神经网络综述

合集下载

可拓神经网络研究综述

ｄｉ１．９９ｊｉｎ１０－６５２１．１０１ｏ：０３６／．ｓ．０１９．０００．０ｓ３
Ｓｒｅｎｅｅｒｈｏｘｅｓｏｅｒｌｎｔｒｕｖｙａｄｒｓａｃｆｅｔｎｉｎｎｕａｅｗｏｋ
周
２３０）７１０
玉钱，
旭张俊彩孔，，
敏
（．国矿业大学（１中北京）机电与信息工程学院，北京１０８；．东省曲阜市职业中等专业学校，山东曲阜００３２山
摘
要：介绍了近年来可拓神经网络的发展，可拓神经网络的基本思想、对算法思路、用研究进行了系统分应
年进行的，当时他提出物元神经网络的概念。随后蔡国梁等
人” 对可拓神经网络的结构进行了初步研究。这些也是可拓神经网络最早期研究的代表。然而，这些早期的工作并没有在
算法上进行详细研究，然也不会有实质性的应用，多的是当更
ＺＵＹＱＡｕ，ＨＮｎｃｉ，ＯＧＭｉＨＯｕ，ＩＮＸＺＡＧＪ — ’ ＫＮｎｕａ。
（．Ｓｈｏｏｃａｉｌｌｔｎｃ＆ＩｏｍｔｎＥｇｎｅｉ１ｃｏｌｆＭｅｈｎｃｅｒｉａＥｃｏｎｒａｉｎｉｅｒｇ，ＣｉａＵｉｅｉｎｎｆｏｎｈｎｎｒｔｏＭｉｉｇ＆ＴｃｎｌｇＢｉｎ００３ｈｎ２Ｑｖｓｙｆｅｈｏｙ，ｅｉ１０８，Ｃｉｏｊｇａ；．

BP神经网络研究综述【文献综述】

文献综述电气工程及自动化BP神经网络研究综述摘要：现代信息化技术的发展，神经网络的应用范围越来越广，尤其基于BP算法的神经网络在预测以及识别方面有很多优势。

本文对前人有关BP神经网络用于识别和预测方面的应用进行归纳和总结，并且提出几点思考方向以作为以后研究此类问题的思路。

关键词：神经网络；数字字母识别；神经网络的脑式智能信息处理特征与能力使其应用领域日益扩大，潜力日趋明显。

作为一种新型智能信息处理系统，其应用贯穿信息的获取、传输、接收与加工各个环节。

具有大家所熟悉的模式识别功能，静态识别例如有手写字的识别等，动态识别有语音识别等，现在市场上这些产品已经有很多。

本文查阅了中国期刊网几年来的相关文献包括相关英文文献，就是对前人在BP神经网络上的应用成果进行分析说明，综述如下：（一）B P神经网络的基本原理BP网络是一种按误差逆向传播算法训练的多层前馈网络它的学习规则是使用最速下降法，通过反向传播来不断调整网络的权值和阀值，使网络的误差平方最小。

BP网络能学习和存贮大量的输入- 输出模式映射关系,而无需事前揭示描述这种映射关系的数学方程.BP神经网络模型拓扑结构包括输入层（input）、隐层(hide layer)和输出层(output layer)，如图上图。

其基本思想是通过调节网络的权值和阈值使网络输出层的误差平方和达到最小，也就是使输出值尽可能接近期望值。

（二）对BP网络算法的应用领域的优势和其它神经网络相比，BP神经网络具有模式顺向传播，误差逆向传播，记忆训练，学习收敛的特点，主要用于：（1）函数逼近：用输入向量和相应的输出向量训练一个网络以逼近一个函数；（2）模式识别：用一个待定的输出向量将它与输入向量联系起来；（3）数据压缩：减少输出向量维数以便于传输或存储；（4）分类：把输入向量所定义的合适方式进行分类；]9[BP网络实质上实现了一个从输入到输出的映射功能，，而数学理论已证明它具有实现任何复杂非线性映射的功能。

卷积神经网络研究综述

卷积神经网络研究综述一、引言卷积神经网络（Convolutional Neural Network，简称CNN）是深度学习领域中的一类重要算法，它在计算机视觉、自然语言处理等多个领域中都取得了显著的成果。

CNN的设计灵感来源于生物视觉神经系统的结构，尤其是视觉皮层的组织方式，它通过模拟视觉皮层的层级结构来实现对输入数据的层次化特征提取。

在引言部分，我们首先要介绍CNN的研究背景。

随着信息技术的飞速发展，大数据和人工智能逐渐成为研究的热点。

在这个过程中，如何有效地处理和分析海量的图像、视频等数据成为了一个亟待解决的问题。

传统的机器学习方法在处理这类数据时往往面临着特征提取困难、模型复杂度高等问题。

而CNN的出现，为解决这些问题提供了新的思路。

接着，我们要阐述CNN的研究意义。

CNN通过其独特的卷积操作和层次化结构，能够自动学习并提取输入数据中的特征，从而避免了繁琐的特征工程。

同时，CNN还具有良好的泛化能力和鲁棒性，能够处理各种复杂的数据类型和场景。

因此，CNN在计算机视觉、自然语言处理等领域中都得到了广泛的应用，并取得了显著的成果。

最后，我们要介绍本文的研究目的和结构安排。

本文旨在对CNN 的基本原理、发展历程和改进优化方法进行系统的综述，以便读者能够全面了解CNN的相关知识和技术。

为了达到这个目的，我们将按照CNN的基本原理、发展历程和改进优化方法的顺序进行论述，并在最后对全文进行总结和展望。

二、卷积神经网络基本原理卷积神经网络的基本原理主要包括卷积操作、池化操作和全连接操作。

这些操作共同构成了CNN的基本框架，并使其具有强大的特征学习和分类能力。

首先，卷积操作是CNN的核心操作之一。

它通过一个可学习的卷积核在输入数据上进行滑动窗口式的计算，从而提取出输入数据中的局部特征。

卷积操作具有两个重要的特点：局部连接和权值共享。

局部连接意味着每个神经元只与输入数据的一个局部区域相连，这大大降低了模型的复杂度；权值共享则意味着同一卷积层内的所有神经元共享同一组权值参数，这进一步减少了模型的参数数量并提高了计算效率。

