil quality not and evenly, loose soft or return to fill soil dishonest or soak in water but result in the asymmetry sink to decline with the result that;Perhaps because of template just degree shortage, the template propped up to once be apart from big or prop up bottom loose move etc. to cause, especially at winter, the template prop up at jelly soil up, jelly the soil turn jelly empress creation asymmetry to sink to decline and cause concrete structure creation crack.This kind crack many is deep enter or pierce through sex crack, it alignment have something to do with sinking to sink a circumstance, general follow with ground perpendicular or present 30 °s-45 ° Cape direction development, bigger sink to sink crack, usually have certain of wrong, crack width usually with sink to decline quantity direct proportion relation.Crack width under the influence of temperature variety smaller.The foundation after transform stability sink to sink crack also basic tend in stability.4.Temperature crack and preventionTemperature crack much the occurrence is in big surface or difference in temperature variety of the physical volume concrete compare the earth areaof the concrete structure.Concrete after sprinkling to build, in the hardening the process, cement water turn a creation a great deal of of water turn hot, .(be the cement dosage is in the 350-550 kg/m 3, each sign square the rice concrete will release a calories of 17500-27500 kJ and make concrete internal thus the temperature rise to reach to 70 ℃or so even higher)Because the physical volume of concrete be more big, a great deal of of water turn hot accumulate at the concrete inner part but not easy send forth, cause inner part the temperature hoick, but the concrete surface spread hot more quick, so formation inside outside of bigger difference in temperature, the bigger difference in temperature result in inner part and exterior hot the degree of the bulge cold Suo dissimilarity, make concrete surface creation certain of pull should dint.When pull should dint exceed the anti- of concrete pull strength extreme limit, concrete surface meeting creation crack, this kind of crack much occurrence after the concrete under construction period.In the concrete of under construction be difference in temperature variety more big, perhaps is a concrete to be subjected to assault of cold wave etc., will cause concrete surface the temperature sharply descend, but creation constringency, surface constringency of the concrete be subjected to inner part concrete of control, creation very big of pull should dint but creation crack, this kind of crack usually just in more shallow scope of the concrete surface creation.ConclusionThe crack is widespread in the concrete structure existence of a kind of phenomenon, it of emergence not only will lower the anti- Shen of building ability, influence building of usage function, and will cause the rust eclipse of reinforcing bar, the carbonization of concrete, lower the durable of material, influence building of loading ability, so want to carry on to the concrete crack earnest research, differentiation treat, adoption reasonable of the method carry on processing, and at under construction adopt various valid of prevention measure to prevention crack of emergence and development, assurance building and Gou piece safety, stability work.建筑施工混凝土裂缝混凝土的裂缝问题是一个普遍存在而又难于解决的工程实际问题，本文对混凝土工程中常见的一些裂缝问题进行了探讨分析。
土木工程混凝土论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
土木工程混凝土论文中英文资料外文翻译文献外文资料STUDIES ON IMPACT STRENGTH OF CONCRETESUBJECTED TO SUSTAINEDELEVATED TEMPERATUREConcrete has a remarkable fire resisting properties. Damage in concrete due to fire depends on a great extent on the intensity and duration of fire. Spalling cracking during heating are common concrete behaviour observed in the investigation of the fire affected structures. Plenty of literature is available on the studies of concrete based on time temperature cures. In power, oil sectorsand nuclear reactors concrete is exposed to high temperature for considerable period of time. These effects can be reckoned as exposure to sustained elevated temperature. The sustained elevated temperature may be varying from a few hours to a number of years depending upon practical condition of exposures. The knowledge on properties under such conditions is also of prime importance apart from the structures subjected to high intensity fire. Impact studies of structure subjected to sustained elevated temperature becomes more important as it involves sensitive structures which is more prone to attacks and accidents. In this paper impact studies on concrete subjected to sustained elevated temperature has been discussed. Experiments have been conducted on 180 specimens along with 180 companion cube specimens. The temperatures of 100°C, 200°C and 300°C for a duration of exposure of 2 hours 4 hours and 6 hours has been considered in the experiments. The results are logically analyzed and concluded.1. INTRODUCTIONThe remarkable property of concrete to resist the fire reduces the damage in a concrete structure whenever there is an accidental fire. In most of the cases the concrete remains intact with minor damages only. The reason being low thermal conductivity of concrete at higher temperatures and hence limiting the depth of penetration of firedamage. But when the concrete is subjected to high temperature for long duration the deterioration of concrete takes place. Hence it is essential to understand the strength and deformation characteristics of concrete subjected to temperature for long duration. In this paper an attempt has been made to study the variation in Impact Strength of concrete when subjected to a temperature range 100oC, 200oC and 300oC sustained for a period of 2 hrs, 4 hrs and 6 hrs.The review of the literature shows that a lot of research work [1 – 3] has taken place on the effect of elevated temperature on concrete. All these studies are based on time –temperature curves. Hence an attempt has been made to study the effect of sustained elevated temperature on impact strength of concrete and the results are compared with the compressive strength. The experimental programme has been planned for unstressed residual strength test based on the available facilities. Residual strength is the strength of heated and subsequently cooled concrete specimens expressed as percentage of the strength of unheated specimens.2. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION2.1. TEST SPECIMEN AND MATERIALSA total of 180 specimens were tested in the present study along with 180 companion cubes. An electric oven capable of reaching a maximum temperature of 300oC has been used for investigation. Fine and coarse aggregates conforming to IS383 has been used to prepare the specimen with mix proportions M1 = 1:2.1:3.95 w/c = 0.58, M2 = 1:1.15:3.56 w/c = 0.53, M3 = 1:0.8:2.4 w/c = 0.4.2.2 TEST VARIABLESThe effects of the following variables were studied.2.2.1 Size sSize of Impact Strength Test Specimen was 150 mm dial and 64 mm thickness and size of companion cube 150 x 150 x 150 mm.2.2.2 Maximum TemperatureIn addition to room temperature, the effect of three different temperatures (100oC, 200oC and 300oC) on the compressive strength was investigated.2.2.3 Exposure Time at Maximum TemperatureThree different exposure times were used to investigate the influence of heat on compressive strength; they are 2 hrs, 4 hrs and 6 hrs.2.2.4 Cooling MethodSpecimens were cooled in air to room temperature.3. TEST PROCEDUREAll the specimens were cast in steel moulds as per IS516 and each layer was compacted. Specimens were then kept in their moulds for 24 hours after which they were decoupled and placed into a curing tank until 28 days. After which the specimens were removed and were allowed to dry in room temperature. These specimens were kept in the oven and the required target temperature was set. Depending on the number of specimen kept inside the oven the time taken to reach the steady state was found to vary. After the steady state was reached the specimens were subjected to predetermined steady duration at the end of which the specimens are cooled to room temperature and tested.ACI drop weight impact strength test was adopted. This is the simplest method for evaluating impact resistance of concrete. The size of the specimen is 150 mm dial and 64 mm thickness. The disc specimens were prepared using steel moulds cured and heated and cooled as. This consists of a standard manually operated 4.54 kg hammer with 457 mm drop. A 64 mm hardened steel ball and a flat base plate with positioning bracket and lugs. The specimen is placed between the four guides pieces (lugs) located 4.8 mm away from the sample. A frame (positioning bracket) is then built in order to target the steel ball at the centre of concrete disc. The disc is coated at the bottom with a thin layer of petroleum jelly or heavy grease to reduce the friction between the specimen and base plate. The bottom part of the hammer unit was placed with its base upon the steel ball and the load was applied by dropping weight repeatedly. The loading was continued until the disc failed and opened up such that it touched three of the four positioning lugs. The number of blows that caused this condition is recorded as the failure strength. The companion cubes were tested for cube compression strength (fake).4. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS4.1 RESIDUAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VS. TEMPERATUREFrom Table 1, at 100°C sustained elevated temperature it is seen that the residual strength of air cooled specimens of mixes M1, M2 and M3 has increased in strength 114% for M1 mix, 109% for M2 mix and 111% for M3 mix for 6 hours duration of exposure. When the sustained elevated temperature is to 200°C for air cooled specimens there is a decrease in strength up to 910% approximately for M1 mix for a duration of 6 hours, but in case of M2 mix it is 82% and for M3 mix it is 63% maximum for 6 hours duration of exposure. When the concrete mixes M1, M2 and M3 are exposed to 300°C sustained temperature there is a reduction in strength up to 78% for M1 mix for 6 hour duration of exposure.4.2 RESIDUAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VS DURATION OF EXPOSUREFrom Table 1, result shows that heating up to 100°C for 2 hours and 4 hours, the residual strength of mix M1 has decreased where as the residual strength of mix M2 and M3 has increased. The residual strength is further increased for 6 hours duration of exposure in all the three mixes M1, M2 and M3 even beyond the strength at room temperature. When the specimens of mixes M1, M2 and M3 are exposed to 200°C for 2,4 and 6 hours of duration, it is observed that the residual strength has decreased below the room temperature and has reached 92% for M1 mix, 82 and 73% for M2 and M3 mix respectively. Concrete cubes of mixes M1, M2 and M3 when subjected to 300°C temperature for 2,4 and 6 hours the residual strength for mix M1 reduces to 92% for 2 hours up to 78% for six hours duration of exposure, for M2 mix 90% for 2 hours duration of exposure up to 76% for six hour duration of exposure, for M3 mix 88% up to 68% between 2 and 6 hours of duration of exposure.5. IMPACT STRENGTH OF CONCRETE5.1 RESIDUAL IMPACT STRENGTH VS TEMPERATUREFrom the table 1, it can be observed that for the sustained elevated temperature of 100°C the residual impact strength of all the specimens reduces and vary between 20 and 50% for mix M1, 15 to 40% for mix M2 and M3. When the sustained elevated temperature is 200°C the residual impact strength of all the mixes further decreases. The reduction is around 60-70% for mix M1, 55 to 65% for M2 and M3 mix. When the sustained elevated temperature is 300°C it is observed that the residual impact strength reduces further and vary between 85 and 70% for mix M1 and 85 to 90% for mix M2 and mix M3.5.2 RESIDUAL IMPACT STRENGTH VS DURATION OF EXPOSUREFrom the Table 1 and Figures 1 to 3, it can be observed that there is a reduction in impact strength when the sustained elevated temperature is 100°C for 2 hrs, 4 hrs and 6 hrs, and its range is 15 to 50% for all the mixes M1, M2 and M3. The influence of duration of exposure is higher for mix M1 which decreases more rapidly as compared to mix M2 and mix M3 for the same duration of exposure. When the specimens are subjected to sustained elevated temperature of 200°C for 2,4 and 6 hour of duration, further reduction in residual impact strength is observed as compared to at 100°C. The reduction is in the range of 55-70% for all the mixes. The six hour duration of exposure has a greater influence on the residual impact strength of concrete. When the sustained elevated temperature is 300°C for 2,4 and 6 hours duration of exposure the residualimpact strength reduces. It can be seen that both temperature and duration of exposure have a very high influence on the residual impact strength of concrete which shows a reduction up to 90% approximately for all the mixes.6. CONCLUSIONThe compressive strength of concrete increases at 100oC when exposed to sustained elevated temperature. The compressive strength of concrete decreases when exposed to 200°C and 300°C from 10 to 30% for 6 hours of exposure. Residual impact strength reduces irrespective of temperature and duration. Residual impact strength decreases at a higher rate of 20% to 85% as compared to compressive strength between 15% and 30 % when subjected to sustained elevated temperature. The impact strength reduces at a higher rate as compared to compressive strength when subjected to sustained elevated temperature.混凝土受持续高温影响的强度的研究混凝土具有显着的耐火性能。
