北科大内部--英国文学教学大纲-2016考研必备
北科大-语言学内部教学教案-11-2016年考研必备
Lecture 11 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics11.1 SaussureModern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and “a master of a discipline which he made mo dern” (Culler, 1976: 7).His 1916 book, Course in General Linguistics, which was a collection of his lecture notes, marked the beginning of modern linguistics.Saussure’s ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology, and psychology. In linguistics, he was greatly influenced by the American linguist W. D. Whitney (1827-94), who insisted on the concept of arbitrariness of the sign. In sociology, he followed the French sociologist Durkheim. In psychology, Saussure was influenced by Freud.Saussure believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, they must be part of a system of conventions, part of a system of signs. This sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the signifier and the signified. Some important distinctions Saussure made in linguistics include LANGUE vs. P AROLE, SYNTAGMATIC vs. PARADIGMATIC, and SYNCHRONIC vs. DIACHRONIC.Saussure exerted two kinds of influence on modern linguistics. First, he provided a general orientation, a sense of the task of linguistics which has seldom been questioned. Second, he influenced modern linguistics in the specific concepts. Many of the developments of modern linguistics can be described as his concept, i.e. his idea of the arbitrary nature of the sign, langue vs. parole, synchrony vs. diachrony, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, etc. Saussure’s fundamental perception is of revolutionary significance, and it is he that pushed linguistics into a brand new stage and all linguistics in the twentieth century are Saussurean linguistics.11.2 The Prague SchoolThe Prague School can be traced back to its first meeting under the leadership of V. Mathesius (1882–1946) in 1926. Its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function.Three important points concerning the ideas of the Prague School: First, it was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified. Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. Elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition. Third, language was looked on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.11.2.1 Phonology and phonological oppositionsThe Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. The most influential scholar in this connection is Trubetzkoy, whose most complete and authoritative statements of principle are formulated in his Principles of Phonology (1939). Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developed the notion of “phoneme” as an ab stract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced. A PHONEME may be defined as the sum of the differential functions. Sounds may be phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.In classifying distinctive features, Trubetzkoy proposed three criteria: (1) their relation to the whole contrastive system; (2) relations between the opposing elements; and (3) their power of discrimination. Trubetzkoy’s contributions to phonological theory concern four aspects. First, he showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition for the phoneme. Second, by making distinctions between phonetics and phonology, and between stylistic phonology and phonology, he defined the sphere of phonological studies. Third, by studying the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes, he revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes. Finally, he put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies, such as the method of extracting phonemes and the method of studying phonological combinations.11.2.2 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 功能句子观Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.Some Czech linguists devoted considerable attention to problems of analysing sentences from a functional point of view. Some important concepts in this view include:Theme – the point of departure of a sentence, which is equally present to the speaker and hearer;Rheme -- the goal of discourse which presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer;Known/ given information -- information that is not new to the reader or hearer;New information -- what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.Therefore the subject-predicate distinction is not always the same as theme-rheme distinction.(a) SallySubjectTheme stands on the tablePredicateRheme(b) On the table standsPredicateThemeSallySubjectRhemeIn research into the relation between structure and function, J. Firbas developed the notion of communicative dynamism (CD), which is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence. The degree of CD is the effect contributed by a linguistic element, for it “pushes the communication forward”. Usually a context-dependent element carries a lower CD than a context-independent element. For example, in “I have read a nice book”, “a nice book” carries a higher CD than “I” and the finite verb.Firbas defined FSP as “the distribution of various degrees of CD”. This can be explained as: the initial elements of a sequence carry the lowest degree of CD, and with each step forward, the degree of CD becomes incremental till the element that carries the highest.12.3 The London SchoolThe man who turned linguistics proper into a recognised distinct academic subject in Britain was J. R. Firth (1890–1960), the first Professor of General Linguistics in Great Britain in 1944. The majority of university teachers of linguistics in Britain were trained under Firth and their work reflected Firth’s ideas.Firth was influenced by the anthropologist B. Malinowski (1884–1942). In turn, he influenced his student, the well-known linguist M. A. K. Halliday. The three men all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of language. Thus, London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.12.3.1 Malinowski’s theoriesMalinowski regards language “a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought”. According to him, the meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs.Malinowski believed that utterances and situation are bound up inextricably with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words. The meaning of spoken utterances could always be determined by the context of situation. He distinguished three types of context of situation: (1) situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity; (2) narrative situations; and (3) situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum – phatic communion.Two important points on Malinowski’s theory of meaning: First, he prescribed the data for linguistic studies, holding that isolated words are only imagined linguistic facts, and they are the products of advanced analytical procedures of linguistics. According to him, the real linguistic data are the complete utterances in actual uses of language. The second point is that when a certain sound is used in two different situations, it cannot be called one word, but two words having the same sound, or homonyms. He said that in order to assign meaning to a sound, one has to study thesituations in which it is used.12.3.2 Firth’s theoriesHere we’ll just talk about Firth’s major contributions to linguistics.Firth started the branch called linguistic semantics. He put forward the idea that in analysing a typical context of situation, one has to take into consideration both the situational context and the linguistic context of a text:(1) The internal relations of the text itself(a) the syntagmatic relations between the elements in the structure;(b) the paradigmatic relations between units in the system.(2) The internal relations of the context of situation(a) the relations between text and non-linguistic elements, and the general effects;(b) the analytical relations between words, parts of words, phrases and the special elements of the context of situationFirth also listed a model in his Papers in Linguistics(1957) that covers both the situational context and the linguistic context of a text:(1) the relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities(a) the verbal action of the participants(b) the non-verbal action of the participants(2) the relevant topics, including objects, events, and non-linguistic, non-human events(3) the effects of the verbal action.Firth’s second important contribution to linguistics is his method of prosodic analysis (节律分析), called prosodic phonology. Firth pointed out that in actual speech, it is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but phonematic units. There are fewer features in phonematic units than in phonemes, because some features are common to phonemes of a syllable or a phrase (even a sentence). When these features are considered in syntagmatic relations, they are all called prosodic units.Firth did not define prosodic units. However, his discussion indicates that prosodic units include such features as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, and aspiration. In any case, these features cannot be found in one phonematic unit alone.11.3.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional GrammarM. A. K. Halliday (1925– ) has developed the ideas stemmi ng from Firth’s theories in the London School. His Systemic-Functional (SF) Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the twentieth century, having great effect on various disciplines related to language, such as language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistics, and machine translation.Systemic-Functional Grammar has two components: systemic grammar andfunctional grammar. They are two inseparable parts for an integral framework of linguistic theory. Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. And this network consists of subsystems from which language users make choices. Functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the uses or functions which they serve.Systemic-Functional Grammar is based on two facts: (1) language users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to realise different semantic functions in social interaction; and (2) language is inseparable from social activities of man. Thus, it takes actual uses of language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomsky’s TG Grammar that takes the ideal speaker’s linguistic competence as the object of study.1)Systemic GrammarIn Systemic Grammar, the notion of system is made a central explanatory principle, the whole of language bei ng conceived as a “system of systems”. Systemic Grammar is concerned with establishing a network of systems of relationships, which accounts for all the semantically relevant choices in the language as a whole.On a very general level, there is the Axis of Choice and the Axis of Chain:The dimension along which the utterance sequence occurs is the axis of chain; the basic patterns along the vertical line form the axis of choice. The axis of chain represents syntagmatic relations; the axis of choice represents paradigmatic relations. In English, we make choices between different types of process, participants, and circumstances. They are known collectively as the transitivity choices. We first divide the choices into six kinds:Halliday believes that there are realisation relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning (on the semantic level) is realised by the choice of the “form” (on the level of lexicogrammar); the choice of the “form” is realised by the choice of “substance” on the phonological level. In other words, “what can be done” is realise d by “what is meant to be done”; “what is meant to be done” is realised by “what can be said”. In this view, we can regard language as a multi-level code system, in which one sub-system is embedded in another. For example,2)Functional GrammarHalliday views language development in children as “the mastery of linguistic functions”, and “learning a language is learning how to mean”. So he proposes seven functio ns in children’s model of language:(1) the instrumental function;(2) the regulatory function;(3) the interactional function;(4) the personal function;(5) the heuristic function;(6) the imaginative function; and(7) the informative function.According to Halliday, the adult’s language becomes much more complex and it has to serve many more functions, and the original functional range of the child’slanguage is gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions, which are metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual functions. According to Halliday, a clause is the simultaneous realisation of ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings. For example,11.4 American structuralismAMERICAN STRUCTURALISM is a branch of SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed in a very different style from that of Europe, under the leadership of the anthropologist F. Boas (1858–1942).11.4.1 Early period: Boas and SapirBoas, 1911, Handbook of American Indian Languages.In the Introduction to his Handbook, Boas discussed the framework of descriptive linguistics. He held that such descriptions consist of three parts: the sound of languages, the semantic categories of linguistic expression, and the process of grammatical combination in semantic expression. Boas noticed that every language has its own system of sounds and its own grammatical system. He held that the important task for linguists is to discover, for each language under study, its own particular grammatical structure and to develop descriptive categories appropriate to it. His methodology in processing linguistic data of American Indian languages is analytical, without comparing them with such languages as English or Latin. Starting from an anthropological view, Boas regarded linguistics as part of anthropology and failed to establish linguistics as an independent branch of science. But his basic theory, his observation, and his descriptive methods paved the way for American descriptive linguistics and influenced generations of linguists.Sapir, 1921, An Introduction of the Study of Language.Sapir undertook the description of American Indian languages after Boas’s method, using a native informant in his own cultural surroundings. In his book, he started from an anthropological viewpoint to describe the nature of language and its development, with his main focus on typology. Sapir is most famous for his ideas on language and thought, which were later developed by his student, B. L. Whorf (1897-1941), and is known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.11.4.2 Bloomfield’s theoryBloomfield, 1933, Language. This book started American structuralism as a school of thought.For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as behaviourism. Behaviourism is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced. Behaviourism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “STIMULUS-RESPONSE reinforcement”, and the adult’s use of language is also a process of stimulus-response.Bloomfield exemplified the stimulus-response theory and developed the following principles: 1) When one individual is stimulated, his speech can make another individual react accordingly. 2) The division of labour and all human activities based on the division of labour are dependent on language. 3) The distance between the speaker and the hearer, two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves.Bloomfield also touched upon the application of linguistics to language teaching and criticised traditional grammar. According to Bloomfield，in language teaching, instead of paying too much attention to graphetic forms, we should give priority to the teaching of pronunciation. Concerning the popular practice of foreign language teaching in America, he said that learning a language involves constant practice and repetition in real situations rather than merely teaching language learners grammatical theories; traditional practice, being sometimes confusing and far from being economical, cannot help the learners much.11.4.3 Post-Bloomfieldian linguisticsInfluenced by Bloomfield’s Language, American linguists such as Z. S. Harris (1909-1992), C. Hockett (1916-2000), G. Trager, H. L. Smith, A. Hill, and R. Hall further developed structuralism, characterised by a strict empiricism.The most significant figure in continuing the structuralist tradition may be K. Pike (1912-2000), who and his followers have a special name for their technique of linguistic analysis – tagmemics.Last but not least, starting from the late 1950s, Sydney M. Lamb developed his theory in a model consisting of three levels, or strata: phoneme, morpheme, and morphophoneme. This laid the foundation for his stratificational grammar. This later developed into neurocognitive linguistics.To summarize, structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of distribution, and that the structure of each language should be described without reference to the allegeduniversality of such categories as tense, mood and parts of speech. Firstly, structural grammar describes everything that is found in a language instead of laying down rules. However, its aim is confined to the description of languages, without explaining why language operates the way it does. Secondly, structural grammar is empirical, aiming at objectivity in the sense that all definitions and statements should be verifiable or refutable. However, it has produced almost no complete grammars comparable to any comprehensive traditional grammars. Thirdly, structural grammar examines all languages, recognising and doing justice to the uniqueness of each language. But it does not give an adequate treatment of meaning. Lastly, structural grammar describes even the smallest contrasts that underlie any construction or use of a language, not only those discoverable in some particular use.11.5 Transformational-Generative GrammarIn the late 1950s, A. N. Chomsky (1928- ), a student of Hebrew with the structuralist methodology, Chomsky tried to open up a new route when he found that the classification of structural elements of language according to distribution and arrangement had its limitations. From this practice Chomsky gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) grammar. The publication of his Syntactic Structures (1957) marked the beginning of the Chomskyan Revolution. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen five stages of development. • The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science. Syntactic Structures. 1957. •The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. 1965.• The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.• The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) focuses discussion on government and binding.Major works in this period include: “Remarks on Nominalization” (1970), Reflections on Language (1975), Rules and Representations (1980), Lectures on Government and Binding (1981).• The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory.The Minimalist Program (1995), Minimalist Inquiries: The Framework (1998).C homsky’s TG Grammar differs from the structural grammar in a number of ways:(1) rationalism;(2) innateness;(3) deductive methodology;(4) emphasis on interpretation;(5) formalization;(6) emphasis on linguistic competence;(7) strong generative powers;(8) emphasis on linguistic universals.First, Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles. Second, Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language. This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals. Third, Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge. They seldom use what native speakers actually say; they rely on their own intuition. Fourth, Chomsky’s methodology is hypothe sis-deductive, which operates at two levels: (a) the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure –a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars for particular languages, and (b) each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory. Finally, Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.。
《英国文学选读》课程教学大纲
《英国文学选读》课程教学大纲课程编号：009一、课程说明1. 课程代码ZJ04010192. 课程类别专业基础课3. 适应专业及课程性质英语（师范）专业必修4. 课程目的《英国文学选读》课程是英语专业本科学生三年级的专业必修课，其主要目的在于：（1）通过对英国各历史断代背景和重要作家及其代表作品的介绍，使学生了解英国文学发展的历史及各个时期的主要文学流派及其创作特点；（2）通过文本学习提高学生的文学阅读、理解与鉴赏能力以及口头与书面表达等语言技能；（3）通过大量阅读与讨论加强学生对文学本质的意识，提高学生的综合人文素养，增强其对西方文学及文化的理解；（4）通过大量教学实践活动培养学生独立学习的习惯和创造潜能。
5. 学时与学分学时为30，学分为1.5.6. 建议先修课程基础英语，英语阅读，英语国家社会与文化二、课程教学基本内容及要求第一章中古英语时期计划学时：3基本要求：（1）了解中古英语时期英语语言及英国文学发展的特点；（2）掌握杰弗雷•乔叟的生平及其文学地位和作品；（3）理解文学术语“史诗”、“传奇”和“英雄双行体”的涵义；（4）运用《坎特伯雷故事集》、《序言》部分的节选，赏析语言风格。