脉冲神经网络研究进展综述

脉冲神经网络研究进展综述一、本文概述随着和机器学习的飞速发展，神经网络作为其中的核心组件，已经得到了广泛的研究和应用。

然而，传统的神经网络模型在处理复杂、动态和实时的任务时，由于其计算复杂度高、能耗大等问题，面临着巨大的挑战。

脉冲神经网络（Spiking Neural Networks，SNNs）作为一种新型的神经网络模型，以其独特的脉冲编码和传输机制，为解决这些问题提供了新的思路。

本文旨在全面综述脉冲神经网络的研究进展，包括其基本原理、模型设计、训练方法以及应用领域等方面。

我们将详细介绍脉冲神经网络的基本概念和脉冲编码机制，阐述其与传统神经网络的主要区别和优势。

然后，我们将回顾脉冲神经网络模型的发展历程，分析各种模型的特点和应用场景。

接着，我们将探讨脉冲神经网络的训练方法和学习机制，包括监督学习、无监督学习和强化学习等。

我们将展示脉冲神经网络在各个领域的应用实例，如图像识别、语音识别、机器人控制等，并展望其未来的发展方向。

通过本文的综述，我们希望能够为研究者提供一个清晰、全面的脉络，以了解脉冲神经网络的研究现状和发展趋势，为未来的研究提供有益的参考和启示。

我们也期望能够激发更多研究者对脉冲神经网络的兴趣和热情，共同推动这一领域的发展。

二、脉冲神经网络的基本原理脉冲神经网络（Spiking Neural Networks，SNNs）是一种模拟生物神经网络中神经元脉冲发放行为的计算模型。

与传统的人工神经网络（Artificial Neural Networks，ANNs）不同，SNNs的神经元通过产生和传递脉冲（或称为动作电位）来进行信息的编码和传输。

这种模型更接近生物神经元的实际运作机制，因此具有更强的生物可解释性和更高的计算效率。

在SNNs中，神经元的状态通常由膜电位（Membrane Potential）来表示。

当膜电位达到某个阈值时，神经元会发放一个脉冲，并将膜电位重置为静息状态。

脉冲的发放时间和频率都可以作为信息的编码方式。

深度学习(Deep Learning)综述及算法简介

Hinton, G. E., Osindero, S. and Teh, Y., A fast learning algorithm for deep belief nets .Neural Computation 18:1527-1554, 2006
Yoshua Bengio, Pascal Lamblin, Dan Popovici and Hugo Larochelle, Greedy Layer-Wise Training of Deep Networks, in J. Platt et al. (Eds), Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 19 (NIPS 2006), pp. 153-160, MIT Press, 2007
The ICML 2009 Workshop on Learning Feature Hierarchies webpage has a list of references.
The LISA public wiki has a reading list and a bibliography.
Geoff Hinton has readings from last year’s NIPS tutorial.
对于表达sin(a^2+b/a)的流向图，可以通过一个有两个输入节点a和b的图表示，其中一个节点通过使用a和b作为输入(例如作为孩子)来表示b/a ；一个节点仅使用a 作为输入来表示平方；一个节点使用a^2 和b/a 作为输入来表示加法项(其值为a^2+b/a )；最后一个输出节点利用一个单独的来自于加法节点的输入计算SIN的最长路径的长度。
传统的前馈神经网络能够被看做拥有等于层数的深度(比如对于输出层为隐层数加1)。SVMs有深度2(一个对应于核输出或者特征空间，另一个对应于所产生输出的线性混合)。

