北科大内部--英国文学教学大纲-2016考研必备
北科大-语言学内部教学教案-11-2016年考研必备
Lecture 11 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics11.1 SaussureModern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” and “a master of a discipline which he made mo dern” (Culler, 1976: 7).His 1916 book, Course in General Linguistics, which was a collection of his lecture notes, marked the beginning of modern linguistics.Saussure’s ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology, and psychology. In linguistics, he was greatly influenced by the American linguist W. D. Whitney (1827-94), who insisted on the concept of arbitrariness of the sign. In sociology, he followed the French sociologist Durkheim. In psychology, Saussure was influenced by Freud.Saussure believed that language is a system of signs. To communicate ideas, they must be part of a system of conventions, part of a system of signs. This sign is the union of a form and an idea, which Saussure called the signifier and the signified. Some important distinctions Saussure made in linguistics include LANGUE vs. P AROLE, SYNTAGMATIC vs. PARADIGMATIC, and SYNCHRONIC vs. DIACHRONIC.Saussure exerted two kinds of influence on modern linguistics. First, he provided a general orientation, a sense of the task of linguistics which has seldom been questioned. Second, he influenced modern linguistics in the specific concepts. Many of the developments of modern linguistics can be described as his concept, i.e. his idea of the arbitrary nature of the sign, langue vs. parole, synchrony vs. diachrony, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations, etc. Saussure’s fundamental perception is of revolutionary significance, and it is he that pushed linguistics into a brand new stage and all linguistics in the twentieth century are Saussurean linguistics.11.2 The Prague SchoolThe Prague School can be traced back to its first meeting under the leadership of V. Mathesius (1882–1946) in 1926. Its most important contribution to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of function.Three important points concerning the ideas of the Prague School: First, it was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified. Second, there was an emphasis on the systemic character of language. Elements are held to be in functional contrast or opposition. Third, language was looked on as functional in another sense, that is, as a tool performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it.11.2.1 Phonology and phonological oppositionsThe Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between phonetics and phonology. The most influential scholar in this connection is Trubetzkoy, whose most complete and authoritative statements of principle are formulated in his Principles of Phonology (1939). Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. On this basis he developed the notion of “phoneme” as an ab stract unit of the sound system as distinct from the sounds actually produced. A PHONEME may be defined as the sum of the differential functions. Sounds may be phonemes in so far as they can serve to distinguish meaning.In classifying distinctive features, Trubetzkoy proposed three criteria: (1) their relation to the whole contrastive system; (2) relations between the opposing elements; and (3) their power of discrimination. Trubetzkoy’s contributions to phonological theory concern four aspects. First, he showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition for the phoneme. Second, by making distinctions between phonetics and phonology, and between stylistic phonology and phonology, he defined the sphere of phonological studies. Third, by studying the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes, he revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes. Finally, he put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies, such as the method of extracting phonemes and the method of studying phonological combinations.11.2.2 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 功能句子观Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole.Some Czech linguists devoted considerable attention to problems of analysing sentences from a functional point of view. Some important concepts in this view include:Theme – the point of departure of a sentence, which is equally present to the speaker and hearer;Rheme -- the goal of discourse which presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer;Known/ given information -- information that is not new to the reader or hearer;New information -- what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.Therefore the subject-predicate distinction is not always the same as theme-rheme distinction.(a) SallySubjectTheme stands on the tablePredicateRheme(b) On the table standsPredicateThemeSallySubjectRhemeIn research into the relation between structure and function, J. Firbas developed the notion of communicative dynamism (CD), which is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence. The degree of CD is the effect contributed by a linguistic element, for it “pushes the communication forward”. Usually a context-dependent element carries a lower CD than a context-independent element. For example, in “I have read a nice book”, “a nice book” carries a higher CD than “I” and the finite verb.Firbas defined FSP as “the distribution of various degrees of CD”. This can be explained as: the initial elements of a sequence carry the lowest degree of CD, and with each step forward, the degree of CD becomes incremental till the element that carries the highest.12.3 The London SchoolThe man who turned linguistics proper into a recognised distinct academic subject in Britain was J. R. Firth (1890–1960), the first Professor of General Linguistics in Great Britain in 1944. The majority of university teachers of linguistics in Britain were trained under Firth and their work reflected Firth’s ideas.Firth was influenced by the anthropologist B. Malinowski (1884–1942). In turn, he influenced his student, the well-known linguist M. A. K. Halliday. The three men all stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of language. Thus, London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.12.3.1 Malinowski’s theoriesMalinowski regards language “a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought”. According