欧洲启蒙运动思想家和主张

欧洲启蒙运动思想家和主张
悬赏分：20 - 解决时间：2008-8-25 18:50

问题补充：如果满意在加20分

提问者： 轩辕雨儿 - 三级最佳答案[英]霍布斯：1.国家不是根据神的意志而是人们通过社会契约创造的，君权也 不是神授的，而是人民授予的。
2.统治者一旦获得授权，人民就要绝对服从，不可反悔。
3.不反对君主专制，专制政权有干涉臣民私有财产的权利
4.世界上根本没有神，宗教不过是人类恐惧无知的产物；宗教有助于维护社会秩序。
[英]洛克：1.人们按契约成立国家的目的之一就是保护私有财产，国家政权不应该干涉臣民的财产。
2.赞成君主立宪制，主张国家的立法权、行政权和处理外交事务的权利应该分属议会和君主。
[法]伏尔泰：1.极力抨击天主教会，对罗马教皇进行了猛烈批评。
2.反对君主专制，希望通过“开明”的君主实行改革，过渡到英国式的君主立宪制。
[法]孟德斯鸠：明确提出立法权、司法权和行政权三权分立的原则。立法权应由人民集体享有，司法独立，君主则只享有行政权。三者之间以权力的”制约和平衡“为核心，互相独立、互相监督。
[法]卢梭：否定封建王权，倡导“社会契约论”和“人民主权说”。认为统治者如果违反了民意，侵犯了人民的权利，撕毁大家都应该遵守的社会契约，践踏公共意志，人民就有权推翻它。
[法]狄德罗：主编了一部《百科全书》，宣扬科学和理性，反对迷信和专制。

2418世纪启蒙运动的基本特征
悬赏分：10 - 提问时间2008-12-25 19:16
详细一点，考试用的，谢了

提问者： 圣战之矢 - 一级其他回答 共 2 条
高中历史书上有讲述,回去看看.

回答者： SB圣者 - 二级 2008-12-25 19:19

十八世纪欧洲启蒙运动的背景与特点

----西方文学与文化之二十


1. The history

In the whole history of Europe, the 18th century is of paramount importance, for it is not only a transition from feudalistic Europe to Bourgeois Europe, it is also a transition from an old Europe to a new one. In this historical period, although feudalism was still in the dominant position, the bourgeois class was gaining more ground, and eventually they seized the governing power from the former and bourgeois governments were set up in some countries. Since the Renaissance the clash between the bourgeoisie and the feudalists had never been quiet. Now, after about 300 hundred years of development, the new born bourgeoisie was no longer a young kid, and they were strong enough to dominate their fate. However, the struggle itself was a bitter one.

During this historical period, England and France were still two leading countries, especially England. In England,

bourgeois revolution took place as early as in the 17th century, and in 1642, the king was even beheaded. Cromwell became the Lord Protector. However in 1688, after the death of Cromwell, the so-called “Glorious Revolution” took place, and the royal family who fled to France were welcomed back to England and a joint rule of the country formed, i.e. constitutional monarchy or limited monarchy. So the revolution in England was not a complete one at all. But the development of capitalism was very quick in England, Watt’s invention of steam engine and industrial revolution in the middle of 18th century made such quick development possible. After the industrial revolution, England became the strongest country in Europe.

France was the strongest country on the continent, but during most of the time in this century, it was a feudalistic country of strict hierarchy. People in this country could be divided into three ranks, and the bourgeoisie belong to the third. The third class, with the largest population, possessed least fortune or property. So there was a very great tension between the first, the second class and the third. The king and the monks and the nobles dominated the country. The result of such a tension was the Great Revolution took place in this country in 1789.



2. Enlightenment

Enlightenment is a cultural and thought movement took place in Europe in a very large scale in 18th century. To a great extent, Enlightenment was the product of social progress and the advancement of science and technology. By the time of 18th century, the human beings had a better understanding of the nature, and a lot of great scientific discoveries had been made. Since the Renaissance, the man had an unprecedented certainty and confidence about himself and the nature. Man was believed to be powerful, just as Rene Descartes says, “I think therefore I am.” Man was thought as powerful is because he has the “REASON”.

As a historical category, the term "Enlightenment" refers to a series of changes in European thought and letters. It is one of the few historical categories that was coined by the people who lived through the era (most historical categories, such as "Renaissance," "early modern," "Reformation," "Tokugawa Enlightenment," etc., are made up by historians after the fact). When the writers, philosophers and scientists of the eighteenth century referred to their activities as the "Enlightenment," they meant that they were breaking from the past and replacing the obscurity, darkness, and ignorance of European thought with the "light" of truth. However, it is hard to determine the beginning to the Enlightenment, just as we can’t really identify an end point either.