《神经网络与深度学习综述DeepLearning15May2014

Draft:Deep Learning in Neural Networks:An OverviewTechnical Report IDSIA-03-14/arXiv:1404.7828(v1.5)[cs.NE]J¨u rgen SchmidhuberThe Swiss AI Lab IDSIAIstituto Dalle Molle di Studi sull’Intelligenza ArtiﬁcialeUniversity of Lugano&SUPSIGalleria2,6928Manno-LuganoSwitzerland15May2014AbstractIn recent years,deep artiﬁcial neural networks(including recurrent ones)have won numerous con-tests in pattern recognition and machine learning.This historical survey compactly summarises relevantwork,much of it from the previous millennium.Shallow and deep learners are distinguished by thedepth of their credit assignment paths,which are chains of possibly learnable,causal links between ac-tions and effects.I review deep supervised learning(also recapitulating the history of backpropagation),unsupervised learning,reinforcement learning&evolutionary computation,and indirect search for shortprograms encoding deep and large networks.PDF of earlier draft(v1):http://www.idsia.ch/∼juergen/DeepLearning30April2014.pdfLATEX source:http://www.idsia.ch/∼juergen/DeepLearning30April2014.texComplete BIBTEXﬁle:http://www.idsia.ch/∼juergen/bib.bibPrefaceThis is the draft of an invited Deep Learning(DL)overview.One of its goals is to assign credit to those who contributed to the present state of the art.I acknowledge the limitations of attempting to achieve this goal.The DL research community itself may be viewed as a continually evolving,deep network of scientists who have inﬂuenced each other in complex ways.Starting from recent DL results,I tried to trace back the origins of relevant ideas through the past half century and beyond,sometimes using“local search”to follow citations of citations backwards in time.Since not all DL publications properly acknowledge earlier relevant work,additional global search strategies were employed,aided by consulting numerous neural network experts.As a result,the present draft mostly consists of references(about800entries so far).Nevertheless,through an expert selection bias I may have missed important work.A related bias was surely introduced by my special familiarity with the work of my own DL research group in the past quarter-century.For these reasons,the present draft should be viewed as merely a snapshot of an ongoing credit assignment process.To help improve it,please do not hesitate to send corrections and suggestions to juergen@idsia.ch.Contents1Introduction to Deep Learning(DL)in Neural Networks(NNs)3 2Event-Oriented Notation for Activation Spreading in FNNs/RNNs3 3Depth of Credit Assignment Paths(CAPs)and of Problems4 4Recurring Themes of Deep Learning54.1Dynamic Programming(DP)for DL (5)4.2Unsupervised Learning(UL)Facilitating Supervised Learning(SL)and RL (6)4.3Occam’s Razor:Compression and Minimum Description Length(MDL) (6)4.4Learning Hierarchical Representations Through Deep SL,UL,RL (6)4.5Fast Graphics Processing Units(GPUs)for DL in NNs (6)5Supervised NNs,Some Helped by Unsupervised NNs75.11940s and Earlier (7)5.2Around1960:More Neurobiological Inspiration for DL (7)5.31965:Deep Networks Based on the Group Method of Data Handling(GMDH) (8)5.41979:Convolution+Weight Replication+Winner-Take-All(WTA) (8)5.51960-1981and Beyond:Development of Backpropagation(BP)for NNs (8)5.5.1BP for Weight-Sharing Feedforward NNs(FNNs)and Recurrent NNs(RNNs)..95.6Late1980s-2000:Numerous Improvements of NNs (9)5.6.1Ideas for Dealing with Long Time Lags and Deep CAPs (10)5.6.2Better BP Through Advanced Gradient Descent (10)5.6.3Discovering Low-Complexity,Problem-Solving NNs (11)5.6.4Potential Beneﬁts of UL for SL (11)5.71987:UL Through Autoencoder(AE)Hierarchies (12)5.81989:BP for Convolutional NNs(CNNs) (13)5.91991:Fundamental Deep Learning Problem of Gradient Descent (13)5.101991:UL-Based History Compression Through a Deep Hierarchy of RNNs (14)5.111992:Max-Pooling(MP):Towards MPCNNs (14)5.121994:Contest-Winning Not So Deep NNs (15)5.131995:Supervised Recurrent Very Deep Learner(LSTM RNN) (15)5.142003:More Contest-Winning/Record-Setting,Often Not So Deep NNs (16)5.152006/7:Deep Belief Networks(DBNs)&AE Stacks Fine-Tuned by BP (17)5.162006/7:Improved CNNs/GPU-CNNs/BP-Trained MPCNNs (17)5.172009:First Ofﬁcial Competitions Won by RNNs,and with MPCNNs (18)5.182010:Plain Backprop(+Distortions)on GPU Yields Excellent Results (18)5.192011:MPCNNs on GPU Achieve Superhuman Vision Performance (18)5.202011:Hessian-Free Optimization for RNNs (19)5.212012:First Contests Won on ImageNet&Object Detection&Segmentation (19)5.222013-:More Contests and Benchmark Records (20)5.22.1Currently Successful Supervised Techniques:LSTM RNNs/GPU-MPCNNs (21)5.23Recent Tricks for Improving SL Deep NNs(Compare Sec.5.6.2,5.6.3) (21)5.24Consequences for Neuroscience (22)5.25DL with Spiking Neurons? (22)6DL in FNNs and RNNs for Reinforcement Learning(RL)236.1RL Through NN World Models Yields RNNs With Deep CAPs (23)6.2Deep FNNs for Traditional RL and Markov Decision Processes(MDPs) (24)6.3Deep RL RNNs for Partially Observable MDPs(POMDPs) (24)6.4RL Facilitated by Deep UL in FNNs and RNNs (25)6.5Deep Hierarchical RL(HRL)and Subgoal Learning with FNNs and RNNs (25)6.6Deep RL by Direct NN Search/Policy Gradients/Evolution (25)6.7Deep RL by Indirect Policy Search/Compressed NN Search (26)6.8Universal RL (27)7Conclusion271Introduction to Deep Learning(DL)in Neural Networks(NNs) Which modiﬁable components of a learning system are responsible for its success or failure?What changes to them improve performance?This has been called the fundamental credit assignment problem(Minsky, 1963).There are general credit assignment methods for universal problem solvers that are time-optimal in various theoretical senses(Sec.6.8).The present survey,however,will focus on the narrower,but now commercially important,subﬁeld of Deep Learning(DL)in Artiﬁcial Neural Networks(NNs).We are interested in accurate credit assignment across possibly many,often nonlinear,computational stages of NNs.Shallow NN-like models have been around for many decades if not centuries(Sec.5.1).Models with several successive nonlinear layers of neurons date back at least to the1960s(Sec.5.3)and1970s(Sec.5.5). An efﬁcient gradient descent method for teacher-based Supervised Learning(SL)in discrete,differentiable networks of arbitrary depth called backpropagation(BP)was developed in the1960s and1970s,and ap-plied to NNs in1981(Sec.5.5).BP-based training of deep NNs with many layers,however,had been found to be difﬁcult in practice by the late1980s(Sec.5.6),and had become an explicit research subject by the early1990s(Sec.5.9).DL became practically feasible to some extent through the help of Unsupervised Learning(UL)(e.g.,Sec.5.10,5.15).The1990s and2000s also saw many improvements of purely super-vised DL(Sec.5).In the new millennium,deep NNs haveﬁnally attracted wide-spread attention,mainly by outperforming alternative machine learning methods such as kernel machines(Vapnik,1995;Sch¨o lkopf et al.,1998)in numerous important applications.In fact,supervised deep NNs have won numerous of-ﬁcial international pattern recognition competitions(e.g.,Sec.5.17,5.19,5.21,5.22),achieving theﬁrst superhuman visual pattern recognition results in limited domains(Sec.5.19).Deep NNs also have become relevant for the more generalﬁeld of Reinforcement Learning(RL)where there is no supervising teacher (Sec.6).Both feedforward(acyclic)NNs(FNNs)and recurrent(cyclic)NNs(RNNs)have won contests(Sec.5.12,5.14,5.17,5.19,5.21,5.22).In a sense,RNNs are the deepest of all NNs(Sec.3)—they are general computers more powerful than FNNs,and can in principle create and process memories of ar-bitrary sequences of input patterns(e.g.,Siegelmann and Sontag,1991;Schmidhuber,1990a).Unlike traditional methods for automatic sequential program synthesis(e.g.,Waldinger and Lee,1969;Balzer, 1985;Soloway,1986;Deville and