to him, the meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs.Malinowski believed that utterances and situation are bound up inextricably with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words. The meaning of spoken utterances could always be determined by the context of situation. He distinguished three types of context of situation: (1) situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity; (2) narrative situations; and (3) situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum – phatic communion.Two important points on Malinowski’s theory of meaning: First, he prescribed the data for linguistic studies, holding that isolated words are only imagined linguistic facts, and they are the products of advanced analytical procedures of linguistics. According to him, the real linguistic data are the complete utterances in actual uses of language. The second point is that when a certain sound is used in two different situations, it cannot be called one word, but two words having the same sound, or homonyms. He said that in order to assign meaning to a sound, one has to study thesituations in which it is used.12.3.2 Firth’s theoriesHere we’ll just talk about Firth’s major contributions to linguistics.Firth started the branch called linguistic semantics. He put forward the idea that in analysing a typical context of situation, one has to take into consideration both the situational context and the linguistic context of a text:(1) The internal relations of the text itself(a) the syntagmatic relations between the elements in the structure;(b) the paradigmatic relations between units in the system.(2) The internal relations of the context of situation(a) the relations between text and non-linguistic elements, and the general effects;(b) the analytical relations between words, parts of words, phrases and the special elements of the context of situationFirth also listed a model in his Papers in Linguistics(1957) that covers both the situational context and the linguistic context of a text:(1) the relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities(a) the verbal action of the participants(b) the non-verbal action of the participants(2) the relevant topics, including objects, events, and non-linguistic, non-human events(3) the effects of the verbal action.Firth’s second important contribution to linguistics is his method of prosodic analysis (节律分析), called prosodic phonology. Firth pointed out that in actual speech, it is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but phonematic units. There are fewer features in phonematic units than in phonemes, because some features are common to phonemes of a syllable or a phrase (even a sentence). When these features are considered in syntagmatic relations, they are all called prosodic units.Firth did not define prosodic units. However, his discussion indicates that prosodic units include such features as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, and aspiration. In any case, these features cannot be found in one phonematic unit alone.11.3.3 Halliday and Systemic-Functional GrammarM. A. K. Halliday (1925– ) has developed the ideas stemmi ng from Firth’s theories in the London School. His Systemic-Functional (SF) Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach and one of the most influential linguistic theories in the twentieth century, having great effect on various disciplines related to language, such as language teaching, sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, stylistics, and machine translation.Systemic-Functional Grammar has two components: systemic grammar andfunctional grammar. They are two inseparable parts for an integral framework of linguistic theory. Systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. And this network consists of subsystems from which language users make choices. Functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction, based on the position that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the uses or functions which they serve.Systemic-Functional Grammar is based on two facts: (1) language users are actually making choices in a system of systems and trying to realise different semantic functions in social interaction; and (2) language is inseparable from social activities of man. Thus, it takes actual uses of language as the object of study, in opposition to Chomsky’s TG Grammar that takes the ideal speaker’s linguistic competence as the object of study.1)Systemic GrammarIn Systemic Grammar, the notion of system is made a central explanatory principle, the whole of language bei ng conceived as a “system of systems”. Systemic Grammar is concerned with establishing a network of systems of relationships, which accounts for all the semantically relevant choices in the language as a whole.On a very general level, there is the Axis of Choice and the Axis of Chain:The dimension along which the utterance sequence occurs is the axis of chain; the basic patterns along the vertical line form the axis of choice. The axis of chain represents syntagmatic relations; the axis of choice represents paradigmatic relations. In English, we make choices between different types of process, participants, and circumstances. They are known collectively as the transitivity choices. We first divide the choices into six kinds:Halliday believes that there are realisation relationships between various levels. The choice of meaning (on the semantic level) is realised by the choice of the “form” (on the level of lexicogrammar); the choice of the “form” is realised by the choice of “substance” on the phonological level. In other words, “what can be done” is realise d by “what is meant to be done”; “what is meant to be done” is realised by “what can be said”. In this view, we can regard language as a multi-level code system, in which one sub-system is embedded in another. For example,2)Functional GrammarHalliday views language development in children as “the mastery of linguistic functions”, and “learning a language is learning how to mean”. So he proposes seven functio ns in children’s model of language:(1) the instrumental function;(2) the regulatory function;(3) the interactional function;(4) the personal function;(5) the heuristic function;(6) the imaginative function; and(7) the