教学重点及难点：（1）文学术语“史诗”、“传奇”和“英雄双行体”的涵义；（2）杰弗雷•乔叟的介绍及其文学贡献；（3）《坎特伯雷故事集》、《序言》部分的节选选读。
基本内容：（1）中古英语时期的历史背景；（2）中古英语文学的分类与特征，以及文学术语的解释；（3）乔叟的生平、作品介绍及其贡献；（4）《坎特伯雷故事集》的结构分析与《序言》的意义解释。
思考题：（1）How is The Canterbury Tales structured?（2）What is expressed in the opening lines of The Canterbury Tales?（3）What is the function of the General Prologue to The Canterbury Tales?第二章文艺复兴时期计划学时：3.5基本要求：（1）了解文艺复兴时期的英国历史背景；（2）掌握文学发展变化的趋势和特点，以及该时期文学家的生平和作品；（3）理解文学术语“文艺复兴”、“十四行诗体”和“散文”的涵义；（4）赏析戏剧节选《哈姆雷特》，诗歌节选“十四行诗第十八首”以及散文选读《论学习》。
英国文学课程教学大纲
《英国文学》课程教学大纲课程编号：ENGL2017课程类别：专业必修课程授课对象：英语、英语师范专业开课学期：春（第5学期）学分：2主讲教师：秦伟刚指定教材：《英美文学选读》，张伯香编。
外语教学与研究出版社，2000年。
《英国文学简史》，刘炳善编著。
河南人民出版社，2001年。
教学目的：英国文学历史悠久，自中远古至今，尤其是文艺复兴以来，名家名作迭出，卷轶浩繁，为世界文学的发展与繁荣做出了突出贡献。
莎士比亚，雪莱，狄更斯，勃朗特姐妹，哈代等，即便对于一般读者来说都已成为耳熟能详的名字，他们的作品以各自不同的角度，各自不同的手法，对英国的社会生活、文化，乃至人类的命运等重大问题，进行了艺术的表现和诠释。
作为英语专业的学生，有选择、批判性地阅读一些英国名家名篇的原作，对于提高英语阅读和写作的基本技能，丰富自身的文学素养，大有裨益。
在全球化成为一种不可逆转的趋势、国际交往日益增多的今天，透过英国文学这一窗口，对英国的风土人情和英国的社会文化有一个基本认识和了解，对于将在不同程度上以英语作为工具从事学习和工作的英语专业学生来说，不仅必要，而且具有重要的现实意义。
本课程选取英国作家具有代表性的经典名篇为内容，以课堂精讲、小组讨论、独立研究等形式，从社会、历史的角度，解读作家与作品，引入心理学、人类学、语言学、社会学、伦理学、哲学等方面的最新成果，引导学生加深对所读作家作品的理解和认识，着重培养学生的分析思辩能力和语言表达能力，为学生写以文学为主题的毕业论文奠定基础。
同时，通过本课程的学习，提高学生理解欧美文学和文化的鉴赏能力，加深学生对社会人生的思考，体现素质教育的特点。
第一课Introduction to English literature.课时：第一周，共2课时教学内容Introduction to English literature.第一节Why should we take this course.The importance of studying literature.English literature from the medieval period to the present思考题：1.What do you know about English literature?2.Are you interested in literature?第二节How to prepare for this course.How to make an oral presentation.How to participate in classroom discussions.How to do research through the Internet and in the library第二课Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales”课时：第二周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/story.2、Oral presentations on the author/ story.3、Detailed study of the text / story.思考题：1.What is the season and setting of the General Prologue and how are these important to the Tale?2.In what order are the pilgrims introduced? Does the order and grouping of the pilgrims suggest anything about medieval English society?3.Critics find that some of the characters are being satirized in their initial presentation. Pick two characters--one presented seriously (or respectfully) and the other satirized. Describe why you selected each and why they fit into that category.4.Discuss Chaucer’s writing style.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第三课Spenser’s “Faire Queene”课时：第三周，共2课时教学内容第一节textPre-reading questions and background information of the author/poems.Oral presentations on the author/poemsDetailed study of the text思考题：1.The Faerie Queene is historical, moral, allegorical, and literal. Think about the different ways that this is so for the sections you've read.2.In what ways can you see the section you've read as commenting on religious or cultural turmoil in England, Ireland or the Continent.3.How is the episode you're considering an important part of the character's growth? What could it mean for the reader's growth?4.In what ways is what you're reading Epic and in what ways is it Romance?5.What do you think Redcrosse symbolize? What do you think Una symbolize?6.Discuss Spenser’s stylistic features as shown in the section you’ve read.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第四课Shakespeare’s Sonnets课时：第四周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poet/his sonnetsOral presentations on the poet/his sonnetsDetailed study of the text思考题：1.Figure out the rhyme scheme of Shakespeare’s sonnets.2.Identify the theme of each of the sonnets you’ve read.3. What are some of the literary devices that the poet employs in the sonnets and how effectivelydo they help to express the themes?第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第五课Shakespeare’s “The Merchant of Venice”课时：第五周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the playwright/his dramas.Oral presentations on the playwright/his dramas.Detailed study of the text思考题：1.What do you know about Humanism? In what ways does the play demonstrate Shakespeare’shumanism?2.Analyze the major characters in the play such as Shylock, Portia, Antonio, etc.3.Discuss the social significance and artistic value of Shakespeare’s dramas.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第六课Donne’s Sonnets课时：第六周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poet/poems.Oral presentations on the poet/poems.Detailed study of the poems.思考题：1.What do you know about “metaphysical poetry”?2.What is a “metaphysical conceit”? Can you identify the “metaphysical conceits”in thesonnets you’ve read?3.What are the themes of the sonnets and what do you think of Donne’s views?4.Summarize Donne’s poetic features.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第七课Bunyan’s “The Pilgrim’s Progress”课时：第七周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/book.Oral presentations on the author/book.Detailed study of the novel.思考题：1.In what ways can we read the book as an allegory?2.What evils does the piece we’re reading expose and attack ?3.What is admirable about Bunyan’s prose?第二节Questions and answersDiscussion and responses from the studentsHomework第八课Swift’s “Gulliver’s Travels”课时：第八周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novel.Oral presentations on the author/novel.Detailed study of the text.思考题：1.What is “Neo-classical” literature?2.What are some of the Neo-classic writers’ views on Nature and literary creation?3.Discuss the themes in the novel.4.Discuss the stylistic features of Swift’s prose, using examples from the text as illustrations.. 第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第九课Wordsworth’s Poetry课时：第九周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poet/poems.Oral presentations on the poet/poems.Detailed study of the poems.思考题：1.Discuss English Romanticism. Where did many English Romantic poets believe the source ofpoetry was? How did this differ from the views of the past poets?2.What is the difference between Wordsworth’s ideal of good poetry versus the classical idealsof good poetry?3.In what ways do the poems we read fit the poet’s philosophy about poetry?4.What are the themes of the poems and what literary devices does the poet employ toeffectively express them?5.Summarize the artistic characteristics of Wordsworth’s poetry.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十课Coleridge’s “Kubla Khan”课时：第十周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background of the poet/poems..Oral presentations on the poet/poems.Detailed study of the text.思考题：1.Discuss Coleridge’s romanticism in his poems.2.Can we take “Kubla Khan” as a complete poem? State your reasons.3.What do you think is (are) the possible theme(s) in the poem?第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十一课Shelley “Ode to the West Wind”课时：第十一周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poet/poetry.Oral presentations on the poet/poetry.Detailed study of the text思考题：1.What are some of the important views Shelley voices about poetry in his “A Defense ofPoetry”? Does he practice them in this poem?2.What does the wind signify in this ode? How is it used symbolically?3.How does the poet use the images of autumn and fire in the poem? How does this compare toShakespeare’s use of these in his sonnets?第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十二课Keat s’“Ode to a Nightingale”课时：第十二周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poets/poems.Oral presentations on the poetsDetailed study of the poems思考题：1.What are Keats’ views on poetry?2.What three sensations does the speaker feel in the poem’s opening scene? What images ofsound, sight, smell, taste, or touch have led you on a journey of imagination, perhaps back to some remembered occurrences/3.Discuss Keats’ style.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十三课Dickens’“A Tale of Two Cities”课时：第十三周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novelsOral presentations on the author/novels .Detailed study of the text.思考题：1. Discuss Dickens’ critical-realism as represented in the novel.2. Discuss Dickens’ humor and writing styles.3. According to your reading, what is the theme of the novel?第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十四课Charlotte’s “Jane Eyre”课时：第十四周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novelsOral presentations on the author/novels .Detailed study of the text.思考题：1. Discuss Charlotte’s realism as represented in the novel.2. According to your reading, what is the theme of the novel?3. Analyze the author’s characterization of Jane Eyre, the heroine.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework.第十五课George Eliot’s “Adam Bede”课时：第十五周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novels.Oral presentations on the author/novels.Detailed study of the text.思考题：1.Discuss Eliot’s psychoanalysis.2.Discuss the major theme in Eliot’s novels: the relationship between the individual and thesociety3.Analyze the theme of the novel “Adam Bede”.第二节Questions and answersDiscussion s and responses from the studentsHomework第十六章Hardy’s “Tess of the D’Urbervilles”课时：第十六周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novels.Oral presentations on the author/novels.Detailed study of the novels.思考题：1.Discuss Hardy’s fatalism.2.Discuss the character of Tess. To what extent is she a helpless victim? When is she strong andwhen is she weak? Who hurts Tess more? Alec or Angel?3.Discuss Hardy’s writing styles.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十七课Woolf’s “Mrs. Dalloway”.课时：第十七周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background of modern writers.Oral presentations on the modern writers.Detailed study of text.思考题：1.How much do you know about modernism?2.Discuss .Woolf’s feminist ideas.3.Discuss the new devices Woolf uses in her novels such as the narrow framework of time,symbolic structures, and the shift of the psychic presentation.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十八课Papers and Final Exams.课时：第十八周，共2课时教学内容: Discuss how to write an acceptable essay.参考书目：1.张伯香：《英国文学教程》上、下册。
英国文学北科大内部教学课件(2016考研必备)-Shakespeare1
2. The period of tragedy
• • • • • • Hamelt----1601 Measure for Measure Othello King Lear Macbeth Antony and Cleopatra
3. The period of romance
Cymbeline
A mysterious figure
• Birth (1564.4.23)
Born in Stratford-upon-Avon, allegedly on April 23, 1564.