土木工程混凝土强度中英文对照外文翻译文献
<文献翻译一：原文>Strength of Concrete in Slabs, Investigates along Direction of Concreting ABSTRACTIn theory of concrete it is assumed that concrete composites are isotropic on a macro scale. For example, it is assumed that a floor slab’s or a beam’s streng th is identical in all directions and its nonhomogeneity is random. Hence neither calculations of the load-bearing capacity of structural components nor the techniques of investigating concrete in structure in situ take into account to a sufficient degree the fact that the assumption about concrete isotropy is overly optimistic. The present research shows that variation in concrete strength along the direction of concreting has not only a qualitative effect (as is commonly believed), but also a significant quantitative effect. This indicates that concrete is a composite which has not been fully understood yet. The paper presents evaluations of ordinary concrete (OC) homogeneity along component thickness along the direction of concreting. The ultrasonic method and modified exponential heads with a point contact with concrete were used in the investigations [1-3].Keywords: Concrete; Compressive Strength of Concrete; Non-Destructive1. IntroductionIn a building structure there are components which are expected to have special properties but not necessarily in the whole cross section. Components under bending, such as beams and floor slabs are generally compressed in their upper zone and the concrete’s compressive strength is vital mainly in this zone. The components are usually moulded in the same position in which they later remain in service, i.e. with their upper zone under compression. Concrete in the upper zone is expected to be slightly weaker than in the lower zone, but it is unclear how much weaker [4,5]. Also flooring slabs in production halls are most exposed to abrasion and impact loads in their upper zone which is not their strongest part. It is known from practice that industrial floors belong to the most often damaged building components.When reinforced concrete beams or floor slabs are to be tested they can be accessed only from their undersides and so only the bottom parts are tested and on this basis conclusions are drawn about the strength of the concrete in the whole cross section, including in the compressed upper zone. Thus a question arises: how large are the errors committed in this kind of investigations?In order to answer the above and other questions, tests of the strength of concrete in various structural components, especially in horizontally concreted slabs, were carried out. The variation of strength along the thickness of the components was analyzed.2. Research SignificanceThe research results presented in the paper show that the compressive strength of concrete in horizontally formed structural elements varies along their thickness. In the top zone the strength is by 25% - 30% lower than the strength in the middle zone, and it can be by as much as 100% lower than the strength in the bottom zone. The observations are based on the results of nondestructive tests carried out on drill cores taken from the structure, and verified by a destructive method. It is interesting to note that despite the great advances in concrete technology, the variation in compressive strength along the thickness of structural elements is characteristic of both old (over 60 years old) concretes and contemporary ordinary concretes.3. Test MethodologyBefore Concrete strength was tested by the ultrasonic method using exponential heads with a point contact with concrete. The detailed specifications of the heads can be found in [2,3]. The heads’ frequency was 40 and 100 kHz and the diameter of their concentrators amounted to 1 mm.In order to determine the real strength distributions in the existing structures, cylindrical cores 80 mm or 114 mm diameter (Figure 2) were drilled from them in the direction of concreting. Then specimens with their height equal to their diameter were cut out of the cores.Ultrasonic measurements were performed on the cores according to the scheme shown in Figure3. Ultrasonic pulses (pings) were passed through in two perpendicular directions I and II in planes spaced every 10 mm. In this way one could determine how ping velocity varied along the core’s height, i.e. along the thickness of the tested component.In both test directions ping pass times were determined and velocities CL were calculated. The velocities from the two directions in a tested measurement plane were averaged.Subsequently, specimens with their height equal to their diameter of 80 mm were cut out of the cores. Aver-age ultrasonic pulse velocity CL for the specimen’s central zone was correlated with fatigue strength fc determined by destructive tests carried out in a strength tester.For the different concretes different correlation curves with a linear, exponential or power equation were obtained. Exemplary correlation curve equations are given below:Lc c L c C f L f C f 38.1exp 0951.01.003.56705.232621.4=⋅=-⨯=where:fc —the compressive strength of concrete MPa,CL —ping velocity km/s.The determined correlation curve was used to calculate the strength of concrete in each tested core cross section and the results are presented in the form of graphs illustrating concrete strength distribution along the thickness of the tested component. 4. Investigation of Concrete in Industrial FloorsAfter Floor in sugar factory’s raw materials storage hall Concrete in an industrial floor must have particularly good characteristics in the top layer. Since it was to be loaded with warehouse trucks and stored sugar beets and frequently washed the investigated concrete floor (built in 1944) was designed as consisting of a 150 mm thick underlay and a 50 mm thick surface layer and made of concrete with a strength of 20 MPa (concrete A).As part of the investigations eight cores, each 80 mm in diameter, were drilled from the floor. The investigations showed significant departures from the design. The concrete subfloor’s thickness varied from 40 to 150 mm. The surface layer was not made of concrete, but of cement mortar with sand used as the aggregate. Also the thickness of this layer was uneven, varying from 40 to 122mm. After the ultrasonic tests specimens with their height equal to their diameter of 80 mm were cut out of the cores. Two scaling curves: one for the surface layer and the other for the bottom concrete layer were determined.A characteristic concrete compressive strength distribution along the floor’s thickness is shown in Figure 4.Strength in the upper zone is much lower than in