informative function.According to Halliday, the adult’s language becomes much more complex and it has to serve many more functions, and the original functional range of the child’slanguage is gradually reduced to a set of highly coded and abstract functions, which are metafunctions: the ideational, the interpersonal, and the textual functions. According to Halliday, a clause is the simultaneous realisation of ideational, interpersonal, and textual meanings. For example,11.4 American structuralismAMERICAN STRUCTURALISM is a branch of SYNCHRONIC LINGUISTICS that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed in a very different style from that of Europe, under the leadership of the anthropologist F. Boas (1858–1942).11.4.1 Early period: Boas and SapirBoas, 1911, Handbook of American Indian Languages.In the Introduction to his Handbook, Boas discussed the framework of descriptive linguistics. He held that such descriptions consist of three parts: the sound of languages, the semantic categories of linguistic expression, and the process of grammatical combination in semantic expression. Boas noticed that every language has its own system of sounds and its own grammatical system. He held that the important task for linguists is to discover, for each language under study, its own particular grammatical structure and to develop descriptive categories appropriate to it. His methodology in processing linguistic data of American Indian languages is analytical, without comparing them with such languages as English or Latin. Starting from an anthropological view, Boas regarded linguistics as part of anthropology and failed to establish linguistics as an independent branch of science. But his basic theory, his observation, and his descriptive methods paved the way for American descriptive linguistics and influenced generations of linguists.Sapir, 1921, An Introduction of the Study of Language.Sapir undertook the description of American Indian languages after Boas’s method, using a native informant in his own cultural surroundings. In his book, he started from an anthropological viewpoint to describe the nature of language and its development, with his main focus on typology. Sapir is most famous for his ideas on language and thought, which were later developed by his student, B. L. Whorf (1897-1941), and is known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.11.4.2 Bloomfield’s theoryBloomfield, 1933, Language. This book started American structuralism as a school of thought.For Bloomfield, linguistics is a branch of psychology, and specifically of the positivistic brand of psychology known as behaviourism. Behaviourism is a principle of scientific method, based on the belief that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced. Behaviourism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “STIMULUS-RESPONSE reinforcement”, and the adult’s use of language is also a process of stimulus-response.Bloomfield exemplified the stimulus-response theory and developed the following principles: 1) When one individual is stimulated, his speech can make another individual react accordingly. 2) The division of labour and all human activities based on the division of labour are dependent on language. 3) The distance between the speaker and the hearer, two separate nervous systems, is bridged up by sound waves.Bloomfield also touched upon the application of linguistics to language teaching and criticised traditional grammar. According to Bloomfield，in language teaching, instead of paying too much attention to graphetic forms, we should give priority to the teaching of pronunciation. Concerning the popular practice of foreign language teaching in America, he said that learning a language involves constant practice and repetition in real situations rather than merely teaching language learners grammatical theories; traditional practice, being sometimes confusing and far from being economical, cannot help the learners much.11.4.3 Post-Bloomfieldian linguisticsInfluenced by Bloomfield’s Language, American linguists such as Z. S. Harris (1909-1992), C. Hockett (1916-2000), G. Trager, H. L. Smith, A. Hill, and R. Hall further developed structuralism, characterised by a strict empiricism.The most significant figure in continuing the structuralist tradition may be K. Pike (1912-2000), who and his followers have a special name for their technique of linguistic analysis – tagmemics.Last but not least, starting from the late 1950s, Sydney M. Lamb developed his theory in a model consisting of three levels, or strata: phoneme, morpheme, and morphophoneme. This laid the foundation for his stratificational grammar. This later developed into neurocognitive linguistics.To summarize, structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of distribution, and that the structure of each language should be described without reference to the allegeduniversality of such categories as tense, mood and parts of speech. Firstly, structural grammar describes everything that is found in a language instead of laying down rules. However, its aim is confined to the description of languages, without explaining why language operates the way it does. Secondly, structural grammar is empirical, aiming at objectivity in the sense that all definitions and statements should be verifiable or refutable. However, it has produced almost no complete grammars comparable to any comprehensive traditional grammars. Thirdly, structural grammar examines all languages, recognising and doing justice to the uniqueness of each language. But it does not give an adequate treatment of meaning. Lastly, structural grammar describes even the smallest contrasts that underlie any construction or use of a language, not only those discoverable in some particular use.11.5 Transformational-Generative GrammarIn the late 1950s, A. N. Chomsky (1928- ), a student of Hebrew with the structuralist methodology, Chomsky tried to open up a new route when he found that the classification of structural elements of language according to distribution and arrangement had its limitations. From this practice Chomsky gradually established the well-known Transformational-Generative (TG) grammar. The publication of his Syntactic Structures (1957) marked the beginning of the Chomskyan Revolution. From its birth to the present day, TG Grammar has seen five stages of development. • The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science. Syntactic Structures. 