Education:
There is a conjectural account of Shakespeare's schooling that can be reconstructed through our knowledge of his family and of the period. He only received two years in petty school. Because of his father's financial difficulties , Shakespeare may have been forced to leave school as early as 1577, at age 13.
Lost year(1585~1592) Seven years following the birth of his twins, William Shakespeare disappears from all records, finally turning up again in London some time in 1592.
2016北京科技大学外国语言文学(外国语学院)考研专业目录招生人数参考书目历年真题复试分数线答题方法
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接收推免生比例 或人数：8人左右 接收推免生比例 或人数：1人左右
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04语篇分析 05计算语言学 06外语教学 07翻译研究 08英汉对比分析
09语用学 10认知语言学 11社会语言学
同上 同上 同上 同上 同上 同上 同上 同上
D. identify
10. The bus that_____________ outside the inn would soon take the visitors
downtown.
A. held back B. pulled up
C. set forth
D. got down
11. Last year, these ships transported a total of 83.34 million tons
A. exhibited B. displayed C. paraded
D. revealed
4. The ceremony will _____________ as soon as the minister arrives.
A. commence
B. complete
C. disperse
D. descend
D. nearly is always
Section B
Directions: There are ten sentences in this section with one word or
phrase underlined in each sentence. From the four choices given, choose
2016 年北京科技大学外国语言文学考研专业目录、招 生人数、参考书目、历年真题、复试分数线、答题方
《英国文学》课程教学大纲
《英国文学》课程教学大纲一、教师信息二、课程基本信息课程名称（中文）：英国文学课程名称（英文）：English Literature课程类别：□通识必修课□通识选修课 专业必修课□专业方向课□专业拓展课□实践性环节课程性质*： 学术知识性□方法技能性□研究探索性□实践体验性课程代码：04103031周学时：2节总学时：32节学分：2先修课程：无授课对象：2016级英语专业和英语师范专业三、课程简介本课程是为英语专业学生开设的一门专业必修主干课程，旨在培养学生对英国文学作品的阅读、分析与欣赏的能力。
通过课堂精读与互动式讨论，本课程重点学习英国文学传统中主要作家的主要作品，尤其侧重短篇名作与名篇名段，从而帮助学生了解英国文学中的经典作家与经典作品，提高学生的英语语言与文学的素养。
本课程要求学生了解英国文学各个时期的代表性作家及其代表性作品，把握不同作家、不同流派的风格和文体特点，熟悉构成不同文学体裁的基本要素，对所学篇章的思想内容和艺术特点有较深入的领会。
四、课程目标本课程培养学生对英国文学历史传统、演变发展、主要流派、代表作家和作1品的整体把握，对部分名家、名篇和名段有较深入的认识，对文学体裁的各自特点和英语语言的艺术魅力有较充分的感知，对不同的文学文本有较强的阅读、分析和欣赏的能力。
五、教学内容与进度安排本课程授课时间为一个学期，授课内容如下：六、修读要求课程学习要求每次课堂出勤，认真预习和做笔记，积极提问和回答。
课程作业需要自己多做思考，引经据典时需要指明出处。
要求精读Romeo and Juliet和Hamlet的英文全本，并撰写不少于500字的读书报告。
要求背诵”Sonnet 18”, “To Be Or Not to Be”和“A Red, Red Rose”。
七、学习评价方案课程考核由平时成绩和期末考试成绩两部分构成，满分为100分。
平时成绩占30%，由课堂出勤与表现、课程作业完成情况共同构成，每旷课一次扣掉平时成绩的20%。
英国文学教学大纲
英国文学教学大纲前言英国文学是高等院校英语专业高年级的一门专业必修课，它由英国文学史及选读两部分组成。
教学对象为高等院校英语专业三年级学生。
教学主要以英国文学发展史为线索，通过对每一发展时期占主流的文学思潮、具有代表性作家及其代表作品的讲解、分析，使学生能够较为系统地把握英国文学发展的历史和现状；理清英国文学流变的脉络，掌握各发展时期占主流的文学流派的特点、代表作家及其代表作品；通过对文学名篇及选段的分析，加深对各文学流派创作特点、主要作家创作风格的理解，培养学生阅读文学作品的兴趣、欣赏英语文学原著的能力，以进一步加深对英语语言表现力的认识；通过文学作品作为语言结构、语言文体、语言材料及作家思想的载体作用，提高语言知识的深化及语言能力、分析问题、解决问题能力；通过对学生社会科学知识如历史，哲学，文化等方面知识的要求，提高学生的人文素质，增强学生对整个西方文学及文化的感悟。
英国文学的重点与难点是文艺复兴时期的文学、十八世纪现实主义小说、浪漫主义诗歌、十九世纪批判现实主义小说和现代主义文学。
与英国文学相关的课程，如基础英语、阅读、英美概况、英语文体学等为本科课程的学习、文学作品的阅读和理解打下坚实的基础。
同时，本课程也为其他课程提供大量的文化、历史和宗教等方面的背景知识以及鲜活的语言素材和范例。
因此，它在英语专业的课程中占有举足轻重的地位，是许多院校英语专业招收硕士学位研究生考试的主要科目之一。
英国文学在英语专业本科第五、六学期开设，每周2学时，共72学时。
根据教学内容及相关要求，我们制定了英国文学教学大纲，供四年制英语专业教学使用。
第一部分古英语和中古时期的英国文学目的：了解中古时代的文学特征和代表作品学时：8学时教学内容：1. Anglo-Saxon 时期的文学特征2. 十四世纪文学概述3. 十五世纪民间文学概况重点与难点：Beowulf; Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales第二部分文艺复兴时期的英国文学目的：了解文艺复兴时期的文学特点、主要作家及作品学时：12.5学时教学内容：1. 文艺复兴时期文学概述（0.5学时）：文艺复兴的发端、概念、特征、关键词2. 文艺复兴时期的戏剧、诗歌（0.5学时）：戏剧源流与分类、大学才子派、十四行诗3. 马洛（1学时）：生平、三部作品及其特征4. 莎士比亚（9.5学时）：生平、创作阶段（1学时）、历史剧与Falstaff 形象分析（1学时）、喜剧（The Merchant of Venice）（1学时）、悲剧（5学时）、十四行诗（1学时）、莎士比亚的文学成就与历史地位与莎士比亚研究综述（0.5学时）5. 文艺复兴时期的散文1学时重点与难点：Marlowe’s plays: Tamburlaine, The Jew of Malta, Doctor Faustus; William Shakespeare and his plays: Romeo and Juliet, The Merchant of Venice, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Sonnets，Shakespeare’s achievements in literature第三部分十七世纪的英国文学目的：了解资产阶级革命时期的文学特征及代表作品学时：5学时教学内容：1. 资产阶级革命时期的文学特征（0.5学时）2. 玄学派诗歌和骑士派诗歌（1学时）3. John Milton的诗歌成就（2学时）4. 王政复辟时期的文学特征（0.5学时）5. John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress（1学时）重点与难点：works of John Milton and John Banyan: Paradise Lost, Samson Agonistes, The Pilgrim’s Progress; John Donne and Metaphysical poems第四部分十八世纪的英国文学目的：熟悉新古典主义文学和现实主义小说、了解前浪漫主义诗歌特征与诗人学时：10.5学时：教学内容：1. 启蒙主义运动对英国文学的影响（0.5学时）2. 古典主义文学(2.5学时)：Addison, Steele, Pope，书信体小说、古典主义文学特征3. 现实主义文学(5学时)：Swift, Defoe and the rise of the English novel, Fielding, Sheridan, Johnson Goldsmith, Gibbon4. 感伤主义文学(0.5学时)：Thomas Gray, etc.5. 前浪漫主义时期的诗歌（2学时）：William Blake and Robert Burns重点与难点：novels of Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift and Henry Fielding; William Blake and his poems第五部分十九世纪英国浪漫主义文学目的：了解英国浪漫主义的发端、发展、特征，了解其代表人物William Wordsworth, George. G. Byron, Percy B. Shelley, John Keats，Sir Walter Scott等人的文学成就、特色，熟悉并赏析他们的作品。
北科大-语言学(内部资料)课堂教学阅读资料-2-2016考研必备
Supplementary Readings Chapter 2 Speech SoundsTable of ContentsText 1. The resonating cavities (Gimson)Text 2. How to organize the sounds of language (Crystal) Text 3. English consonantal allophones (Odden)Text 4. Stress assignment (Clark and Yallop)Text 5. The attitudinal function of intonation (Roach)Text 1The resonating cavitiesA. C. GimsonThe airstream, having passed through the larynx, is now subject to further modification according to the shape assumed by the upper cavities of the pharynx and mouth, and according to whether the nasal cavities are brought into use or not. These cavities function as the principal resonators of the voice produced in the larynx.1. The PharynxThe pharyngeal cavity extends from the top of the trachea and oesophagus, past the epiglottis and the root of the tongue, to the region at the rear of the soft palate. It is convenient to identify these sections of the pharynx by naming them: laryngopharynx, oropharynx, nasopharynx. The shape and volume of this long chamber may be considerably modified by the constrictive action of the muscles enclosing the pharynx, by the movement of the back of the tongue, by the position of the soft palate which may, when raised, exclude the nasopharynx, and by the raising of the larynx itself. The position of the tongue in the mouth, whether it is advanced or retracted, will affect the size of the oropharyngeal cavity; the modifications in shape of this cavity should, therefore, be included in the description of any vowel. It is a characteristic of some kinds of English pronunciation that certain vowels e.g. the [æ] vowel in sad are articulated with a strong pharyngeal contraction; in addition, a constriction may be made between the lower rear part of the tongue and the wall of the pharynx so that friction, with or without voice, is produced, such fricative sounds being a feature of a number of languages.The pharynx may be observed by means of a laryngoscope or fibre-optic nasendoscopy and its constrictive actions are revealed by lateral X-ray photography or, nowadays, preferably by MRI.The escape of air from the pharynx may be effected in one of three ways:(1) The soft palate may be lowered, as in normal breathing, in which case the air may escape through the nose and the mouth. This is the position taken up by the soft palate in articulation of the French nasalized vowels in a phrase such as un bon vin blanc [œb o)v E)bl A)], the particular quality of such vowels being achieved through the function of the nasopharyngeal cavities. Indeed, there is no absolute necessity for nasal airflow out of the nose, the most important factor in the production of nasality being the sizes of the posterior oral and nasal openings (some speakers may even make the nasal cavities vibrate through nasopharyngeal mucus or through the soft palate itself).