Lau,1994),RNNs can learn programs that mix sequential and parallel information processing in a natural and efﬁcient way,exploiting the massive parallelism viewed as crucial for sustaining the rapid decline of computation cost observed over the past75years.The rest of this paper is structured as follows.Sec.2introduces a compact,event-oriented notation that is simple yet general enough to accommodate both FNNs and RNNs.Sec.3introduces the concept of Credit Assignment Paths(CAPs)to measure whether learning in a given NN application is of the deep or shallow type.Sec.4lists recurring themes of DL in SL,UL,and RL.Sec.5focuses on SL and UL,and on how UL can facilitate SL,although pure SL has become dominant in recent competitions(Sec.5.17-5.22). Sec.5is arranged in a historical timeline format with subsections on important inspirations and technical contributions.Sec.6on deep RL discusses traditional Dynamic Programming(DP)-based RL combined with gradient-based search techniques for SL or UL in deep NNs,as well as general methods for direct and indirect search in the weight space of deep FNNs and RNNs,including successful policy gradient and evolutionary methods.2Event-Oriented Notation for Activation Spreading in FNNs/RNNs Throughout this paper,let i,j,k,t,p,q,r denote positive integer variables assuming ranges implicit in the given contexts.Let n,m,T denote positive integer constants.An NN’s topology may change over time(e.g.,Fahlman,1991;Ring,1991;Weng et al.,1992;Fritzke, 1994).At any given moment,it can be described as aﬁnite subset of units(or nodes or neurons)N= {u1,u2,...,}and aﬁnite set H⊆N×N of directed edges or connections between nodes.FNNs are acyclic graphs,RNNs cyclic.Theﬁrst(input)layer is the set of input units,a subset of N.In FNNs,the k-th layer(k>1)is the set of all nodes u∈N such that there is an edge path of length k−1(but no longer path)between some input unit and u.There may be shortcut connections between distant layers.The NN’s behavior or program is determined by a set of real-valued,possibly modiﬁable,parameters or weights w i(i=1,...,n).We now focus on a singleﬁnite episode or epoch of information processing and activation spreading,without learning through weight changes.The following slightly unconventional notation is designed to compactly describe what is happening during the runtime of the system.During an episode,there is a partially causal sequence x t(t=1,...,T)of real values that I call events.Each x t is either an input set by the environment,or the activation of a unit that may directly depend on other x k(k<t)through a current NN topology-dependent set in t of indices k representing incoming causal connections or links.Let the function v encode topology information and map such event index pairs(k,t)to weight indices.For example,in the non-input case we may have x t=f t(net t)with real-valued net t= k∈in t x k w v(k,t)(additive case)or net t= k∈in t x k w v(k,t)(multiplicative case), where f t is a typically nonlinear real-valued activation function such as tanh.In many recent competition-winning NNs(Sec.5.19,5.21,5.22)there also are events of the type x t=max k∈int (x k);some networktypes may also use complex polynomial activation functions(Sec.5.3).x t may directly affect certain x k(k>t)through outgoing connections or links represented through a current set out t of indices k with t∈in k.Some non-input events are called output events.Note that many of the x t may refer to different,time-varying activations of the same unit in sequence-processing RNNs(e.g.,Williams,1989,“unfolding in time”),or also in FNNs sequentially exposed to time-varying input patterns of a large training set encoded as input events.During an episode,the same weight may get reused over and over again in topology-dependent ways,e.g.,in RNNs,or in convolutional NNs(Sec.5.4,5.8).I call this weight sharing across space and/or time.Weight sharing may greatly reduce the NN’s descriptive complexity,which is the number of bits of information required to describe the NN (Sec.4.3).In Supervised Learning(SL),certain NN output events x t may be associated with teacher-given,real-valued labels or targets d t yielding errors e t,e.g.,e t=1/2(x t−d t)2.A typical goal of supervised NN training is toﬁnd weights that yield episodes with small total error E,the sum of all such e t.The hope is that the NN will generalize well in later episodes,causing only small errors on previously unseen sequences of input events.Many alternative error functions for SL and UL are possible.SL assumes that input events are independent of earlier output events(which may affect the environ-ment through actions causing subsequent perceptions).This assumption does not hold in the broaderﬁelds of Sequential Decision Making and Reinforcement Learning(RL)(Kaelbling et al.,1996;Sutton and Barto, 1998;Hutter,2005)(Sec.6).In RL,some of the input events may encode real-valued reward signals given by the environment,and a typical goal is toﬁnd weights that yield episodes with a high sum of reward signals,through sequences of appropriate output actions.Sec.5.5will use the notation above to compactly describe a central algorithm of DL,namely,back-propagation(BP)for supervised weight-sharing FNNs and RNNs.(FNNs may be viewed as RNNs with certainﬁxed zero weights.)Sec.6will address the more general RL case.3Depth of Credit Assignment Paths(CAPs)and of ProblemsTo measure whether credit assignment in a given NN application is of the deep or shallow type,I introduce the concept of Credit Assignment Paths or CAPs,which are chains of possibly causal links between events.Let usﬁrst focus on SL.Consider two events x p and x q(1≤p<q≤T).Depending on the appli-cation,they may have a Potential Direct Causal Connection(PDCC)expressed by the Boolean predicate pdcc(p,q),which is true if and only if p∈in q.Then the2-element list(p,q)is deﬁned to be a CAP from p to q(a minimal one).A learning algorithm may be allowed to change w v(p,q)to improve performance in future episodes.More general,possibly indirect,Potential Causal Connections(PCC)are expressed by the recursively deﬁned Boolean predicate pcc(p,q),which in the SL case is true only if pdcc(p,q),or if pcc(p,k)for some k and pdcc(k,q).In the latter case,appending q to any CAP from p to k yields a CAP from p to q(this is a recursive deﬁnition,too).The set of such CAPs may be large but isﬁnite.Note that the same weight may affect many different PDCCs between successive events listed by a given CAP,e.g.,in the case of RNNs, or weight-sharing FNNs.Suppose a CAP has the form(...,k,t,...,q),where k and t(possibly t=q)are theﬁrst successive elements with modiﬁable w v(k,t).Then the length of the sufﬁx list(t,...,q)is called the CAP’s depth (which is0if there are no modiﬁable links at all).This depth limits how far backwards credit assignment can move down the causal chain toﬁnd a modiﬁable weight.1Suppose an episode and its event sequence x1,...,x T satisfy a computable criterion used to decide whether a given problem has been solved(e.g.,total error E below some threshold).Then the set of used weights is called a solution to the problem,and the depth of the deepest CAP within the sequence is called the solution’s depth.There may be other solutions(yielding different event sequences)with different depths.Given someﬁxed NN topology,the smallest depth of any solution is called the problem’s depth.Sometimes we also speak of the depth of an architecture:SL FNNs withﬁxed topology imply a problem-independent maximal problem depth bounded by the number of non-input layers.Certain SL RNNs withﬁxed weights for all connections except those to output units(Jaeger,2001;Maass et al.,2002; Jaeger,2004;Schrauwen et al.,2007)have a maximal problem depth of1,because only theﬁnal links in the corresponding CAPs are modiﬁable.In general,however,RNNs may learn