1957. •The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. 1965.• The Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.• The Revised Extended Standard Theory (or GB) focuses discussion on government and binding.Major works in this period include: “Remarks on Nominalization” (1970), Reflections on Language (1975), Rules and Representations (1980), Lectures on Government and Binding (1981).• The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory.The Minimalist Program (1995), Minimalist Inquiries: The Framework (1998).C homsky’s TG Grammar differs from the structural grammar in a number of ways:(1) rationalism;(2) innateness;(3) deductive methodology;(4) emphasis on interpretation;(5) formalization;(6) emphasis on linguistic competence;(7) strong generative powers;(8) emphasis on linguistic universals.First, Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles. Second, Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language. This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals. Third, Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge. They seldom use what native speakers actually say; they rely on their own intuition. Fourth, Chomsky’s methodology is hypothe sis-deductive, which operates at two levels: (a) the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure –a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars for particular languages, and (b) each such grammar is a hypothesis on the general linguistic theory. Finally, Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.。
《英国文学选读》课程教学大纲
《英国文学选读》课程教学大纲课程编号：009一、课程说明1. 课程代码ZJ04010192. 课程类别专业基础课3. 适应专业及课程性质英语（师范）专业必修4. 课程目的《英国文学选读》课程是英语专业本科学生三年级的专业必修课，其主要目的在于：（1）通过对英国各历史断代背景和重要作家及其代表作品的介绍，使学生了解英国文学发展的历史及各个时期的主要文学流派及其创作特点；（2）通过文本学习提高学生的文学阅读、理解与鉴赏能力以及口头与书面表达等语言技能；（3）通过大量阅读与讨论加强学生对文学本质的意识，提高学生的综合人文素养，增强其对西方文学及文化的理解；（4）通过大量教学实践活动培养学生独立学习的习惯和创造潜能。
5. 学时与学分学时为30，学分为1.5.6. 建议先修课程基础英语，英语阅读，英语国家社会与文化二、课程教学基本内容及要求第一章中古英语时期计划学时：3基本要求：（1）了解中古英语时期英语语言及英国文学发展的特点；（2）掌握杰弗雷•乔叟的生平及其文学地位和作品；（3）理解文学术语“史诗”、“传奇”和“英雄双行体”的涵义；（4）运用《坎特伯雷故事集》、《序言》部分的节选，赏析语言风格。
教学重点及难点：（1）文学术语“史诗”、“传奇”和“英雄双行体”的涵义；（2）杰弗雷•乔叟的介绍及其文学贡献；（3）《坎特伯雷故事集》、《序言》部分的节选选读。
基本内容：（1）中古英语时期的历史背景；（2）中古英语文学的分类与特征，以及文学术语的解释；（3）乔叟的生平、作品介绍及其贡献；（4）《坎特伯雷故事集》的结构分析与《序言》的意义解释。
思考题：（1）How is The Canterbury Tales structured?（2）What is expressed in the opening lines of The Canterbury Tales?（3）What is the function of the General Prologue to The Canterbury Tales?第二章文艺复兴时期计划学时：3.5基本要求：（1）了解文艺复兴时期的英国历史背景；（2）掌握文学发展变化的趋势和特点，以及该时期文学家的生平和作品；（3）理解文学术语“文艺复兴”、“十四行诗体”和“散文”的涵义；（4）赏析戏剧节选《哈姆雷特》，诗歌节选“十四行诗第十八首”以及散文选读《论学习》。
英国文学课程教学大纲
《英国文学》课程教学大纲课程编号：ENGL2017课程类别：专业必修课程授课对象：英语、英语师范专业开课学期：春（第5学期）学分：2主讲教师：秦伟刚指定教材：《英美文学选读》，张伯香编。
外语教学与研究出版社，2000年。
《英国文学简史》，刘炳善编著。
河南人民出版社，2001年。
教学目的：英国文学历史悠久，自中远古至今，尤其是文艺复兴以来，名家名作迭出，卷轶浩繁，为世界文学的发展与繁荣做出了突出贡献。
莎士比亚，雪莱，狄更斯，勃朗特姐妹，哈代等，即便对于一般读者来说都已成为耳熟能详的名字，他们的作品以各自不同的角度，各自不同的手法，对英国的社会生活、文化，乃至人类的命运等重大问题，进行了艺术的表现和诠释。
作为英语专业的学生，有选择、批判性地阅读一些英国名家名篇的原作，对于提高英语阅读和写作的基本技能，丰富自身的文学素养，大有裨益。
在全球化成为一种不可逆转的趋势、国际交往日益增多的今天，透过英国文学这一窗口，对英国的风土人情和英国的社会文化有一个基本认识和了解，对于将在不同程度上以英语作为工具从事学习和工作的英语专业学生来说，不仅必要，而且具有重要的现实意义。
本课程选取英国作家具有代表性的经典名篇为内容，以课堂精讲、小组讨论、独立研究等形式，从社会、历史的角度，解读作家与作品，引入心理学、人类学、语言学、社会学、伦理学、哲学等方面的最新成果，引导学生加深对所读作家作品的理解和认识，着重培养学生的分析思辩能力和语言表达能力，为学生写以文学为主题的毕业论文奠定基础。
同时，通过本课程的学习，提高学生理解欧美文学和文化的鉴赏能力，加深学生对社会人生的思考，体现素质教育的特点。
第一课Introduction to English literature.课时：第一周，共2课时教学内容Introduction to English literature.第一节Why should we take this course.The importance of studying literature.English literature from the medieval period to the present思考题：1.What do you know about English literature?2.Are you interested in literature?第二节How to prepare for this course.How to make an oral presentation.How to participate in classroom discussions.How to do research through the Internet and in the library第二课Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales”课时：第二周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/story.2、Oral presentations on the author/ story.3、Detailed study of the text / story.思考题：1.What is the season and setting of the General Prologue and how are these important to the Tale?2.In what order are the pilgrims introduced? Does the order and grouping of the pilgrims suggest anything about medieval English society?3.Critics find that some of the characters are being satirized in their initial presentation. Pick two characters--one presented seriously (or respectfully) and the other satirized. Describe why you selected each and why they fit into that category.4.Discuss Chaucer’s writing style.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第三课Spenser’s “Faire Queene”课时：第三周，共2课时教学内容第一节textPre-reading questions and background information of the author/poems.Oral presentations on the author/poemsDetailed study of the text思考题：1.The Faerie Queene is historical, moral, allegorical, and literal. Think about the different ways that this is so for the sections you've read.2.In what ways can you see the section you've read as commenting on religious or cultural turmoil in England, Ireland or the Continent.3.How is the episode you're considering an important part of the character's growth? What could it mean for the reader's growth?4.In what ways is what you're reading Epic and in what ways is it Romance?5.What do you think Redcrosse symbolize? What do you think Una symbolize?6.Discuss Spenser’s stylistic features as shown in the section you’ve read.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第四课Shakespeare’s Sonnets课时：第四周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poet/his sonnetsOral presentations on the poet/his sonnetsDetailed study of the text思考题：1.Figure out the rhyme scheme of Shakespeare’s sonnets.2.Identify the theme of each of the sonnets you’ve read.3. What are some of the literary devices that the poet employs in the sonnets and how effectivelydo they help to express the themes?第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第五课Shakespeare’s “The Merchant of Venice”课时：第五周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the playwright/his dramas.Oral presentations on the playwright/his dramas.Detailed study of the text思考题：1.What do you know about Humanism? In what ways does the play demonstrate Shakespeare’shumanism?2.Analyze the major characters in the play such as Shylock, Portia, Antonio, etc.3.Discuss the social significance and artistic value of Shakespeare’s dramas.