(2) The soft palate may be lowered so that a nasal outlet is afforded to the airstream, but a complete obstruction is made at some point in the mouth, with the result that, although air enters all or part of the mouth cavity, no oral escape is possible. A purely nasal escape of this sort occurs in nasal consonants such as [m, n, ŋ] in the English words ram, ran, rang. In a snore and some kinds of defective speech, this nasal escape may be accompanied by friction between the rear sideof the soft palate and the pharyngeal wall.(3) The soft palate may be held in its raised position, eliminating the action of the nasopharynx, so that the air escape is solely through the mouth. All normal English sounds, with the exception of the nasal consonants mentioned, have this oral escape. Moreover, if for any reason the lowering of the soft palate cannot be effected, or if there is an enlargement of the organs enclosing the nasopharynx or a blockage brought about by mucus, it is often difficult to articulate either nasalized vowels or nasal consonants. In such speech, typical of adenoidal enlargement or the obstruction caused by a cold, the French phrase mentioned above would have its nasalized vowels turned into their oral equivalents and the English word morning would have its nasal consonants replaced by [b,d,g]. On the other hand, an inability to make an effective closure by means of the raising of the soft palate – either because the soft palate itself is defective or because an abnormal opening in the roof of the mouth gives access to the nasal cavities – will result in the general nasalization of vowels and the failure to articulate oral stop consonants such as [b,d,g]. This excessive nasalization (or hypernasality) is typical of a condition such as cleft palate.It is evident that the action of the soft palate is accessible to observation by direct means, as well as by lateral X-ray photography and MRI; the pressure of the air passing through the nasal cavities may be measured at the nostrils or within the cavities themselves.2. The MouthAlthough all the cavities so far mentioned play an essential part in the production of speech sounds, most attention has traditionally been paid to the behaviour of the cavity formed by the mouth. Indeed, in many languages the word tongue is used to refer to our speech and language activity. Such a preoccupation with the oral cavity is doubtless due to the fact that it is the most readily accessible and easily observed section of the vocal tract; but there is in such an attitude a danger of gross oversimplification. Nevertheless, it is true that the shape of the mouth determines finally the quality of the majority of our speech sounds. Far more finely controlled variations of shape are possible in the mouth than in any other part of the speech mechanism.The only boundaries of this oral chamber which may be regarded as relatively fixed are, in the front, the teeth; in the upper part, the hard palate; and, in the rear, the pharyngeal wall. The remaining organs are movable: the lips, the various parts of the tongue, and the soft palate with its pendant uvula. The lower jaw, too, is capable of very considerable movement; its movement will control the gap between the upper and lower teeth and also to a large extent the disposition of the lips. The space between the upper and lower teeth will often enter into our description of the articulation of sounds; in all such cases, it is clear that the movement of the lower jaw is ultimately responsible for the variation described. Movement of the lower jaw is also one way of altering the distance between the tongue and the roof of the mouth.It is convenient for our descriptive purposes to divide the roof of the mouth into three parts: moving backwards from the upper teeth, first, the teeth ridge (adjective: ALVEOLAR) which can be clearly felt behind the teeth; secondly, the bony arch which forms the hard palate (adjective: PALATAL), which varies in size and arching from one individual to another; and finally, the soft palate (adjective: VELAR), which, as we have seen, is capable of being raised or lowered, and at the extremity of which is the uvula (adjective: UVULAR). All these parts can be readily observedby means of a mirror.(1) Of the movable parts, the lips (adjective: LABIAL), constitute the final orifice of the mouth cavity whenever the nasal passage is shut off. The shape which they assume will, therefore, affect very considerably the shape of the total cavity. They may be shut or held apart in various ways. When they are held tightly shut, they form a complete obstruction or occlusion to the airstream, which may either be momentarily prevented from escaping at all, as in the initial sounds of pat and bat, or may be directed through the nose by the lowering of the soft palate, as in the initial sound of mat. If the lips are held apart, the positions they assume may be summarized under five headings:(a) held sufficiently close together over all their length that friction occurs between them. Fricative sounds of this sort, with or without voice, occur in many languages and the voiced variety [B] is sometimes wrongly used by foreign speakers of English for the first sound in the words vet or wet;(b) held sufficiently far apart for no friction to be heard, yet remaining fairly close together and energetically spread. This shape is taken up for vowels like that in see and is known as the SPREAD lip position;(c) held in a relaxed position with a lowering of the lower jaw. This is the position taken up for the vowel of sat and is known as the NEUTRAL position;(d) tightly pursed, so that the aperture is small and rounded, as in the vowel of do, or more markedly so in the French vowel of doux. This is the CLOSE ROUNDED position;(e) held wide apart, but with slight projection and rounding, as in the vowel of got. This is the OPEN ROUNDED position.Variations of these five positions may be encountered, e.g. in the vowel of saw, for which a type of lip-rounding between open-rounded and close-rounded is commonly used. It will be seen from the examples given that lip position is particularly significant in the formation of vowel quality. English consonants, on the other hand, even including [p,b,m,w] whose primary articulation involves lip action, will tend to share the lip position of the adjacent vowel. In addition, the lower lip is an active articulator in the pronunciation of [f,v], a light contact being made between the lower lip and the upper teeth.