thelower zone: ranging from 4.7 to 9.8 MPa for the mortar and from 13.9 to 29.0 MPa for the concrete layer. The very low strength of the upper layer of mortar is the result of strong porosity caused by air bubbles escaping upwards during the vibration of concrete. Figure 5 shows t he specimen’s porous top surface.Floor in warehouse hall with forklift truck transport The floor was built in 1998. Cellular concrete was used as for the underlay and the 150 mm thick surface layer was made of ordinary concrete with fibre (steel wires) reinforcement (concrete B). Cores 80 mm high and 80 mm in diameter were drilled from the surface layer. Ultrasonic measurements and destructive tests were performed as described above. Also the test results were handled in a similar way. An exemplary strength distribution along the floor’s thickness is shown in Figure 6.5. ConclusionsTests of ordinary concretes show unexpectedly greatly reduced strength in the upper zone of horizontally moulded structural components. This is to a large degree due to the vibration of concrete as a result of which coarse aggregate displaces downwards making the lower layers more compact while air moves upwards aerating the upper layers and thereby increasing their porosity. The increase in the concrete’s porosity results in a large drop in its compressive strength. Thanks to the use of the ultrasonic method and probes with exponential concentrators it could be demonstrated how the compressive strength of ordinary concrete is distributed along the thickness of structural components in building structures. It became apparent that the reduction in compressive strength in the compressed zone of structural components under bending and in industrial concrete floors can be very large (amounting to as much as 50% of the strength of t he slab’s lower zone). Therefore this phenomenon should be taken into account at the stage of calculating slabs, reinforced concrete beams and industrial floors [6].The results of the presented investigations apply to ordinary concretes (OC) which are increasingly supplanted by self-compacting concretes (SCC) and high-performance concretes (HPC). Since no intensive vibration is required to mould structures from such concretes one can expect that they are much more homogenous along their thickness [7]. This will be known once the ongoing experimental research is completed.Bohdan StawiskiStrength of Concrete in Slabs, Investigates along Direction of Concreting[D]Institute of Building Engineering, Wroclaw University of Technology Wybrzeze Wyspianskiego, Wroclaw, Poland Received October 15, 2011; revised November 21, 2011; accepted November 30, 2011<文献翻译一：译文>混凝土强度与混凝土浇筑方向关系的研究摘要从理论上看，假设混凝土复合材料是各项同性的从宏观尺度上讲。
混凝土外国参考文献
混凝土外国参考文献混凝土外国参考文献---为了更好地理解和研究混凝土材料，许多研究人员和学者在世界各地进行了大量的研究工作，并发表了许多有价值的外国参考文献。
本文将对混凝土领域的一些重要外国参考文献进行综述和分析，以帮助读者更深入地了解混凝土的发展和应用。
1. ACI 318-14 "Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete"这是美国混凝土协会（American Concrete Institute）发行的一份重要标准，规定了混凝土结构的设计和施工要求。
该标准详细说明了混凝土的材料性能、设计原则、施工方法和质量控制等方面内容。
它为混凝土结构的安全性、可靠性和持久性提供了指导，是混凝土工程设计师必不可少的参考文献。
2. “Concrete Technology” by A.M. Neville这本书是混凝土技术领域的经典之作，由著名学者A.M. Neville撰写。
该书系统地介绍了混凝土材料的性质、制备方法、试验方法以及各种混凝土结构的设计和施工技术。
通过对混凝土技术的全面概述，读者可以深入了解混凝土的特性、应用和发展趋势。
3. "Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials" by P. Kumar Mehta and Paulo J.M. Monteiro这本书详细介绍了混凝土的微观结构、物性和材料特性。
它提供了混凝土材料学的深入分析，涵盖了混凝土组成材料的特点、胶凝材料的反应机理以及微观结构对混凝土性能的影响等内容。
通过对混凝土材料学的系统研究和解释，读者可以更好地理解混凝土的性能和行为。
4. "Durability of Concrete Structures: Investigation, Repair, Protection" by Carmen Andrade and Jorge M.Ferreira这本书重点介绍了混凝土结构的耐久性问题，涉及到检测、修复和保护混凝土结构的方法和技术。
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译
forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、 steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ , Ⅲ , Ⅳ grade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinforcing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2 must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy.Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ , Ⅲ grade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil building and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ , Ⅲ grade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of the actual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土结构中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，随着国民经济的快速、持久发展，各种钢筋混凝土建筑结构大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大的发展。
建筑外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土强度和现代建筑材料
建筑外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土强度和现代建筑材料以下是为大家整理的建筑外文翻译外文文献英文文献混凝土强度和现代建筑材料的相关范文，本文关键词为建筑,外文,翻译,文献,英文,混凝土,强度,现代,建筑材料,，您可以从右上方搜索框检索更多相关文章，如果您觉得有用，请继续关注我们并推荐给您的好友，您可以在英语学习中查看更多范文。
外文出处：buildingandenvironment12(20XX)186-191附件1：外文资料翻译译文混凝土强度和现代建筑材料文章摘要：钢筋混凝土可以用在框架结构上，常常用在预制构件并主要用在工业建筑相同结构建筑物上，混凝土也可以用在壳式建筑施工中，其表面同时也成为结构的组成部分。
现代建筑材料：大多数较大的建筑物都是由钢结构，钢筋混凝土以及预应力混凝土构成。
关键词：混凝土强度；现代建筑材料；高层建筑；框架结构在许多结构中,混凝土同时受到不同方向各种应力的作用.例如在梁中大部分混凝土同时承受压力和剪力,再楼板和基础中,混凝土同时承受两个相互垂直方向的压力外加剪力的作用.根据材料力学学习中已知的方法,无论怎样复杂的复合应力状态,都可化为三个相互垂直的主应力,它们作用在材料适当定向的单元立方体上.三个主应力中的任意一个或者全部既可是拉应力,也可是压应力.如果其中一个主应力为零,则为双轴应力状态。
如果有两个主应力为零，则为单轴应力状态，或为简单压缩或为简单拉伸。
在多数情况下，根据简单的试验，如圆柱体强度f'c和抗拉强度f't，只能够确定材料在单轴应力作用下的性能。
为了预测混凝土在双轴应力或三轴应力作用下的结构强度，在通过试验仅仅知道f'c或f'c与f't的情况下，需要通过计算确定混凝土在上述复合应力状态下的强度。
尽管人们连续不断地进行了大量的研究，但仍然没有得出有关混凝土在复合应力作用下的强度的通用理论。
经过修正的各种强度理论，如最大拉应力理论、莫尔-库仑理论和八面体应力理论(以上理论都在材料力学课本中讨论过)应用于混凝土，取得了不同程度的进展。
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译
forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ, Ⅲ, Ⅳgrade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinfor cing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy. Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ, Ⅲgrade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil buil ding and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ, Ⅲgrade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of the actual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土构造中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，伴随国民经济旳迅速、持久发展，多种钢筋混凝土建筑构造大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大旳发展。
土木工程类外文文献翻译---钢筋混凝土可编辑