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第六课Donne’s Sonnets课时：第六周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poet/poems.Oral presentations on the poet/poems.Detailed study of the poems.思考题：1.What do you know about “metaphysical poetry”?2.What is a “metaphysical conceit”? Can you identify the “metaphysical conceits”in thesonnets you’ve read?3.What are the themes of the sonnets and what do you think of Donne’s views?4.Summarize Donne’s poetic features.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第七课Bunyan’s “The Pilgrim’s Progress”课时：第七周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/book.Oral presentations on the author/book.Detailed study of the novel.思考题：1.In what ways can we read the book as an allegory?2.What evils does the piece we’re reading expose and attack ?3.What is admirable about Bunyan’s prose?第二节Questions and answersDiscussion and responses from the studentsHomework第八课Swift’s “Gulliver’s Travels”课时：第八周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novel.Oral presentations on the author/novel.Detailed study of the text.思考题：1.What is “Neo-classical” literature?2.What are some of the Neo-classic writers’ views on Nature and literary creation?3.Discuss the themes in the novel.4.Discuss the stylistic features of Swift’s prose, using examples from the text as illustrations.. 第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第九课Wordsworth’s Poetry课时：第九周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poet/poems.Oral presentations on the poet/poems.Detailed study of the poems.思考题：1.Discuss English Romanticism. Where did many English Romantic poets believe the source ofpoetry was? How did this differ from the views of the past poets?2.What is the difference between Wordsworth’s ideal of good poetry versus the classical idealsof good poetry?3.In what ways do the poems we read fit the poet’s philosophy about poetry?4.What are the themes of the poems and what literary devices does the poet employ toeffectively express them?5.Summarize the artistic characteristics of Wordsworth’s poetry.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十课Coleridge’s “Kubla Khan”课时：第十周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background of the poet/poems..Oral presentations on the poet/poems.Detailed study of the text.思考题：1.Discuss Coleridge’s romanticism in his poems.2.Can we take “Kubla Khan” as a complete poem? State your reasons.3.What do you think is (are) the possible theme(s) in the poem?第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十一课Shelley “Ode to the West Wind”课时：第十一周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poet/poetry.Oral presentations on the poet/poetry.Detailed study of the text思考题：1.What are some of the important views Shelley voices about poetry in his “A Defense ofPoetry”? Does he practice them in this poem?2.What does the wind signify in this ode? How is it used symbolically?3.How does the poet use the images of autumn and fire in the poem? How does this compare toShakespeare’s use of these in his sonnets?第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十二课Keat s’“Ode to a Nightingale”课时：第十二周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the poets/poems.Oral presentations on the poetsDetailed study of the poems思考题：1.What are Keats’ views on poetry?2.What three sensations does the speaker feel in the poem’s opening scene? What images ofsound, sight, smell, taste, or touch have led you on a journey of imagination, perhaps back to some remembered occurrences/3.Discuss Keats’ style.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十三课Dickens’“A Tale of Two Cities”课时：第十三周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novelsOral presentations on the author/novels .Detailed study of the text.思考题：1. Discuss Dickens’ critical-realism as represented in the novel.2. Discuss Dickens’ humor and writing styles.3. According to your reading, what is the theme of the novel?第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十四课Charlotte’s “Jane Eyre”课时：第十四周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novelsOral presentations on the author/novels .Detailed study of the text.思考题：1. Discuss Charlotte’s realism as represented in the novel.2. According to your reading, what is the theme of the novel?3. Analyze the author’s characterization of Jane Eyre, the heroine.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework.第十五课George Eliot’s “Adam Bede”课时：第十五周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novels.Oral presentations on the author/novels.Detailed study of the text.思考题：1.Discuss Eliot’s psychoanalysis.2.Discuss the major theme in Eliot’s novels: the relationship between the individual and thesociety3.Analyze the theme of the novel “Adam Bede”.第二节Questions and answersDiscussion s and responses from the studentsHomework第十六章Hardy’s “Tess of the D’Urbervilles”课时：第十六周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background information of the author/novels.Oral presentations on the author/novels.Detailed study of the novels.思考题：1.Discuss Hardy’s fatalism.2.Discuss the character of Tess. To what extent is she a helpless victim? When is she strong andwhen is she weak? Who hurts Tess more? Alec or Angel?3.Discuss Hardy’s writing styles.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十七课Woolf’s “Mrs. Dalloway”.课时：第十七周，共2课时教学内容第一节TextPre-reading questions and background of modern writers.Oral presentations on the modern writers.Detailed study of text.思考题：1.How much do you know about modernism?2.Discuss .Woolf’s feminist ideas.3.Discuss the new devices Woolf uses in her novels such as the narrow framework of time,symbolic structures, and the shift of the psychic presentation.第二节Questions and answersDiscussions and responses from the studentsHomework第十八课Papers and Final Exams.课时：第十八周，共2课时教学内容: Discuss how to write an acceptable essay.参考书目：1.张伯香：《英国文学教程》上、下册。
英国文学北科大内部教学课件(2016考研必备)-Shakespeare1
2. The period of tragedy
• • • • • • Hamelt----1601 Measure for Measure Othello King Lear Macbeth Antony and Cleopatra
3. The period of romance
Cymbeline
A mysterious figure
• Birth (1564.4.23)
Born in Stratford-upon-Avon, allegedly on April 23, 1564.