The root of “enlightenment” is light; its verbal prefix is “en-“ and its verbal suffix is “-en”, and after it is a noun suffix “-ment”. So literally, “enlightenment” is such a movement that the bourgeois intellectuals wanted

to shed their light of REASON upon the obscure, dark and unenlightened medieval age and feudality. Their purpose was to overthrow the domination of feudality and establish their own “Republic of Reason”, capitalism. There is a similarity between Enlightenment and the Renaissance, i.e. these bourgeois intellectuals were all against feudalism and the Church, but the difference is also obvious. During the Renaissance, the new-born bourgeoisie did not have such an ambition as to overthrow feudality, what they wanted was only just a cooperation with the kingships. But in the 18th century, the bourgeoisie were strong enough to act against feudality.

The main components of Enlightenment thought can be concluded as follows:

1. The universe is fundamentally rational, that is, it can be understood through the use of reason alone;

2. Truth can be arrived at through empirical observation, the use of reason, and systematic doubt;

3. Human experience is the foundation of human understanding of truth; authority is not to be preferred over experience;

4. All human life, both social and individual, can be understood in the same way the natural world can be understood; once understood, human life, both social and individual, can be manipulated or engineered in the same way the natural world can be manipulated or engineered;

5. Human history is largely a history of progress;

6. Human beings can be improved through education and the development of their rational facilities;

7. Religious doctrines have no place in the understanding of the physical
1 。历史

在整个历史上的欧洲， 18世纪是至关重要的，因为它不仅是一个过渡到封建欧洲资产阶级欧洲，它也是一个过渡到一个老欧洲的一个新的。在这一历史时期，但仍然是在封建主义的主导地位，资产阶级是获得更多的理由，并最终抓住了他们的执政权力来自前和资产阶级政府设立了一些国家。自文艺复兴之间的冲突资产阶级和feudalists从来没有平静。现在，经过约300百年的发展，新出生的资产阶级已不再是一个毛头小伙子，他们强大到足以主宰自己的命运。然而，斗争本身是一个痛苦的一个。

在这一历史时期，英国和法国仍然两个主要国家，特别是英格兰。在英国，资产阶级革命发生，早在17世纪，并在1642年，国王，甚至被斩首。克伦威尔成为上帝保护。然而，在1688年，去世后，克伦威尔，所谓的“光荣革命”发生，和王室成员逃往法国谁受到欢迎回到英格兰和联合统治的国家组成，即君主立宪制或有限君主制。因此，在英格兰革命不是一个完整的。但资本主义发展的速度非常快在英格兰，瓦特发明的蒸汽机和工业革命的18世纪中叶提出这样的快速发展成为可能。产业革命以后，英国成为最强大的国家在欧洲。

法国是最强大

的国家在非洲大陆，但在大部分时间在本世纪，这是一个封建国家的严格等级。人们在这个国家可以分为三个队伍，资产阶级属于第三。第三类，人口最多，拥有至少财富或财产。所以是一个非常伟大之间的紧张关系第一，第二级和第三。国王和僧侣和贵族统治的国家。由于这种紧张大革命发生在这个国家在1789年。



2 。启示

启蒙运动是一个文化和思想运动发生在欧洲的一个非常大的规模在18世纪。在很大程度上，启蒙运动的产物，是社会进步和提高科学和技术。到18世纪时，人类有一个更好地了解自然，有许多伟大的科学发现了一些进展。自文艺复兴，该名男子已经安排了前所未有的肯定和信任自己的性质。男子被认为是强大的，正如笛卡尔说： “我想故我在。 ”男子被认为是有力的，是因为他有“理由” 。

作为一个历史范畴而言， “启示”是指一系列的变化，欧洲的思想和信件。这是为数不多的历史类别，是由人民谁经历了时代（大多数历史类，如“文艺复兴” ， “早期现代” ， “改革” ， “德川启示”等，都是由历史学家的事实后） 。当作家，哲学家和科学家的十八世纪的活动提到的“启示” ，他们意味着，他们打破过去以取代默默无闻，黑暗，愚昧的思想与欧洲的“光”的真相。然而，很难确定开始的启示，正如我们不能真正确定一个终点的。

的根源， “启示”是根据其口头前缀是“恩”和其口头后缀是“恩”后，它是一个名词后缀“精神” 。因此实际上， “启示”就是这样的一个运动，资产阶级知识分子想摆脱轻理智的遮掩，中世纪的黑暗和无知的年龄和feudality 。其目的是推翻统治feudality和建立自己的“共和国的理性”