土木工程类外文文献翻译---钢筋混凝土外文文献翻译院系_________________________班级_________________________姓名_________________________指导教师_________________________2012年2月20 日2 外文翻译21 Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement water fine aggregate coarse aggregate crushed stone or gravel air and often other admixtures The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cementwater mix resulting in hardened concrete The finished product has high compressive strength and low resistance to tension such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength Consequently tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete elementIt is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved This is possible because concrete can easily be givenany desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned the finished product becomes strong durable and in combination with the reinforcing bars adaptable for use as main members of any structural system The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast that is whether it is a column a bean a wall a slab a foundation a mass columns or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete For beams columns and walls the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials In foundations the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type as the case requires unless it is placed by pumping It must be kept in mind however that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concreteHydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place If drying is too rapid surface cracking takes place This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydrationIt is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element such as geometrical widthdepth area of reinforcement steel strain concrete strain steel stress and so on Consequently trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice of concrete sections with assumptions based on conditions at site availability of the constituent materials particular demands of the owners architectural and headroom requirements the applicable codes and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structuresA trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analysesThe trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen The availability of handbooks charts and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient compact and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design22 EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast In 1935 most of the methods now inuse for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist Most earth was moved by narrow rail track now relatively rare and the main methods of excavation with face shovel backacter or dragline or grab though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators loaders and transport is obtainable from the makersEarthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high cuts and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low fills Toreduce earthwork costs the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness From the available maps ahd levels the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layoutbut the drawing lffice work will not have been lost It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest timeThe cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine This is not always possible but when it canbe done it is ideal being both quick and cheap Draglinesbulldozers and face shovels an do this The largest radius is obtained with the draglineand the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer though only over short distancesThe disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself it cannot dig with force into compacted material it cannot dig on steep slopws and its dumping and digging are not accurate Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovelRubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel They can dig the material deeply but only below themselves to a fairly flat surface carry it hundreds of meters if need be then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor wheeled or tracked on the digging site to push each scraper as it returns to dig As soon as the scraper is fullthe pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraperBowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machinesmany makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity which carry 10 m 3 heaped The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m 3 struck capacity 25 m 3 heaped and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powersDumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels and the container tips forwards on most types though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 05 m 3 and the largest standard types are of about 45 m 3 Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m 3 and the articulated type of about 05 m 3 The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load Dump trucks are heavy strengthened tipping lorries the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks23 Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures The safety factor which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability risk of failure of the structureFailure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also as unserviceability or according to a more precise Common definition As the reaching of a limit state which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for There are two categories of limit state1 Ultimate limit sate which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism failure by fatigue elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads to fire and to explosions2 Service limit states which are functions of the use and durability of the structure Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability early or excessive cracks large vibrations and corrosionComputational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into1 Deterministic methods in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters2 Probabilistic methods in which the main parameters are considered as random parametersAlternatively with respect to the different use of factors of safety computational methods can be separated into1 Allowable stress method in which the stresses computed under imum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors2 Limit states method in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its imum strength This strength as determined by rational analysis shall not be less than that required to support a factored loadequal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ultimate state The stresses corresponding to working service conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values service limit state From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods we can obtain some useful computational methods Generally two combinations prevail1 deterministic methods which make use of allowable stresses2 Probabilistic methods which make use of limit statesThe main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that at least in theory it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety which are then combined to define the safety factor probabilistic approaches depend upon1 Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure2 Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure faults and imperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure3 Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure4 Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses Furthermore probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors such as1 Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage byits failure2 Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure3 Possibility andor likelihood of repairing the structure4 Predicted life of the structureAll these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as1 Initial cost of the construction2 Aortization funds for the duration of the construction3 Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction4 Adverse impact on society5 Moral and psychological viewsThe definition of all these parameters for a given safety factor allows construction at the optimum cost However the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known Furthermore it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifyingassumptions semi-probabilistic methods1 中文翻译11钢筋混凝土素混凝土是由水泥水细骨料粗骨料碎石或卵石空气通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成将可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板内并将其捣实然后进行养护以加速水泥与水的水化反应最后获得硬化的混凝土其最终制成品具有较高的抗压强度和较低的抗拉强度其抗拉强度约为抗压强度的十分之一因此截面的受拉区必须配置抗拉钢筋和抗剪钢筋以增加钢筋混凝土构件中较弱的受拉区的强度由于钢筋混凝土截面在均质性上与标准的木材或钢的截面存在着差异因此需要对结构设计的基本原理进行修改将钢筋混凝土这种非均质截面的两种组成部分按一定比例适当布置可以最好的利用这两种材料这一要求是可以达到的因混凝土由配料搅拌成湿拌合物经过振捣并凝固硬化可以做成任何一种需要的形状如果拌制混凝土的各种材料配合比恰当则混凝土制成品的强度较高经久耐用配置钢筋后可以作为任何结构体系的主要构件浇筑混凝土所需要的技术取决于即将浇筑的构件类型诸如柱梁墙板基础大体积混凝土水坝或者继续延长已浇筑完毕并且已经凝固的混凝土等对于梁柱墙等构件当模板清理干净后应该在其上涂油钢筋表面的锈及其他有害物质也应该被清除干净浇筑基础前应将坑底土夯实并用水浸湿6英寸以免土壤从新浇的混凝土中吸收水分一般情况下除使用混凝土泵浇筑外混凝土都应在水平方向分层浇筑并使用插入式或表面式高频电动振捣器捣实必须记住过分的振捣将导致骨料离析和混凝土泌浆等现象因而是有害的水泥的水化作用发生在有水分存在而且气温在50°F以上的条件下为了保证水泥的水化作用得以进行必须具备上述条件如果干燥过快则会出现表面裂缝这将有损与混凝土的强度同时也会影响到水泥水化作用的充分进行设计钢筋混凝土构件时显然需要处理大量的参数诸如宽度高度等几何尺寸配筋的面积钢筋的应变和混凝土的应变钢筋的应力等等因此在选择混凝土截面时需要进行试算并作调整根据施工现场条件混凝土原材料的供应情况业主提出的特殊要求对建筑和净空高度的要求所用的设计规范以及建筑物周围环境条件等最后确定截面钢筋混凝土通常是现场浇注的合成材料它与在工厂中制造的标准的钢结构梁柱等不同因此对于上面所提到的一系列因素必须予以考虑对结构体系的各个部位均需选定试算截面并进行验算以确定该截面的名义强度是否足以承受所作用的计算荷载由于经常需要进行多次试算才能求出所需的截面因此设计时第一次采用的数值将导致一系列的试算与调整工作选择混凝土截面时采用试算与调整过程可以使复核与设计结合在一起因此当试算截面选定后每次设计都是对截面进行复核手册图表和微型计算机以及专用程序的使用使这种设计方法更为简捷有效而传统的方法则是把钢筋混凝土的复核与单纯的设计分别进行处理12土方工程由于和土木工程中任何其他工种的施工方法与费用相比较土方挖运的施工方法与费用的变化都要快得多因此对于有事业心的人来说土方工程是一个可以大有作为的领域在1935年目前采用的利用轮胎式机械设备进行土方挖运的方法大多数还没有出现那是大部分土方是采用窄轨铁路运输在这目前来说是很少采用的当时主要的开挖方式是使用正铲反铲拉铲或抓斗等挖土机尽管这些机械目前仍然在广泛应用但是它们只不过是目前所采用的许多方法中的一小部分因此一个工程师为了使自己在土方挖运设备方面的知识跟得上时代的发展他应当花费一些时间去研究现代的机械一般说来有关挖土机装载机和运输机械的唯一可靠而又最新的资料可以从制造厂商处获得土方工程或土方挖运工程指的是把地表面过高处的土壤挖去挖方并把它倾卸到地表面过低的其他地方填方为了降低土方工程费用填方量应该等于挖方量而且挖方地点应该尽可能靠近土方量相等的填方地点以减少运输量和填方的二次搬运土方设计这项工作落到了从事道路设计的工程师的身上因为土方工程的设计比其他任何工作更能决定工程造价是否低廉根据现有的地图和标高道路工程师应在设计绘图室中的工作也并不是徒劳的它将帮助他在最短的时间内获得最好的方案费用最低的运土方法是用同一台机械直接挖方取土并且卸土作为填方这并不是经常可以做到的但是如果能够做到则是很理想的因为这样做既快捷又省钱拉铲挖土机推土机和正铲挖土机都能做到这点拉铲挖土机的工作半径最大推土机所推运的图的数量最多只是运输距离很短拉铲挖土机的缺点是只能挖比它本身低的土不能施加压力挖入压实的土壤内不能在陡坡上挖土而且挖卸都不准确正铲挖土机介于推土机和拉铲挖土机的之间其作用半径大于推土机但小于拉铲挖土机正铲挖土机能挖取竖直陡峭的工作面这种方式对推土机司机来说是危险的而对拉铲挖土机则是不可能的每种机械设备应该进行最适合它的性能的作业正铲挖土机不能挖比其停机平面低很多的土而深挖坚实的土壤时反铲挖土机最适用但其卸料半径比起装有正铲的同一挖土机的卸料半径则要小很多在比较平坦的场地开挖如果用拉铲或正铲挖土机运输距离太远时则装有轮胎式的斗式铲运机就是比不可少的它能在比较平的地面上挖较深的土但只能挖机械本身下面的土需要时可以将土运至几百米远然后卸土并在卸土的过程中把土大致铲平在挖掘硬土时人们发现在开挖场地经常用一辆助推拖拉机轮式或履带式对返回挖土的铲运机进行助推这种施工方法是经济的一旦铲运机装满助推拖拉机就回到开挖的地点去帮助下一台铲运机斗式铲运机通常是功率非常大的机械许多厂家制造的铲运机铲斗容量为8 m3满载时可达10 m3最大的自行式铲运机铲斗容量为19立方米满载时为25 m3由430马力的牵引发动机驱动翻斗机可能是使用最为普遍的轮胎式运输设备因为它们还可以被用来送混凝土或者其他建筑材料翻斗车的车斗位于大橡胶轮胎车轮前轴的上方尽管铰接式翻斗车的卸料方向有很多种但大多数车斗是向前翻转的最小的翻斗车的容量大约为05立方米而最大的标准型翻斗车的容量大约为45m3特殊型式的翻斗车包括容量为4 m3的自装式翻斗车和容量约为05 m3的铰接式翻斗车必须记住翻斗车与自卸卡车之间的区别翻斗车车斗向前倾翻而司机坐在后方卸载因此有时被称为后卸卡车13结构的安全度规范的主要目的是提供一般性的设计原理和计算方法以便验算结构的安全度就目前的趋势而言安全系数与所使用的材料性质及其组织情况无关通常把它定义为发生破坏的条件与结构可预料的最不利的工作条件之比值这个比值还与结构的破坏概率危险率成反比破坏不仅仅指结构的整体破坏而且还指结构不能正常的使用或者用更为确切的话来说把破坏看成是结构已经达到不能继续承担其设计荷载的极限状态通常有两种类型的极限状态即1强度极限状态它相当于结构能够达到的最大承载能力其例子包括结构的局部屈曲和整体不稳定性某此界面失效随后结构转变为机构疲劳破坏引起结构几何形状显著变化的弹性变形或塑性变形或徐变结构对交变荷载火灾和爆炸的敏感性2使用极限状态它对应着结构的使用功能和耐久性器例子包括结构失稳之前的过大变形和位移早期开裂或过大的裂缝较大的振动和腐蚀根据不同的安全度条件可以把结构验算所采用的计算方法分成1确定性的方法在这种方法中把主要参数看作非随机参数2概率方法在这种方法中主要参数被认为是随机参数此外根据安全系数的不同用途可以把结构的计算方法分为1容许应力法在这种方法中把结构承受最大荷载时计算得到的应力与经过按规定的安全系数进行折减后的材料强度作比较2极限状态法在这种方法中结构的工作状态是以其最大强度为依据来衡量的由理论分析确定的这一最大强度应不小于结构承受计算荷载所算得的强度极限状态计算荷载等于分别乘以荷载系数的活载与恒载之和把对应于不乘以荷载系数的活载和恒载的工作使用条件的应力与规定值使用极限状态相比较根据前两种方法和后两种方法的四种可能组合我们可以得到一些实用的计算方法通常采用下面两种计算方法确定性的方法这种方法采用容许应力概率方法这种方法采用极限状态至少在理论上概率法的主要优点是可以科学的考虑所有随机安全系数然后将这些随机安全系数组合成确定的安全系数概率法取决于1制作和安装过程中材料强度的随机分布整个结构的力学性能数值的分散性2截面和结构几何尺寸的不确定性由结构制作和安装造成的误差和缺陷而引起的对作用在结构上的活载和恒载的预测的不确定性所采用的近似计算方法有关的不精确性实际应力与计算应力的偏差此外概率理论意味着可以基于下面几个因素来确定允许的危险率例如建筑物的重要性和建筑物破坏造成的危害性2由于建筑物破坏使生活受到威胁的人数3修复建筑的可能性4建筑物的预期寿命所有这些因素均与经济和社会条件有关例如1建筑物的初始建设费2建筑物使用期限内的折旧费3由于建筑物破坏而造成的物质和材料损失费4在社会上造成的不良影响5精神和心理上的考虑就给定的安全系数而论所有这些参数的确定都是以建筑物的最佳成本为依据的但是应该考虑到进行全概率分析的困难对于这种分析来说应该了解活载及其所引起的盈利的分布规律材料的力学性能的分散性和截面的结构几何尺寸的分散性此外由于强度的分布规律和应力的分布规律之间的相互关系是困难的这些实际困难可以采用两种方法来克服第一种方法对材料和荷载采用不同的安全系数而不需要采用概率准则第二种方法是引入一些而简化假设的近似概率方法半概率方法1建筑工程学院土木工程系土木084班。
混凝土毕业设计论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献
外文文献及译文目录•1历史•2组成o水泥2.1o 2.2水o 2.3骨料o 2.4化学外加剂o 2.5掺合料和水泥混合o 2.6纤维•3搅拌混凝土•4个特点o 4.1和易o 4.2固化o 4.3强度o 4.4弹性o 4.5扩张和收缩o 4.6开裂▪ 4.6.1收缩裂缝▪ 4.6.2拉裂o 4.7蠕变•5损伤模式o 5.1火灾o 5.2总量扩张o 5.3海水效果o 5.4细菌腐蚀o 5.5化学武器袭击▪ 5.5.1碳化▪ 5.5.2氯化物▪ 5.5.3硫酸盐o 5.6浸出o 5.7人身损害•6种混凝土o 6.1普通混凝土o 6.2高强混凝土o 6.3高性能混凝土o 6.4自密实混凝土o 6.5喷浆o 6.6透水性混凝土o 6.7混凝土蜂窝o 6.8软木复合水泥o 6.9碾压混凝土o 6.10玻璃混凝土o 6.11沥青混凝土•7混凝土测试•8混凝土回收•9使用混凝土结构o9.1大体积混凝土结构o9.2钢筋混凝土结构o9.3预应力混凝土结构•10参见•11参考•12外部链接历史在塞尔维亚,仍然是一个小屋追溯到5600bce已经发现,同一个楼层发红色石灰,沙子和砾石。
金字塔陕西中建千多年前,含有石灰和火山灰.或粘土。
碎石水和泥浆僵硬和发展实力超过时间。
为了确保经济实用的解决方案,既罚款又粗骨料使用,以弥补大部分的混凝土混合物。
砂,天然砾石及碎石,主要用于这一目的。
不过,现在越来越普遍,再生骨料(由建筑,拆卸和挖掘废物)被用作局部代替天然骨料,而一些生产总量包括风冷高炉炉渣和粉煤灰也是不允许的。
装饰石材等石英岩,潆石块或玻璃破碎,有时添加到混凝土表面进行装饰性"的总暴露"完成,流行景观设计师。
化学外加剂化学外加剂现形式的材料粉末或液体,补充了混凝土给它的某些特性没有可与普通混凝土混合物。
在正常情况下使用,外加剂剂量均低于5%的大量水泥,并补充了混凝土当时的配料/混合.最常见的外加剂有:加速器加速水化(硬化)的混凝土。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
混凝土施工外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)Discuss the construction temperatureand crack of the concrete lightlyThe summary In order to prevent the owners of the concrete work of claims, we must do a good job in the construction process in the temperature and crack control, through observation live for many years, through consulting the monograph about stress within the concrete, explain to concrete temperature reason , on-the-spot concrete control and measure , prevention of crack of temperature that crack produce.Keyword Concrete T emperature stress Crack ControlThe concrete occupies the important position in modern engineering construction. But today, the crack of the concrete is comparatively general, the cracks are nearly omnipresent in the science of bridge building. Though we take various kinds of measures in constructing, careful, but the crack still occurs now and then. Tracing it to its cause, it is one of them incompletely that our change to concrete temperature stress pays attention to. In the large