Education:
There is a conjectural account of Shakespeare's schooling that can be reconstructed through our knowledge of his family and of the period. He only received two years in petty school. Because of his father's financial difficulties , Shakespeare may have been forced to leave school as early as 1577, at age 13.
Lost year(1585~1592) Seven years following the birth of his twins, William Shakespeare disappears from all records, finally turning up again in London some time in 1592.
2016北京科技大学外国语言文学(外国语学院)考研专业目录招生人数参考书目历年真题复试分数线答题方法
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接收推免生比例 或人数：8人左右 接收推免生比例 或人数：1人左右
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04语篇分析 05计算语言学 06外语教学 07翻译研究 08英汉对比分析
09语用学 10认知语言学 11社会语言学
同上 同上 同上 同上 同上 同上 同上 同上
D. identify
10. The bus that_____________ outside the inn would soon take the visitors
downtown.
A. held back B. pulled up
C. set forth
D. got down
11. Last year, these ships transported a total of 83.34 million tons
A. exhibited B. displayed C. paraded
D. revealed
4. The ceremony will _____________ as soon as the minister arrives.
A. commence
B. complete
C. disperse
D. descend
D. nearly is always
Section B
Directions: There are ten sentences in this section with one word or
phrase underlined in each sentence. From the four choices given, choose
2016 年北京科技大学外国语言文学考研专业目录、招 生人数、参考书目、历年真题、复试分数线、答题方
《英国文学》课程教学大纲
《英国文学》课程教学大纲一、教师信息二、课程基本信息课程名称（中文）：英国文学课程名称（英文）：English Literature课程类别：□通识必修课□通识选修课 专业必修课□专业方向课□专业拓展课□实践性环节课程性质*： 学术知识性□方法技能性□研究探索性□实践体验性课程代码：04103031周学时：2节总学时：32节学分：2先修课程：无授课对象：2016级英语专业和英语师范专业三、课程简介本课程是为英语专业学生开设的一门专业必修主干课程，旨在培养学生对英国文学作品的阅读、分析与欣赏的能力。
通过课堂精读与互动式讨论，本课程重点学习英国文学传统中主要作家的主要作品，尤其侧重短篇名作与名篇名段，从而帮助学生了解英国文学中的经典作家与经典作品，提高学生的英语语言与文学的素养。
本课程要求学生了解英国文学各个时期的代表性作家及其代表性作品，把握不同作家、不同流派的风格和文体特点，熟悉构成不同文学体裁的基本要素，对所学篇章的思想内容和艺术特点有较深入的领会。
四、课程目标本课程培养学生对英国文学历史传统、演变发展、主要流派、代表作家和作1品的整体把握，对部分名家、名篇和名段有较深入的认识，对文学体裁的各自特点和英语语言的艺术魅力有较充分的感知，对不同的文学文本有较强的阅读、分析和欣赏的能力。
五、教学内容与进度安排本课程授课时间为一个学期，授课内容如下：六、修读要求课程学习要求每次课堂出勤，认真预习和做笔记，积极提问和回答。
课程作业需要自己多做思考，引经据典时需要指明出处。
要求精读Romeo and Juliet和Hamlet的英文全本，并撰写不少于500字的读书报告。
要求背诵”Sonnet 18”, “To Be Or Not to Be”和“A Red, Red Rose”。
七、学习评价方案课程考核由平时成绩和期末考试成绩两部分构成，满分为100分。
平时成绩占30%，由课堂出勤与表现、课程作业完成情况共同构成，每旷课一次扣掉平时成绩的20%。
英国文学教学大纲
英国文学教学大纲前言英国文学是高等院校英语专业高年级的一门专业必修课，它由英国文学史及选读两部分组成。
教学对象为高等院校英语专业三年级学生。
教学主要以英国文学发展史为线索，通过对每一发展时期占主流的文学思潮、具有代表性作家及其代表作品的讲解、分析，使学生能够较为系统地把握英国文学发展的历史和现状；理清英国文学流变的脉络，掌握各发展时期占主流的文学流派的特点、代表作家及其代表作品；通过对文学名篇及选段的分析，加深对各文学流派创作特点、主要作家创作风格的理解，培养学生阅读文学作品的兴趣、欣赏英语文学原著的能力，以进一步加深对英语语言表现力的认识；通过文学作品作为语言结构、语言文体、语言材料及作家思想的载体作用，提高语言知识的深化及语言能力、分析问题、解决问题能力；通过对学生社会科学知识如历史，哲学，文化等方面知识的要求，提高学生的人文素质，增强学生对整个西方文学及文化的感悟。
英国文学的重点与难点是文艺复兴时期的文学、十八世纪现实主义小说、浪漫主义诗歌、十九世纪批判现实主义小说和现代主义文学。
与英国文学相关的课程，如基础英语、阅读、英美概况、英语文体学等为本科课程的学习、文学作品的阅读和理解打下坚实的基础。
同时，本课程也为其他课程提供大量的文化、历史和宗教等方面的背景知识以及鲜活的语言素材和范例。
因此，它在英语专业的课程中占有举足轻重的地位，是许多院校英语专业招收硕士学位研究生考试的主要科目之一。
英国文学在英语专业本科第五、六学期开设，每周2学时，共72学时。
根据教学内容及相关要求，我们制定了英国文学教学大纲，供四年制英语专业教学使用。
第一部分古英语和中古时期的英国文学目的：了解中古时代的文学特征和代表作品学时：8学时教学内容：1. Anglo-Saxon 时期的文学特征2. 十四世纪文学概述3. 十五世纪民间文学概况重点与难点：Beowulf; Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales第二部分文艺复兴时期的英国文学目的：了解文艺复兴时期的文学特点、主要作家及作品学时：12.5学时教学内容：1. 文艺复兴时期文学概述（0.5学时）：文艺复兴的发端、概念、特征、关键词2. 文艺复兴时期的戏剧、诗歌（0.5学时）：戏剧源流与分类、大学才子派、十四行诗3. 马洛（1学时）：生平、三部作品及其特征4. 莎士比亚（9.5学时）：生平、创作阶段（1学时）、历史剧与Falstaff 形象分析（1学时）、喜剧（The Merchant of Venice）（1学时）、悲剧（5学时）、十四行诗（1学时）、莎士比亚的文学成就与历史地位与莎士比亚研究综述（0.5学时）5. 文艺复兴时期的散文1学时重点与难点：Marlowe’s plays: Tamburlaine, The Jew of Malta, Doctor Faustus; William Shakespeare and his plays: Romeo and Juliet, The Merchant of Venice, Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Sonnets，Shakespeare’s achievements in literature第三部分十七世纪的英国文学目的：了解资产阶级革命时期的文学特征及代表作品学时：5学时教学内容：1. 资产阶级革命时期的文学特征（0.5学时）2. 玄学派诗歌和骑士派诗歌（1学时）3. John Milton的诗歌成就（2学时）4. 