to solve problems of potentially unlimited depth.Note that the deﬁnitions above are solely based on the depths of causal chains,and agnostic of the temporal distance between events.For example,shallow FNNs perceiving large“time windows”of in-put events may correctly classify long input sequences through appropriate output events,and thus solve shallow problems involving long time lags between relevant events.At which problem depth does Shallow Learning end,and Deep Learning begin?Discussions with DL experts have not yet yielded a conclusive response to this question.Instead of committing myself to a precise answer,let me just deﬁne for the purposes of this overview:problems of depth>10require Very Deep Learning.The difﬁculty of a problem may have little to do with its depth.Some NNs can quickly learn to solve certain deep problems,e.g.,through random weight guessing(Sec.5.9)or other types of direct search (Sec.6.6)or indirect search(Sec.6.7)in weight space,or through training an NNﬁrst on shallow problems whose solutions may then generalize to deep problems,or through collapsing sequences of(non)linear operations into a single(non)linear operation—but see an analysis of non-trivial aspects of deep linear networks(Baldi and Hornik,1994,Section B).In general,however,ﬁnding an NN that precisely models a given training set is an NP-complete problem(Judd,1990;Blum and Rivest,1992),also in the case of deep NNs(S´ıma,1994;de Souto et al.,1999;Windisch,2005);compare a survey of negative results(S´ıma, 2002,Section1).Above we have focused on SL.In the more general case of RL in unknown environments,pcc(p,q) is also true if x p is an output event and x q any later input event—any action may affect the environment and thus any later perception.(In the real world,the environment may even inﬂuence non-input events computed on a physical hardware entangled with the entire universe,but this is ignored here.)It is possible to model and replace such unmodiﬁable environmental PCCs through a part of the NN that has already learned to predict(through some of its units)input events(including reward signals)from former input events and actions(Sec.6.1).Its weights are frozen,but can help to assign credit to other,still modiﬁable weights used to compute actions(Sec.6.1).This approach may lead to very deep CAPs though.Some DL research is about automatically rephrasing problems such that their depth is reduced(Sec.4). In particular,sometimes UL is used to make SL problems less deep,e.g.,Sec.5.10.Often Dynamic Programming(Sec.4.1)is used to facilitate certain traditional RL problems,e.g.,Sec.6.2.Sec.5focuses on CAPs for SL,Sec.6on the more complex case of RL.4Recurring Themes of Deep Learning4.1Dynamic Programming(DP)for DLOne recurring theme of DL is Dynamic Programming(DP)(Bellman,1957),which can help to facili-tate credit assignment under certain assumptions.For example,in SL NNs,backpropagation itself can 1An alternative would be to count only modiﬁable links when measuring depth.In many typical NN applications this would not make a difference,but in some it would,e.g.,Sec.6.1.be viewed as a DP-derived method(Sec.5.5).In traditional RL based on strong Markovian assumptions, DP-derived methods can help to greatly reduce problem depth(Sec.6.2).DP algorithms are also essen-tial for systems that combine concepts of NNs and graphical models,such as Hidden Markov Models (HMMs)(Stratonovich,1960;Baum and Petrie,1966)and Expectation Maximization(EM)(Dempster et al.,1977),e.g.,(Bottou,1991;Bengio,1991;Bourlard and Morgan,1994;Baldi and Chauvin,1996; Jordan and Sejnowski,2001;Bishop,2006;Poon and Domingos,2011;Dahl et al.,2012;Hinton et al., 2012a).4.2Unsupervised Learning(UL)Facilitating Supervised Learning(SL)and RL Another recurring theme is how UL can facilitate both SL(Sec.5)and RL(Sec.6).UL(Sec.5.6.4) is normally used to encode raw incoming data such as video or speech streams in a form that is more convenient for subsequent goal-directed learning.In particular,codes that describe the original data in a less redundant or more compact way can be fed into SL(Sec.5.10,5.15)or RL machines(Sec.6.4),whose search spaces may thus become smaller(and whose CAPs shallower)than those necessary for dealing with the raw data.UL is closely connected to the topics of regularization and compression(Sec.4.3,5.6.3). 4.3Occam’s Razor:Compression and Minimum Description Length(MDL) Occam’s razor favors simple solutions over complex ones.Given some programming language,the prin-ciple of Minimum Description Length(MDL)can be used to measure the complexity of a solution candi-date by the length of the shortest program that computes it(e.g.,Solomonoff,1964;Kolmogorov,1965b; Chaitin,1966;Wallace and Boulton,1968;Levin,1973a;Rissanen,1986;Blumer et al.,1987;Li and Vit´a nyi,1997;Gr¨u nwald et al.,2005).Some methods explicitly take into account program runtime(Al-lender,1992;Watanabe,1992;Schmidhuber,2002,1995);many consider only programs with constant runtime,written in non-universal programming languages(e.g.,Rissanen,1986;Hinton and van Camp, 1993).In the NN case,the MDL principle suggests that low NN weight complexity corresponds to high NN probability in the Bayesian view(e.g.,MacKay,1992;Buntine and Weigend,1991;De Freitas,2003), and to high generalization performance(e.g.,Baum and Haussler,1989),without overﬁtting the training data.Many methods have been proposed for regularizing NNs,that is,searching for solution-computing, low-complexity SL NNs(Sec.5.6.3)and RL NNs(Sec.6.7).This is closely related to certain UL methods (Sec.4.2,5.6.4).4.4Learning Hierarchical Representations Through Deep SL,UL,RLMany methods of Good Old-Fashioned Artiﬁcial Intelligence(GOFAI)(Nilsson,1980)as well as more recent approaches to AI(Russell et al.,1995)and Machine Learning(Mitchell,1997)learn hierarchies of more and more abstract data representations.For example,certain methods of syntactic pattern recog-nition(Fu,1977)such as grammar induction discover hierarchies of formal rules to model observations. The partially(un)supervised Automated Mathematician/EURISKO(Lenat,1983;Lenat and Brown,1984) continually learns concepts by combining previously learnt concepts.Such hierarchical representation learning(Ring,1994;Bengio et al.,2013;Deng and Yu,2014)is also a recurring theme of DL NNs for SL (Sec.5),UL-aided SL(Sec.5.7,5.10,5.15),and hierarchical RL(Sec.6.5).Often,abstract hierarchical representations are natural by-products of data compression(Sec.4.3),e.g.,Sec.5.10.4.5Fast Graphics Processing Units(GPUs)for DL in NNsWhile the previous millennium saw several attempts at creating fast NN-speciﬁc hardware(e.g.,Jackel et al.,1990;Faggin,1992;Ramacher et al.,1993;Widrow et al.,1994;Heemskerk,1995;Korkin et al., 1997;Urlbe,1999),and at exploiting standard hardware(e.g.,Anguita et al.,1994;Muller et al.,1995; Anguita and Gomes,1996),the new millennium brought a DL breakthrough in form of cheap,multi-processor graphics cards or GPUs.GPUs are widely used for video games,a huge and competitive market that has driven down hardware prices.GPUs excel at fast matrix and vector multiplications required not only for convincing virtual realities but also for NN training,where they can speed up learning by a factorof50and more.Some of the GPU-based FNN implementations(Sec.5.16-5.19)have greatly contributed to recent successes in contests for pattern recognition(Sec.5.19-5.22),image segmentation(Sec.5.21), and object detection(Sec.5.21-5.22).5Supervised NNs,Some Helped by Unsupervised NNsThe main focus of current practical applications is on Supervised Learning(SL),which has dominated re-cent pattern recognition contests(Sec.5.17-5.22).Several methods,however,use additional Unsupervised Learning(UL)to facilitate SL(Sec.5.7,5.10,5.15).It does make sense to treat SL and UL in the same section:often gradient-based