(2) Of all the movable organs within the mouth, the tongue is by far the most flexible and is capable of assuming a great variety of positions in the articulation of both vowels and consonants. The tongue is a complex muscular structure which does not show obvious sections; yet, since its position must often be described in considerable detail, certain arbitrary divisions are made. When the tongue is at rest, with its tip lying behind the lower teeth, that part which lies opposite the hard palate is called the FRONT and that which faces the soft palate is called the BACK, with the region where the front and back meet known as the CENTRE (adjective: CENTRAL). These areas, together with the root, are sometimes collectively referred to as the body of the tongue. The tapering section facing the teeth ridge is called the blade (adjective: LAMINAL) and its extremity the tip (adjective: APICAL). The edges of the tongue are known as the rims.Generally, in the articulation of vowels, the tongue tip remains low behind the lower teeth. The body of the tongue may, however, be ‘bunched up’ in different ways, e.g. the front may be thehighest part as when we say the vowel of he; or the back may be most prominent as in the case of the vowel in who; or the whole surface may be relatively low and flat as in the case of the vowel in ah. Such changes of shape can be felt if the above words are said in succession. These changes moreover, together with the variations in lip position, have the effect of modifying very considerably the size of the mouth cavity and of dividing this chamber into two parts: that cavity which is in the forward part of the mouth behind the lips and that which is in the rear in the region of the pharynx.The various parts of the tongue may also come into contact with the roof of the mouth. Thus, the tip, blade, and rims may articulate with the teeth as for the th sounds in English, or with the upper alveolar ridge as in the case of /t,d,s,z,n/ or the apical contact may be only partial as in the case of /1/ (where the tip makes firm contact whilst the rims make none) or intermittent in a trilled /r/ as in some forms of Scottish English. In some languages, notably those of India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, the tip contact may be retracted to the very back of the teeth ridge or even slightly behind it; the same kind of retroflexion, without the tip contact, is typical of some kinds of English /r/, e.g. those used in south-west England and in the USA.The front of the tongue may articulate against or near to the hard palate. Such a raising of the front of the tongue towards the palate (palatalization) is an essential part of the [S,Z] sounds in English words such as she and measure, being additional to an articulation made between the blade and the alveolar ridge; or again, it is the main feature of the [j] sound initially in yield.The back of the tongue can form a total obstruction by its contact with the soft palate, raised in the case of [k,g] and lowered for [ŋ]] as in sing; or again, there may merely be a narrowing between the soft palate and the back of the tongue, so that friction of the type occurring finally in the Scottish pronunciation of loch is heard. And finally, the uvula may vibrate against the back of the tongue, or there may be a narrowing in this region which causes uvular friction, as at the beginning of the French word rouge.It will be seen from these few examples that, whereas for vowels the tongue is generally held in a position which is convex in relation to the roof of the mouth, some consonant articulations, such as the Southern British English /r/ in red and the /1/ in table, will involve the ‘hollowing’ of the body of the tongue so that it has, at least partially, a concave relationship with the roof of the mouth.Moreover, the surface of the tongue, viewed from the front, may take on various forms: there may be a narrow groove running from back to front down the mid-line as for the /s/ in see, or the grooving may be very much more diffuse as in the case of the /I/ in ship; or again, the whole tongue may be laterally contracted, with or without a depression in the centre (sulcalization), as is the case with various kinds of r sounds.(from A. C. Gimson, revised by Alan Cruttenden: Gimson’s Pronunciation of English (6th edn.). Edward Arnold 2001, ch. 2, pp. 12-6.)Text 2How we organize the sounds of languageDavid CrystalPhonetics is the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received. It is a subject that requires as its source of data a human being with a functioning set of vocal organs. The person’s particular language background is not strictly relevant: phoneticians would draw the same conclusions about the production of speech whether they were studying speakers of English, Hindi, or Chinese.But English, Hindi, and Chinese are very different languages, using sounds in very different ways. We therefore need a different focus when we study how languages use sounds, and this is what phonology provides. The aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. We begin by analysing an individual language to determine which sound units are used and which patterns they form – the language’s sound system. We then compare the properties of different sound systems, and work out hypotheses about the rules underlying the use of sounds in particular groups of languages. Ultimately, phonologists want to make statements that apply to all languages.The distinction between phonetics and phonology can be seen from a second point of view. The human vocal apparatus can produce a very wide range of sounds; but only a small number of these are used in a language as units to construct all of its words and sentences. Some languages use very small numbers of sound units – Rotokas, in the Pacific Islands, has only 11, By contrast, !Xũin southern Africa has 141. English (in some accents) has 44. Whereas phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds, phonology studies the way in which a language’s speakers systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.There is a further way of drawing the distinction. No two speakers have anatomically identical vocal tracts, and thus no one pronounces sounds in exactly the same way as anyone else. There is even a considerable amount of variation in the sounds of a single speaker. Yet when using our language we are able to discount much of this variation, and focus on only those sounds, or properties of sound, that are important for the communication of meaning. We think of our fellow-speakers as using the ‘same’ sounds, even though acoustically they are not. Phonology is the study of how we find order within the apparent chaos of speech sounds.Identifying phonemesPhonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. An early approach to the subject used a simple methodology to demonstrate this. It would take a word, replace one sound by another, and see whether a different meaning resulted. For example, we hear pig in English as consisting of three separate sounds, each of which can be given a symbol in a phonetic transcription: [p I g]. If we replace [p] by, say, [b], a different word results: big. [p] and [b] are thus important sounds in English, because they enable us to distinguish between pig and big, pan and ban, and many moreword pairs.In a similar way, [I] and [e] can be shown to be important units, because they distinguish between pig and peg, pin and pen, and many other pairs. And so we could continue, using this technique – the minimal pairs test – to find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning. The technique has its limitations (it is not always possible to find pairs of words illustrating a particular distinction in a language), but it works quite well for English, where it leads to the identification of forty-four important units. In the earliest approach to phonological analysis, these ‘important units’ are called phonemes.Phonemes are transcribed using the normal set of phonetic symbols, but within forward slashes, not square brackets – /p/, /b/, /I/, etc. This shows that the units are being seen as part of a language, and not just as physical sounds.Identifying allophonesWhen we try to work out the inventory of phonemes in a language, using this approach, we soon come across sounds that do not change the meaning when we make a substitution. For example, the consonants at the beginning of