王政复辟时期的文学特征（0.5学时）5. John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress（1学时）重点与难点：works of John Milton and John Banyan: Paradise Lost, Samson Agonistes, The Pilgrim’s Progress; John Donne and Metaphysical poems第四部分十八世纪的英国文学目的：熟悉新古典主义文学和现实主义小说、了解前浪漫主义诗歌特征与诗人学时：10.5学时：教学内容：1. 启蒙主义运动对英国文学的影响（0.5学时）2. 古典主义文学(2.5学时)：Addison, Steele, Pope，书信体小说、古典主义文学特征3. 现实主义文学(5学时)：Swift, Defoe and the rise of the English novel, Fielding, Sheridan, Johnson Goldsmith, Gibbon4. 感伤主义文学(0.5学时)：Thomas Gray, etc.5. 前浪漫主义时期的诗歌（2学时）：William Blake and Robert Burns重点与难点：novels of Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift and Henry Fielding; William Blake and his poems第五部分十九世纪英国浪漫主义文学目的：了解英国浪漫主义的发端、发展、特征，了解其代表人物William Wordsworth, George. G. Byron, Percy B. Shelley, John Keats，Sir Walter Scott等人的文学成就、特色，熟悉并赏析他们的作品。
北科大-语言学(内部资料)课堂教学阅读资料-2-2016考研必备
Supplementary Readings Chapter 2 Speech SoundsTable of ContentsText 1. The resonating cavities (Gimson)Text 2. How to organize the sounds of language (Crystal) Text 3. English consonantal allophones (Odden)Text 4. Stress assignment (Clark and Yallop)Text 5. The attitudinal function of intonation (Roach)Text 1The resonating cavitiesA. C. GimsonThe airstream, having passed through the larynx, is now subject to further modification according to the shape assumed by the upper cavities of the pharynx and mouth, and according to whether the nasal cavities are brought into use or not. These cavities function as the principal resonators of the voice produced in the larynx.1. The PharynxThe pharyngeal cavity extends from the top of the trachea and oesophagus, past the epiglottis and the root of the tongue, to the region at the rear of the soft palate. It is convenient to identify these sections of the pharynx by naming them: laryngopharynx, oropharynx, nasopharynx. The shape and volume of this long chamber may be considerably modified by the constrictive action of the muscles enclosing the pharynx, by the movement of the back of the tongue, by the position of the soft palate which may, when raised, exclude the nasopharynx, and by the raising of the larynx itself. The position of the tongue in the mouth, whether it is advanced or retracted, will affect the size of the oropharyngeal cavity; the modifications in shape of this cavity should, therefore, be included in the description of any vowel. It is a characteristic of some kinds of English pronunciation that certain vowels e.g. the [æ] vowel in sad are articulated with a strong pharyngeal contraction; in addition, a constriction may be made between the lower rear part of the tongue and the wall of the pharynx so that friction, with or without voice, is produced, such fricative sounds being a feature of a number of languages.The pharynx may be observed by means of a laryngoscope or fibre-optic nasendoscopy and its constrictive actions are revealed by lateral X-ray photography or, nowadays, preferably by MRI.The escape of air from the pharynx may be effected in one of three ways:(1) The soft palate may be lowered, as in normal breathing, in which case the air may escape through the nose and the mouth. This is the position taken up by the soft palate in articulation of the French nasalized vowels in a phrase such as un bon vin blanc [œb o)v E)bl A)], the particular quality of such vowels being achieved through the function of the nasopharyngeal cavities. Indeed, there is no absolute necessity for nasal airflow out of the nose, the most important factor in the production of nasality being the sizes of the posterior oral and nasal openings (some speakers may even make the nasal cavities vibrate through nasopharyngeal mucus or through the soft palate itself).