methods,such as BP(Sec.5.5.1),are used to optimize objective functions of both UL and SL,and the boundary between SL and UL may blur,for example,when it comes to time series prediction and sequence classiﬁcation,e.g.,Sec.5.10,5.12.A historical timeline format will help to arrange subsections on important inspirations and techni-cal contributions(although such a subsection may span a time interval of many years).Sec.5.1brieﬂy mentions early,shallow NN models since the1940s,Sec.5.2additional early neurobiological inspiration relevant for modern Deep Learning(DL).Sec.5.3is about GMDH networks(since1965),perhaps theﬁrst (feedforward)DL systems.Sec.5.4is about the relatively deep Neocognitron NN(1979)which is similar to certain modern deep FNN architectures,as it combines convolutional NNs(CNNs),weight pattern repli-cation,and winner-take-all(WTA)mechanisms.Sec.5.5uses the notation of Sec.2to compactly describe a central algorithm of DL,namely,backpropagation(BP)for supervised weight-sharing FNNs and RNNs. It also summarizes the history of BP1960-1981and beyond.Sec.5.6describes problems encountered in the late1980s with BP for deep NNs,and mentions several ideas from the previous millennium to overcome them.Sec.5.7discusses aﬁrst hierarchical stack of coupled UL-based Autoencoders(AEs)—this concept resurfaced in the new millennium(Sec.5.15).Sec.5.8is about applying BP to CNNs,which is important for today’s DL applications.Sec.5.9explains BP’s Fundamental DL Problem(of vanishing/exploding gradients)discovered in1991.Sec.5.10explains how a deep RNN stack of1991(the History Compressor) pre-trained by UL helped to solve previously unlearnable DL benchmarks requiring Credit Assignment Paths(CAPs,Sec.3)of depth1000and more.Sec.5.11discusses a particular WTA method called Max-Pooling(MP)important in today’s DL FNNs.Sec.5.12mentions aﬁrst important contest won by SL NNs in1994.Sec.5.13describes a purely supervised DL RNN(Long Short-Term Memory,LSTM)for problems of depth1000and more.Sec.5.14mentions an early contest of2003won by an ensemble of shallow NNs, as well as good pattern recognition results with CNNs and LSTM RNNs(2003).Sec.5.15is mostly about Deep Belief Networks(DBNs,2006)and related stacks of Autoencoders(AEs,Sec.5.7)pre-trained by UL to facilitate BP-based SL.Sec.5.16mentions theﬁrst BP-trained MPCNNs(2007)and GPU-CNNs(2006). Sec.5.17-5.22focus on ofﬁcial competitions with secret test sets won by(mostly purely supervised)DL NNs since2009,in sequence recognition,image classiﬁcation,image segmentation,and object detection. Many RNN results depended on LSTM(Sec.5.13);many FNN results depended on GPU-based FNN code developed since2004(Sec.5.16,5.17,5.18,5.19),in particular,GPU-MPCNNs(Sec.5.19).5.11940s and EarlierNN research started in the1940s(e.g.,McCulloch and Pitts,1943;Hebb,1949);compare also later work on learning NNs(Rosenblatt,1958,1962;Widrow and Hoff,1962;Grossberg,1969;Kohonen,1972; von der Malsburg,1973;Narendra and Thathatchar,1974;Willshaw and von der Malsburg,1976;Palm, 1980;Hopﬁeld,1982).In a sense NNs have been around even longer,since early supervised NNs were essentially variants of linear regression methods going back at least to the early1800s(e.g.,Legendre, 1805;Gauss,1809,1821).Early NNs had a maximal CAP depth of1(Sec.3).5.2Around1960:More Neurobiological Inspiration for DLSimple cells and complex cells were found in the cat’s visual cortex(e.g.,Hubel and Wiesel,1962;Wiesel and Hubel,1959).These cellsﬁre in response to certain properties of visual sensory inputs,such as theorientation of plex cells exhibit more spatial invariance than simple cells.This inspired later deep NN architectures(Sec.5.4)used in certain modern award-winning Deep Learners(Sec.5.19-5.22).5.31965:Deep Networks Based on the Group Method of Data Handling(GMDH) Networks trained by the Group Method of Data Handling(GMDH)(Ivakhnenko and Lapa,1965; Ivakhnenko et al.,1967;Ivakhnenko,1968,1971)were perhaps theﬁrst DL systems of the Feedforward Multilayer Perceptron type.The units of GMDH nets may have polynomial activation functions imple-menting Kolmogorov-Gabor polynomials(more general than traditional NN activation functions).Given a training set,layers are incrementally grown and trained by regression analysis,then pruned with the help of a separate validation set(using today’s terminology),where Decision Regularisation is used to weed out superﬂuous units.The numbers of layers and units per layer can be learned in problem-dependent fashion. This is a good example of hierarchical representation learning(Sec.4.4).There have been numerous ap-plications of GMDH-style networks,e.g.(Ikeda et al.,1976;Farlow,1984;Madala and Ivakhnenko,1994; Ivakhnenko,1995;Kondo,1998;Kord´ık et al.,2003;Witczak et al.,2006;Kondo and Ueno,2008).5.41979:Convolution+Weight Replication+Winner-Take-All(WTA)Apart from deep GMDH networks(Sec.5.3),the Neocognitron(Fukushima,1979,1980,2013a)was per-haps theﬁrst artiﬁcial NN that deserved the attribute deep,and theﬁrst to incorporate the neurophysiolog-ical insights of Sec.5.2.It introduced convolutional NNs(today often called CNNs or convnets),where the(typically rectangular)receptiveﬁeld of a convolutional unit with given weight vector is shifted step by step across a2-dimensional array of input values,such as the pixels of an image.The resulting2D array of subsequent activation events of this unit can then provide inputs to higher-level units,and so on.Due to massive weight replication(Sec.2),relatively few parameters may be necessary to describe the behavior of such a convolutional layer.Competition layers have WTA subsets whose maximally active units are the only ones to adopt non-zero activation values.They essentially“down-sample”the competition layer’s input.This helps to create units whose responses are insensitive to small image shifts(compare Sec.5.2).The Neocognitron is very similar to the architecture of modern,contest-winning,purely super-vised,feedforward,gradient-based Deep Learners with alternating convolutional and competition lay-ers(e.g.,Sec.5.19-5.22).Fukushima,however,did not set the weights by supervised backpropagation (Sec.5.5,5.8),but by local un supervised learning rules(e.g.,Fukushima,2013b),or by pre-wiring.In that sense he did not care for the DL problem(Sec.5.9),although his architecture was comparatively deep indeed.He also used Spatial Averaging(Fukushima,1980,2011)instead of Max-Pooling(MP,Sec.5.11), currently a particularly convenient and popular WTA mechanism.Today’s CNN-based DL machines proﬁta lot from later CNN work(e.g.,LeCun et al.,1989;Ranzato et al.,2007)(Sec.5.8,5.16,5.19).5.51960-1981and Beyond:Development of Backpropagation(BP)for NNsThe minimisation of errors through gradient descent(Hadamard,1908)in the parameter space of com-plex,nonlinear,differentiable,multi-stage,NN-related systems has been discussed at least since the early 1960s(e.g.,Kelley,1960;Bryson,1961;Bryson and Denham,1961;Pontryagin et al.,1961;Dreyfus,1962; Wilkinson,1965;Amari,1967;Bryson and Ho,1969;Director and Rohrer,1969;Griewank,2012),ini-tially within the framework of Euler-LaGrange equations in the Calculus of Variations(e.g.,Euler,1744). Steepest descent in such systems can be performed(Bryson,1961;Kelley,1960;Bryson and Ho,1969)by iterating the ancient chain rule(Leibniz,1676;L’Hˆo pital,1696)in Dynamic Programming(DP)style(Bell-man,1957).A simpliﬁed derivation of the method uses the chain rule only(Dreyfus,1962).The methods of the1960s were already efﬁcient in the DP sense.However,they backpropagated derivative information through standard Jacobian matrix calculations from one“layer”to the previous one, explicitly addressing neither direct links across several layers nor potential additional efﬁciency gains due to network sparsity(but perhaps such enhancements seemed obvious to the authors).。