volume concrete, temperature stress and temperature control are significant. This is mainly because of the reason of two respects. First of all, concrete often appear the temperature crack in not constructing, influence the globality and durability of the structure. Secondly, in the course of operating, the temperature change has remarkableinfluence that can't be ignored on the stress state of the structure. W e meet to construct temperature crack in mainly, so only to origin cause of formation and treatment measure, concrete of crack make a discussion in constructing this text.1. Reason of a crackHave many kinds of reasons to produce the crack in the concrete, it is mainly the changes of temperature and humidity, fragility and disparity of the concrete, and the structure is unreasonable, the raw materials is not up to standard (if the alkali aggregate react), the template is out of shape, the foundation does not subside etc. evenly .2. Analysis of temperature stressesCan be divided into following three stages according to the forming process of the temperature stress:(1) It is early: Build concrete is it is it over basically to send out heat to cement to begin , generally one one day by oneself. T wo characteristics at this stage, first, the cement emits a large amount of heat of hydration, second , mix and congeal the changing sharply of elastic model quantity. Because of the change of elastic model quantity , form the remaining stress in the concrete in this period.(2) Middle period: Up till the concrete is cooled until stability temperature from cement send out heat function basically when expiring, in this period, the temperature stress is mainly because the cooling of the concrete and external temperature change cause, these stresses and remnants stresses that is formed in early days are superposed , mix and congeal the elastic mould amount that goes to and does not change much during this period.(3) Later period: Operation period after the complete cooling of concrete. T emperature stress whether external temperature change cause mainly, these stresses and first two kinds of remnants stresseses are changed and added .3. The measure of improving condition of restraining is:(1) Divide and sew and divide one rationally ;(2) Prevent the foundation from rising and falling too big;(3) Rational arrangement construction process, prevent the too big discrepancy in elevation and side from exposing for a long time;In order to guarantee concrete project quality , prevent fracturing , improve the durability of the concrete, use the admixture to reduce one of the measures that fractures correctly. Whether is it reduce water is it split pharmaceutical to defend , I summarize his main function in practice to use.(1) There is pore Dao of a large number of mao in the concrete , produce capillary tension in the capillary after water is evaporated, make concrete is it contract out of shape to do. Increasing the thin aperture of hair can reduce the capillary surface tension , but will make the intensity of concrete reduce . This surface tension theory has already been confirmed in the world as far back as the sixties.(2) W ater dust than influence important factor that concrete shrink, is it reduce water is it split pharmaceutical can make concrete water consumption reduce by 25% to defend to use.(3) Cement consumption important factor, concrete of person who shrink too, is it add and subtract water is it split concrete reducible 15% of the cement consumption onterms that keep the intensity of concrete of pharmaceutical to defend to mix, its volume is supplemented by increasing aggregate consumption.(4) Reduce water is it split pharmaceutical can improve consistency of grout , reduce concrete secrete ink to defend, reduce and sink and draw back deforming.(5) Improve glueing the strength of forming of the grout and aggregate, the concrete improved resists the performance of splitting.(6) Concrete is it produce stress of drawing to restrain from while shrinking, crack when drawing the stress and is greater than concrete tensile strength can produce. Reduce water is it split pharmaceutical effective concrete tensile strength of improvement very to defend , improve resisting the performance of splitting of concrete by a wide margin.(7) It can make the concrete density good to add the admixture to mix , can improve resisting carbonization of concrete effectively , reduce carbonization to shrink.(8) Is it reduce water is it split slow coagulation time proper concrete under pharmaceutical to defend , on the basis of preventing the fast water of cement from sending out heat effectively to mix, prevent the plasticity shrink that brings because the cement is not congealed for a long time from increasing.(9) Mix admixture concrete and getting easy and kind , surface easy to feel flat , form little membrane, reduce the moisture to evaporate, reduce drily and shrink. A lot of admixture all have the functions of slow coagulation , increasing and apt , improvement plasticity, the experiment that we should carry on in this respect more in the project practice is compared with and studied, than lean against not improving terms more simple,may getting simple and more direct, economy.4. Quality control of waterproof concrete constructionCombined with experience, from formwork design, fabrication and installation, assembing reinforoement, pouring and curing of concrete and other aspects construction technology of fair-faced concrete is introduced as well as quality control measures and standards in order to reduce engineering cost to acquire satisfied economic and social benefits.Method being under construction4.1 Fabrication and InstallationAccording to the concrett of closely knit , demand of reason why to form board since the water-proof also concrete have made and have assembled corresponding rise is special , be to require that not leaving out thick fluid , firm closely knit block of wood deformation , water absorption Character should be small and ought to give priority to select and using bamboo slab rubber form board or the steel form. Strict control form board room gap size, necessary exceeding 2 mms uses foam rubber or plastic to squeezea crack in , porous form board nonutility without exception to board face Be ready forwall post at the same time rotting the prevention and cure job Adopt the cement mortar pouring same ,indicia in before the root segment sticking the foam rubber or plastic strip , the bottom puts on a cement mortar , concrete a concrete, first 5 cm ~ 10 cm. Since water-proof, concrete structure wall thickness is mostly more infertile .Be to ensure that component geometry dimension , Chang adopt the inside and outside bolt to pull the measure meeting attention to, responds to on play receive bolt centre interpose stop water iron plate, to prevent water from forming pilotage passage along bolt leakage.4.2 Assembing reinforoementW ater-proof concrete structure has demanding as follows to the reinforced bar.