shoe and she feel as if they are the same, but in fact they have very different sound qualities. For shoe, the lips are rounded, because of the influence of the following [u] vowel; for she, the lips are spread. If we now substitute one of these sounds for the other, we do not get a change of meaning – only a rather strange-sounding pronunciation. There is only one phoneme here, which we can represent as /S/, but it turns up in two different phonetic ‘shapes’, or variant forms, in the two words. These phonetic variants of a phoneme are known as allophones.When we study a new language, it is important to pay careful attention to the phonetic variations which occur, to ensure that we make the right decisions about which sounds count as phonemes and which count as allophones. We do not know this information in advance; we have to work it out. And in doing so we have to be ready to cope with differences between the way sounds work in different languages. Sound differences that separate allophones in English may separate phonemes in another language, and vice versa – a principle that is clearly illustrated by the l sounds of such words as leaf and pool. The first l (clear l) is articulated much further forward in the mouth than the second (dark l) – as we can feel if we say these sounds slowly to ourselves. In English, these are allophones of a single /1/ phoneme. In Russian, however, they are different phonemes.Identifying distinctive featuresWe need to recognize smaller units than the individual phoneme, in order to explain how sets of sounds are related. We can see this by comparing any two contrasting phonemes in English.•/p/ and /b/ differ in one respect only: /p/ is voiceless, and /b/ is voiced. In other respects, they are the same: they are both bilabial, plosive, oral, and pulmonic egressive;•/p/ and /g/ differ in two respects: there is a contrast of voicing, and there is also a contrast in the place of articulation – bilabial vs. velar;•/p/ and /z/ differ in three respects: this time, there is a contrast in the manner ofarticulation (plosive vs. fricative), alongside the contrasts in voicing and place.All phonemic segments in a language can be analysed in this way, either from an articulatory or an acoustic point of view, and the result is a set of contrasting components known as distinctive features. The English segment /p/, for example, is a combination of the features of voicelessness, plosiveness, and bilabiality. We can show these features by giving them values, symbolized by the signs + and －, as in [±voice], [±nasal]. For example, [n] is both [+nasal] (‘has nasality’) and [+voice ] (‘is voiced’); [p] is [－nasal] (‘has no nasality’) and [－voice] (‘is not voiced’). Once we have worked out the set of these contrasts which distinguish phonemes, we can apply them to all the segments that turn up in a language.Identifying phonological rulesIn traditional accounts of phonology, we would describe a sound as occurring in a particular position within a syllable or word, and that is all. We would not refer to our knowledge of the relationships that exist between the various types of sound in different words and phrases. Yet this information is essential if we are to understand the way sounds systematically relate to each other and to the grammar and lexicon of a language.To illustrate this point, we may consider such pairs of words as telegraph and telegraphy. A phonological analysis of these words is not complete simply by giving each a phonemic transcription: /»tel´gr A:f/ vs. /t´»legr´fi/. We also need to show that, despite the different patterns of vowels within them, the pronunciations are systematically related, with other pairs of words in the language displaying the same kind of relationship, such as microscope and microscopy. Once we know the rule underlying such pairs of words we can apply it to new words that we have not heard before. For instance, if I invent a new device called a blipograph, we intuitively know that there must be a subject called blipography. Or the other way round: if I say I am studying blipography, you would deduce that there must be blipographs.A major focus of phonological investigation is to work out the rules which relate sets of words of this kind. In the present example, one rule would show how the stress shifts predictably between the words. Another would show how the vowel qualities change as a consequence of the stress shift. If we worked out these rules, we could then see whether all such words in the language followed them, or whether there were any exceptions.We do not restrict phonological rules to making statements about the sound patterns of a particular language. We also use them to demonstrate the similarities and differences between the sound systems of different languages. Are there rules like telegraph/telegraphy in other languages – possibly in all languages? The formulation of phonological rules is a critical step along the road to discovering the universal principles governing the use of sound in language.Identifying syllablesWe need to recognize several other important notions, to explain what is happening in sound systems. One of the most important is the syllable. This is a notion that we intuitively recognize. We say such things as, ‘Shall I put it in words of one syllable?’, and most of us would be able to break a long word down into its syllables, or speak it out ‘syllable by syllable’. There are also several writing systems in which each syllable is represented by a symbol.Identifying syllables is more difficult to do than might at first appear. A syllable is plainly a unit of sound that is larger than a single segment and usually smaller than a word, but it is not always easy to define the number of syllables in a word or to identify where one ends and the next begins. Do such words as fire, meal, and schism have one syllable or two? Do meteor and neonate have two syllables or three? And in a word like master, where do we draw the line? Should the syllable division be ma-ster, mas-ter, or mast-er?In a phonological approach, we focus on the way sounds combine in a language to produce typical sequences. Syllables are seen as combinations of vowels and consonants. V owels (V) are now defined as units which can occur on their own, or which appear at the centre of a sequence of sounds. Consonants (C) are units which cannot occur on their own, or which appear at the edge of a sequence. Typical sequences in English are CV see, CVC hat, CCVC stop, and CVCC pots. We need to think of these words as sound-sequences, of course, not as spellings – see, for example, is /si:/.In this way the range of syllable types used in a language can be identified and different languages compared. For example, some languages use only V or CV syllables (e.g. Hawaiian); others use several consonants before and after the vowel. English can have as many as three consonants before a vowel (CCC, as in strap and sprig) and up to four afterwards (CCCC, as in glimpsed and twelfths). Here too we need to think of these words as sound-sequences – the end of twelfths, for example, is /1 + f + T + s/.Not all combinations of consonant and vowel can occur in a language. In English, we can combine /s + t + r/ to produce such words as string and strength. But we cannot combine /S + t + r/. There is no word beginning with shtr. On the other hand, German has several words beginning with this sequence, such as Strang (‘cord’) and Strand (‘beach’). Although the initial letter of these words is s, it is pronounced [S].The syllable, in this view, takes its place as an important abstract unit in explaining the way vowels and consonants are organized within a sound system. There is, moreover, evidence for the psychological reality of syllables from the study of speech errors. When we make a ‘slip of the tongue’, we mix up the parts of two successive words, substituting one sound for another. The kinds of substitutions usually display the influence of syllabic structure: for example, initial consonants tend to replace each other. We often say such things as feak and weeble (for weak and feeble), swopping the initial consonants; but it would be most unusual to say leak and keeble, putting an end consonant in an initial position. This suggests that a slip of the tongue is really a slip of the phonological part of the brain.