综述-神经网络在机械工程应用现状

综述-神经网络在机械工程应用现状神经网络在机械工程应用现状综述1、前言神经网络（Neural Networks，简写为ANNs）是一种模仿动物神经网络行为特征，进行分布式并行信息处理的算法数学模型。

这种网络依靠系统的复杂程度，通过调整内部大量节点之间相互连接的关系，从而达到处理信息的目的。

2、正文2.1、Adaptive neural network force tracking impedance control for uncertain robotic manipulator based on nonlinear velocity observer这篇文章提出了一种基于非线性观测器的自适应神经网络力跟踪阻抗控制方案，用于控制具有不确定性和外部扰动的机器人系统。

假设可以测量机器人系统的关节位置和相互作用力，而关节速度是未知的和未测量的。

然后，设计非线性速度观测器来估计机械手的关节速度，并利用Lyapunov稳定性理论分析观测器的稳定性。

基于估计的关节速度，开发了自适应径向基函数神经网络（RBFNN）阻抗控制器，以跟踪末端执行器的期望接触力和机械手的期望轨迹，其中自适应RBFNN用于补偿系统。

不确定性，以便可以提高关节位置和力跟踪的准确性。

基于Lyapunov稳定性定理，证明了所提出的自适应RBFNN 阻抗控制系统是稳定的，闭环系统中的信号都是有界的。

最后，给出了双连杆机器人的仿真实例，以说明该方法的有效性。

[1]在控制方案中，首先设计非线性速度观测器来估计机械手的关节速度，并用严格的Lyapunov稳定性理论分析观测器的稳定性。

接下来，根据估计的速度，开发自适应神经网络阻抗控制器以跟踪末端执行器的期望接触力和操纵器的期望轨迹，其中自适应神经网络用于补偿操纵器的系统不确定性，因此然后可以改善力和位置跟踪精度，并且使用鲁棒项来补偿神经网络的外部干扰和近似误差。