(1) reinforced bar should adopt twisted steel as far as possible , increases by hold wrap a force composing in reply a water ability.(2) reinforced bars connect should try one's best to adopt to solder connection , stop using and being needless to bind connection to the full.(3) when binding a reinforced bar, the iron wire head responds to inner bending.(4) strict control reinforced bars protective layer thickness.4.3 The concrete stirring and mixing makes and transportsSince the water-proof concrete requires that higher closely knit , reason why stir and mix system also need to have the fairly good homogeneity , should be ready for burning as follows almost for this purpose.(1) ensures that mixing time , mixing at every time are secondary jump into a expect the general ejection of compact block of wood less than 2 mins.(2) should use the apposition agent , the solution queen who should manufacture certain thickness from apposition agent adds the mixer inner, the dried powder or high concentration solution will add an agent extra not to adds the mixer inner directly ,prevent from mixing is uneven but part concentrates, both lose the apposition agent effect, and affect concrete mass.(3) responds to the assured source of life degree having a spot test on the admeasurement concrete at the regular intervals collapsing in the process being under construction , construction is middle if Y u rains or other cause, respond to the ratiodetermining whose water ratio, and adjusting the composition being under construction in time when change happened in sandstone moisture content.(4) project uses the commodity concrete , has boundary have raised a concrete stirring mass and of all kinds effect apposition agent adulterating falls when amounts , the water ash having controlled a concrete strictly collapsing.(5) concretes concrete adopt a pump to have given handicraft , effective avoiding a concrete producing the phenomenon isolating Mi Shui and leaving out thick fluid in the process of transportation.4.4 Matters needing attention in being under construction(1) construction school assignment soft and floury is divided .(2)Achieve strictly fixed point determines the amounts of the components of a substance material down According to the vehicle capacities stratifying concrete altitude and the means of transport, the quantify carrying out fixed point strictly is able to go down one important ring expecting that this is to improve water-proof concreting mass.(3) insist that you go down material opening the door or use string to expect that under barrel (chute)Be to prevent a cement paste from parting from aggregate for , to expect that liberty should not exceed 1.5 ms now and then highly under water-proof concrete.(4) concretes vibrating beat one important ring being to ensure that the concrete is closely knit , defend against to seep with a stick. Also, should adopt fixed point vibrating , handle meticulously on basis expecting that under determining the amounts of the components of a substance homogeneously in fixed point .Pay attention to high and lowtier of linking up Now that needing to prevent from miss and vibrating , not vibrating enough , being going to prevent a fault from vibrating again, Need to forbid using prying the method coming to aid to vibrate moving a reinforced bar or shaking a reinforced bar especially, such separates to making the front already concrete the reinforced bar and concrete shaking the reality part , causes serious consequences.4.5 The method of Construction jointThe construction joint is one of water-proof architectural weak link. The construction joint is one of water-proof architectural weak link. Should stop staying or not staying to the full. equipment or props up conditional restricting of model, may then behind the agreement collecting a design organ, on the wall stipulating that lienable level of location construction joint , sort keep vertical strokes getting along in all above 200 bottom board .Adopt new handicraft expansibility in the project rubber water just brings handling the construction joint method , substituting method in common use , anxiously expecting the dyadic construction joint of mouth , at any rate dyadic construction joint , flat mouth construction joint such as and so on .W ater proofing is in no lienable construction joint of perpendicularity direction like the concrete , rubber stops in having set up the construction joint irrigating belt , perpendicularity directionthe day afer tomorrow between the main building and the skirt building interposing expansibility in seam location water belt or steel plate stops water belt.weak link of water-proof structure, respond to specially-assigned person conscientiously , handle meticulously . Ensure mass to be under construction in construction. Adopt to stop having not to miss and not soldering time water steel plate, adopt rubber water belt just should be solid without failreliably in receiving long time will connect using special use glue to paste. When only think that concreting accepts.4.6 Dismantling model and curing of concreteThe water-proof concreting queen maintains goodness and badness working, not only affecting the intensity arriving at a concrete, moreover the impervious function affecting to the concrete. Evidence, water-proof concrete early phase dehydration or curing process lack for water, will reduce whose impervious function by a wide margin. W ater-proof concrete curing responds to the block of wood less than 14 ds. The water-proof concrete dismantles a model demanding to be unable to compare high, dismantle model time unsuitable untimely, respond to when dismantling a model handle meticulously, prevent an iron rod from using to pry, stiffly, that the sledgehammer is knocked suddenly and forcibly pries , uses a concrete meet with destroy.4.7 Do good well at backfillConclusionsConstruction temperature and relation of crack in concrete the above carry on preliminary discussion of theory and practice, though the academia has different theories to origin cause of formation and computing technology of the concrete crack, but to concrete prevention and improving the measure suggestion to relatively unify, application in practice result fine too at the same time, concrete to is it observe, compare more more by us to want in constructing, analyse more, summarize more after going wrong, combine many kinds of prevention and deal with the measure, the crack of the concretecan be avoided.浅谈混凝土的施工过程中温度与裂缝控制摘要为了防止业主对混凝土工程的索赔,就必须做好施工过程中温度与裂缝控制。