文体与修辞

4. Euphemism(委婉)
Euphemisms (good speech)
以较文雅，悦耳或温婉的说法来代替粗野，刺耳 或直露的话。 委婉的英语定义是speak with good words， 就是把话说得好听些，婉转些，使听者感到愉快。 委婉法在各种语言中都有使用，十分广泛。 英语中的委婉修辞大致可以分为两类，一类是用 暗示手法，转换角度使语言温和愉悦，另一类是 用好字眼来代替不好的刺眼的字眼。
1. Simile(明喻)
拉丁语 similis (like) 1.three parts : subject (主体) reference （喻体） indicator of resemblance （比喻 词） My love is like a red red rose. 2。主体和喻体一般指两个不同的事物。 John is as tall as a Maypole.五朔节花柱 (庆祝五朔节围绕此柱歌舞)
拟人（personification） 拟人手法是把物，诸如动物、植 物、物体、思想或抽象概念等比作人，赋予它们人的特性、 外表、思维、动作。即把本来适用于人的词汇用于物，使之 人格化。 请看下面举例： 1.Freedom blushed for shame.（自 由因羞愧而脸红。） 2.How rarely reasons guide the stubborn choice.(固执的选择很少是理智的。) 3.The sun looks over the mountain’s rim.(太阳 挂在山边。) 4. The moans of the autumn wind wound in the deep of the mountains.(秋风的呻吟萦绕在大山深 处。) 5. Flu stalked about, touching one here and there with his evil finger. (流感四处游荡，用它罪恶 的手指碰碰这个，碰碰那个。)
2. Metaphor(隐喻)
希腊语Metapherein (transfer )转换 无需借助比喻词，直接将甲事物当作乙事物来描 写。也称隐喻，是依据比喻和被比喻两种不同事 物的相似或相关关系而构成的修辞格。 例如： 1.His friend has become a thorn in his side.（他的朋友已变成眼中钉肉中刺。） 2.You are your mother’s glass.(你是你母亲 的翻版。) 3.Hope is a good breakfast, but it’s a bad supper.
“...saying that it was the most beautiful tongue in the world,...”
……他说这是世界上 最美的语言。 这里用具体的 “tongue”代替抽象的 “language”
Many eyes turned to a tall,20—year black girl on the U.S. team.
很多人将眼光投向美 国队一个高高的２０ 岁的黑姑娘。 这里的“many eyes”代替了“many persons
6. MetonHale Waihona Puke Baidumy(借代)
Metonymia (希腊语)changing of name 故意不用需要说明的人或物的本称，而是借与该 人或该物密切相关的事物来代替。指两种不同事 物并不相似，但又密不可分，因而常用其中一种 事物名称代替另一种。 What is learned in the cradle is carried to the grave .(幼小所学， 终身不忘) Cradle (birth ), grave (birth ) 表达简练， 具体， 生动， 有趣。
有关政治、经济、军事、外交的委婉 语
政治：eyes only (绝密文件) 经济：adjustment downward（效益不佳） 军事：adjustment of the front (撤退) 外交：an underdeveloped country (贫穷落后的国家)
5. Synecdoche(提喻)

A photographer is a cod, which produces a million eggs in order that one may reach maturity. (摄影师像鳕 鱼，产卵百万为的是长成一条。) 摄影师 通常拍片成堆，难觅一成功之作，似鳕鱼 产卵无数，长成者廖廖。故萧伯纳把摄影 师先比作cod，再进一步用cod的习性比喻 之，生动地道出了摄影师的艰辛。这里 which后的从句就显示了延喻的功能。
Contents
1. Simile(明喻) 2. Metaphor(隐喻) 3. Personification(拟人) 4. Euphemism(委婉) 5. Synecdoche(提喻) 6. Metonymy(借代) 7. Hyperbole(夸张) 8. Inversion(倒装) 9. Sarcasm: (讽刺） 10. Irony(反语)
What is simile? E.g. The snow was like a white blank drawn over the field. The structure: The signified, the simile marker, and the signifier 本体, 比喻词, 喻体
暗喻没有引导词，这是明喻和暗喻在形式上的最 大区别。换句话说，有为明喻，没有为暗喻。如： He has a heart of stone. He has a heart like stone.很显然，前句是暗喻，后句是明喻。 暗喻时，比喻物和被比喻物之间的相似点较为含 蓄，猛一看它们毫无关系，实际却有着某种内在 联系。 Compressed simile (简缩了的明喻) The solider was as brave as a lion in the battle . The soldier was a lion in a battle .
Illuminative启发型
E.g.
What happened to a dream deferred (postponed)? Like a raisin (葡萄干) in the sun? Or fester (化脓) like a sore? Does it stink like a rotten meat?
Its function is to give deeper insight into
persons or things.
Illustrative说明型
E.g. What is tennis? Tennis is like a pingpong game scaled up to a sizable court. Its function is to explain abstract or complicated ideas or things unfamiliar to you in simple, concrete ideas, or things familiar to you.
有关职业，社会问题的委婉语
职业： 补鞋匠 shoetrician 垃圾清运工 garbologist 园丁land architect 家庭妇女domestic engineer 商场巡视员aisle manager To hook ; to palm; to walk away with (顺手 牵羊) 吸毒：to blow snow; Joy powder（毒品） Lady snow (可卡因) Do time (服刑)
There again came out the second flash, with the spring of a serpent and the shout of a fiend, looked green as an emerald, and the reverberation was stunning.(爆发了第二 次闪电，她像蛇一样蜿蜒，如魔鬼般嘶叫，像翠玉 般碧绿，轰隆隆震耳欲聋。) 这个例子中对闪电的 比喻就用了三个喻体，spring of a serpent（动 态），shout of a fiend（声音），green as an emerald(颜色)，它们从不同角度绘声绘色地把闪 电呈现在读者面前。由此可见，多喻体的使用其优 势是单一喻体所无法比拟的。它可以多角度、多侧 面、多层次、多结构地表现主体。
Stylistics and Rhetoric
Rhetoric is power.
Whoever does not study rhetoric will become a victim of it. ---Ancient Greek wall inscription
Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathematics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep, moral, grave; logic and rhetoric, able to contend. ---Francis Bacon
又称举隅法，主要特点是局部代表全体，或以全 体喻指部分，或以抽象代具体，或以具体代抽象。 例如： １、The Great Wall was made not only of stones and earth, but of the flesh and blood of millions of men. 长城不仅是用石头和土建造的，而且是用几 百万人的血和肉建成的。 句中的“the flesh and blood”喻为“the great sacrifice”（巨大的牺牲）
1.Your painting is not so good. (画画得差， 却说成“不太好”，good总比bad好听。) 2.He wasn’t at all embarrassed by her low-income, and decided to marry her soon.(这里的low-income其实是贫穷poverty 的婉转暗示。) 3.Jackson, a black brought up in the inner city, ran swiftly along the track and beat all the others. (inner city用来婉称slum—— 贫民窟，表示了对那位黑人运动员的尊重。)
3. Personification(拟人)
It gives human form of feelings to animals, or life and personal attributes(赋予) to inanimate(无生命的) objects, or to ideas and abstractions(抽 象). 把事、物、观念等拟作人，赋予它们 以人的思想。感情与行为方式。 e.g The wind whistled through the trees. Money talks; money prints; money broadcasts; money reigns.
The three uses of similes:
Descriptive描述型明喻; Illuminative启示型明喻 ; Illustrative说明型明喻;
;
Descriptive 描述型
Her lips were red, her locks were yellow as gold. Pop looked so unhappy, almost like a child who’s lost his piece of candy. The big black flies hit us like bombs.