最后，通过双连杆机器人的计算机模拟显示了控制方案的有效性。

深度学习的轻量化神经网络结构研究综述

深度学习的轻量化神经网络结构研究综述一、概览随着大数据时代的到来和计算能力的提升，深度学习在众多领域中发挥着越来越重要的作用。

深度学习模型通常需要庞大的计算资源和庞大的数据集来进行训练，这限制了它们的应用范围，并且需要高能耗。

设计轻量级神经网络结构的架构及优化算法具有重要意义，可以帮助降低计算和存储需求，同时保持较高的性能。

本文将对近年来轻量化神经网络结构的研究进行全面的综述，重点关注深度可分离卷积、神经架构搜索、模块化思想等一系列重要的轻量化技术。

通过对这些技术的分析和对比，以期为实际应用提供有益的指导。

1. 深度学习的发展趋势和挑战随着信息技术的迅速发展，人类社会对数据和计算能力的依赖与日俱增，这使得深度学习成为解决各种复杂问题的关键工具。

随着网络规模的扩大和计算需求的提高，深度学习模型面临着训练难度和资源消耗的巨大挑战。

学术界和工业界的研究者们纷纷致力于探索深度学习的轻量化方法，以降低模型的计算复杂度、内存占用和功耗，从而提高模型的实时性能和可扩展性。

这些努力包括简化网络结构、使用更高效的光学和硬件加速器、引入条件计算和技术等。

这些轻量化策略在一定程度上缓解了深度学习面临的困境，并为未来的广泛应用铺平了道路。

轻量化仍然面临一系列问题和挑战。

在理论研究方面，如何有效地减少模型的计算和存储需求依然是一个亟待解决的问题。

尽管有一些优化技术被提出，但在实际应用中仍需进一步验证和改进。

在设计轻量级系统时，如何在保持性能的同时降低成本、提高能效比也是一个重要挑战。

针对特定任务和场景的高效轻量化模型仍然不足，这在一定程度上限制了深度学习技术在某些领域的应用效果和普及程度。

深度学习的轻量化发展正处于一个充满机遇和挑战的关键时期。

需要学术界和工业界的共同努力，不断探索创新的方法和手段，以克服现有困难，推动深度学习技术的持续发展和广泛应用。

2. 轻量化神经网络结构的意义与价值随着互联网和人工智能技术的快速发展，深度学习在众多领域的应用越来越广泛。

1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。

在控制领域，将具有学习能力的控制系统称为学习控制系统，属于智能控制系统。神经控制是有学习能力的，属于学习控制，是智能控制的一个分支。神经控制发展至今，虽仅有十余年的历史，已有了多种控制结构。如神经预测控制、神经逆系统控制等。
2.人工神经网络的概况
2.1人工神经网络的应用
神经网络的应用已经涉及到各个领域，且取得了很大的进展。
图像处理：对图像进行边缘监测，图像分割，图像压缩和图像恢复。
机器人控制：对机器人轨道控制，操作机器人眼手系统，用于机械手的故障诊断及排除，智能自适应移动机器人的导航，视觉系统。
医疗：在乳房癌细胞分析，移植次数优化，医院费用节流，医院质量改进等方面均有应用。
2.2人工神经网络的趋势
人工神经网络特有的非线性适应性信息处理能力，克服了传统人工智能方法对于直觉，如模式、语音识别、非结构化信息处理方面的缺陷，使之在神经专家系统、模式识别、智能控制、组合优化、预测等领域得到成功应用。人工神经网络与其它传统方法相结合，将推动人工智能和信息处理技术不断发展。近年来，人工神经网络正向模拟人类认知的道路上更加深入发展，与模糊系统、遗传算法、进化机制等结合，形成计算智能，成为人工智能的一个重要方向，将在实际应用中得到发展。将信息几何应用于人工神经网的研究，为人工神经网络的理论研究开辟了新的途径。神经计算机的研究发展很快，已有产品进入市场。光电结合的神经计算机为人工神经网络的发展提供了良好条件。
1.2神经网络控制
神经网络控制是20世纪80年代末期发展起来的自动控制领域的前沿学科之一。它是智能控制的一个新的分支，为解决复杂的非线性、不确定、不确知系统的控制问题开辟了新途径。
神经网络控制是（人工）神经网络理论与控制理论相结合的产物，是发展中的学科。它汇集了包括数学、生物学、神经生理学、脑科学、遗传学、人工智能、计算机科学、自动控制等学科的理论、技术、方法及研究成果。
摘要：神经网络是一门发展十分迅速的交叉学科，它是由大量的处理单元组成非线性的大规模自适应动力系统。基于人工神经网络的控制（简称神经控制）是在现代神经生物学和认识科学对人类信息处理研究的基础上提出来的，人工神经网络具有很强的自适应性和学习能力、非线性映射能力、鲁棒性和容错能力,充分地将这些神经网络特性应用于控制领域,可使控制系统的智能化向前迈进一大步。本节将介绍人工神经网络的基本概念、ANN的特性、基本原理、BP神经网络、自适应竞争神经网络以及神经网络的应用改进方法。
自动控制领域：主要有系统建模和辨识，参数整定，极点配置，内模控制，优化设计，预测控制，最优控制，滤波与预测容错控制等。
处理组合优化问题：成功解决了旅行商问题，另外还有最大匹配问题，装箱问题和作业调度问题。
模式识别：手写字符，汽车牌照，指纹和声音识别，还可用于目标的自动识别，目标跟踪，机器人传感器图像识别及地震信号的鉴别。
关键词：人工神经网络控制，BP神经网络，自适应竞争神经网络
Review on Artificial Neural Network Control
Abstract：Neural network is a developing very rapidly cross discipline, it is made of a number of elements of the processing of the nonlinear large-scale adaptive power systems. Based on artificial neural network control (hereinafter referred to as theneural control) is in the modern neural biology and understanding of human science information processing on the basis of study of the proposed, artificial neural network has very strong adaptability and learning ability, nonlinear mapping capability, robustness and fault tolerance, will be fully the neural network in the control field application characteristics, can make the intelligent control system is a big step forward. This section will introduce the basic concept of artificial neural network, and the characteristics of the ANN, the basic principle, the BP neural network, adaptive neural network and competition of the neural network using the improved method.
Keywords：Artificial Neural Networks Control，Back Propagation Neural Networks，Adaptive competitive neural network
1.人工神经网络控制
1.1人工神经网络
人工神经网络（ArtificialNeuralNetworks，简写为ANN）也简称为神经网络（NN）或称作连接模型（ConnectionistModel），它是一种模范动物神经网络行为特征，进行分布式并行信息处理的算法数学模型。这种网络依靠系统的复杂程度，通过调整内部大量节点之间相互连接的关系，从而达到处理信息的目的。
人工神经网络是一个用大量简单处理单元经广泛链接而组成的人工网络，是对人脑或生物神经网络若干基本特性的抽象和模拟。
神经网络的研究已经获得许多成果，提出了大量的神经网络模型和算法。目前已经在模式识别、机器视觉、联想记忆、自动控制、信号处理、软测量、决策分析、智能计算、组合优化问题求解、数据挖掘等方面获得成功应用。