(from David Crystal: How Language Works. Penguin 2005, ch. 11, pp. 66-72.)Text 3English consonantal allophonesDavid OddenWhile the physical difference between t and t h in English is just as real as the difference between t and d, there is a fundamental linguistic difference between these two relationships. The selection of t versus d may constitute the sole difference between many different words in English: such words, where two words are differentiated exclusively by a choice between one of two segments, are referred to as minimal pairs.(1) [d] [t] [d] [t]d ire t ire d o t woD ick t ick ha d ha tsai d se t ben d ben tThe difference between [t] and [d] is contrastive (also termed distinctive) in English, since this difference - voicing - forms the sole basis for distinguishing different words (and thus, [t] and [d] contrast).The choice of a voiceless aspirated stop such as [t h] versus a voiceless unaspirated stop such as [t], on the other hand, never defines the sole basis for differentiating words in English. The occurrence of [t] versus [t h] (also [k] versus [k h], and [p] versus [p h]) follows a rule that aspirated stops are used in one phonological context, and unaspirated stops are used in all other contexts. In English, [t] and [t h] are predictable variants of a single abstract segment, a phoneme, which we represent as /t/. Predictable variants are termed allophones – the sounds are in complementary distribution because the context where one variant appears is the complement of the context where the other sound appears. As we have emphasized, one concern of phonology is determining valid relations between surface phonetic segments and the abstract mental constructs, the phonemes, which represent the unity behind observed [t]~[t h] etc. The implicit claim is that despite physical differences, [t] and [t h] (also [k] and [k h], [p] and [p h]) are in a fundamental sense “the same thing”: reducing physically realized [t t h k k h p p h] to /t k p/ and supplying the information “realised as [t] vs. [t h]” recognizes these regularities.1. AspirationWe will turn our attention to rules of pronunciation in English, starting with aspiration, to see what some of these regularities are. In the first set of words below, the phonemes /p, t, k/ are aspirated whereas they are not aspirated in the second set of words.(2) Aspirated stopspool [p h uwl] tooth [t h uw T] coop [k h uwp]pit [p h"t] tin [t h"n] kill [k h"l]。
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《英国文学选读》教学大纲陈红薇课程编号：0802091 开课院系：英语系课程类别：专业必修适用专业：英语专业课内总学时：72 学时学分：7一、课程教学目的本课程属于语言外国文化课程，主要是向学生介绍英国最具代表性的作家以及主要作品。
通过该课程，来提高学生对英国文学的鉴赏能力，提高他们对语言的掌握和自身修养。
同时，通过对重点篇章的精细评析、大量地阅读名著、课上的翻译、和针对长篇小说进行的问题测验，使这门课程成为一、二年级精读、泛读、写作、甚至翻译课程的延伸；此外，针对学生口语的问题，每节课组织学生围绕一些与所讲内容有关的题目和问题进行口语训练。
力争把这门课上成一个真正意义上的专业综合课。
二、课程教学基本要求1) 本课程教学形式以介绍、赏析为主，介绍作家的生平、背景、代表作品和风格，并对重点篇章进行精细阅读和分析。
2) 此外，要求学生背诵一定数量的诗歌，同时鼓励学生积极进行课外资料查询，上课组织讨论，并定期要求他们写出读书报告，或做一些文学翻译的试笔。
3) 必读两本小说:Pride and PrejudiceJane Eyre其它阅读参考书目：Wuthering HeightsDavid CopperfieldRebeccaTess of the D’UrbervillesThe Grass is SingingTreasure Island1．课程重点：名篇、名著的分析: Shakespeare, John Donne, Paradise Lost, 19th c romantic poetry (Wordsworth, Shelley, John Keats), 19th c realist fiction (Dickens, Bronte sisters), Thomas Hardy, D. H. Lawrence2．课程难点：Hamlet, John Donne’s Poetry, Milton’s Paradise Los t; Wrdsworth’s poetry, Shelley’s poetry, Keat’s poetry, analysis of Novels such as Jane Eyre, Tess of the D’Urbervilles3．能力培养要求：1) 系统阅读英国文学的名著2) 通过阅读文学来培养一种对英语语言本身的亲和感3）了解英国文化和历史4) 提高文化修养和素质三、课程教学内容与学时：课程内容包括从中世纪乔叟时期、历经文艺复兴、18和19 世纪的小说、诗歌、直到20世纪前半期的整个英国文学发展过程中的主要作家和他们的代表作。
课程设置为18周，36个学时。
课程内容安排第一周English Literature (Introduction) /The age of Chaucer：The Canterbury Tales第二周English Renaissance第三周Shakespeare (Introduction)Sonnets 18，29The Merchant of Venice第四周Hamlet（* Romeo and Juliet）第五周Metaphysical poets: John Donne第六周Milton and Paradise Lost第七周The eighteenth century and the rise of the novelPride and Prejudice (Checking the students’ reading)第八周Sentimental poetry and Thomas GrayEarly romantic poetry: Robert Burns第九周The Age of Romanticism + William Wordsworth第十周Percy Shelley / John Keats第十一周The Victorian Age / Charles Dickens第十二周Charlotte Bronte: Jane Eyre(* Emily Bronte: Wuthering Heights)第十三周Thomas Hardy: Tess of the D’Urbervilles第十四周The Twentieth Century English literatureGeorge B. Shaw: Mrs Warren’s Profession + Video: Pygmalion第十五周W.B. Yeats + Poetry Reading第十六周Lawrence : Sons and Lovers第十七周James Joyce: Dubliners (“Araby”) + literature translationThe Theatre of Absurd: Waiting for Godot + Drama performance 第十八周Conclusion + Review**必读小说: Pride and Prejudice Jane Eyre**需背名篇:1. Canterbury Tales (Prologue): When the sweet showers of Aril fall andshoot”2. Shakespeare’s sonnets（18, 29）3. The Merchant of Venice(p.104, 107) : “The quality of mercy is notstrained”4. Hamlet (p.144) : “To be or not to be”5. Paradise lost (first three stanzas) : “…What though the filed be lost?”6. Wordsworth: I wandered lonely as a Cloud7. Tintern Abbey (first stanza): “Five years have past; five summers, withthe lengt h”8. Shelley: One word is too often profaned9. .Shelley: Ode to the West Wind (IV, V)10. John Keats: Ode to the Nightingale ( IV)11. Austen: Pride and Prejudice –“”12. Charles Dickens: Dombey and Son(The earth was made to givethem …)13. Emily Bronte: Wuthering Heights (My love to Linton is like … )14. Charlotte Bronte: Jane Eyre–Do you think I can stay to becomenothing to you?15. Robert Browning: “She had A heart …Who’d stoop to blame This sortof trifling?”四、教材与参考书教材：罗经国编，《新编英国文学选读》（上、下），北京大学出版社，第1版，1996年此外，还有大量增加材料，如在Charles Dickens一讲，除了课本上的Dombey and Son的选章以外，还让学生阅读了Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great Expectations三部小说的第一章的片断。
参考书：1. Lu Peixian, A Student's Edition of Milton, The Commercial Press, 19902. M. H. Abrams, ed., The Norton Anthology of English Literature (I, II), W.W.Norton & Company, 4th edition, 19793. Henry Lawrence, Betsy Seifter, The McGraw-Hill Guide to English Literature(I, II), McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19854. William H. Pritchard, Lives of the Modern Poets, Faber and Faber, 19805. Frank Kermode, John Hollander, eds., The Oxford Anthology of EnglishLiterature (Volume II), Oxford University Press, 19736. Christopher Gillie, Longman Companion to English Literature, Longman,19777. 王佐良、何其莘主编，《英国文艺复兴时期文学史》，外语教学与研究出版社，1996年8. 王佐良、周珏良主编，《英国二十世纪文学史》，外语教学与研究出版社，1994年9. 王佐良、周珏良等主编，《英国文学名篇选注》，商务印书馆，第3版，1989年10. 何其莘著，《英国戏剧选集》，外语教学与研究出版社，第1版，1992年11. 刘炳善编著，《英国文学简史》，上海外语教育出版社，第1版，1981年五、作业1. 课前阅读所要讲的作品,和两部小说2. 准备presentation3. 背诵一些名篇。