(2) The soft palate may be lowered so that a nasal outlet is afforded to the airstream, but a complete obstruction is made at some point in the mouth, with the result that, although air enters all or part of the mouth cavity, no oral escape is possible. A purely nasal escape of this sort occurs in nasal consonants such as [m, n, ŋ] in the English words ram, ran, rang. In a snore and some kinds of defective speech, this nasal escape may be accompanied by friction between the rear sideof the soft palate and the pharyngeal wall.(3) The soft palate may be held in its raised position, eliminating the action of the nasopharynx, so that the air escape is solely through the mouth. All normal English sounds, with the exception of the nasal consonants mentioned, have this oral escape. Moreover, if for any reason the lowering of the soft palate cannot be effected, or if there is an enlargement of the organs enclosing the nasopharynx or a blockage brought about by mucus, it is often difficult to articulate either nasalized vowels or nasal consonants. In such speech, typical of adenoidal enlargement or the obstruction caused by a cold, the French phrase mentioned above would have its nasalized vowels turned into their oral equivalents and the English word morning would have its nasal consonants replaced by [b,d,g]. On the other hand, an inability to make an effective closure by means of the raising of the soft palate – either because the soft palate itself is defective or because an abnormal opening in the roof of the mouth gives access to the nasal cavities – will result in the general nasalization of vowels and the failure to articulate oral stop consonants such as [b,d,g]. This excessive nasalization (or hypernasality) is typical of a condition such as cleft palate.It is evident that the action of the soft palate is accessible to observation by direct means, as well as by lateral X-ray photography and MRI; the pressure of the air passing through the nasal cavities may be measured at the nostrils or within the cavities themselves.2. The MouthAlthough all the cavities so far mentioned play an essential part in the production of speech sounds, most attention has traditionally been paid to the behaviour of the cavity formed by the mouth. Indeed, in many languages the word tongue is used to refer to our speech and language activity. Such a preoccupation with the oral cavity is doubtless due to the fact that it is the most readily accessible and easily observed section of the vocal tract; but there is in such an attitude a danger of gross oversimplification. Nevertheless, it is true that the shape of the mouth determines finally the quality of the majority of our speech sounds. Far more finely controlled variations of shape are possible in the mouth than in any other part of the speech mechanism.The only boundaries of this oral chamber which may be regarded as relatively fixed are, in the front, the teeth; in the upper part, the hard palate; and, in the rear, the pharyngeal wall. The remaining organs are movable: the lips, the various parts of the tongue, and the soft palate with its pendant uvula. The lower jaw, too, is capable of very considerable movement; its movement will control the gap between the upper and lower teeth and also to a large extent the disposition of the lips. The space between the upper and lower teeth will often enter into our description of the articulation of sounds; in all such cases, it is clear that the movement of the lower jaw is ultimately responsible for the variation described. Movement of the lower jaw is also one way of altering the distance between the tongue and the roof of the mouth.It is convenient for our descriptive purposes to divide the roof of the mouth into three parts: moving backwards from the upper teeth, first, the teeth ridge (adjective: ALVEOLAR) which can be clearly felt behind the teeth; secondly, the bony arch which forms the hard palate (adjective: PALATAL), which varies in size and arching from one individual to another; and finally, the soft palate (adjective: VELAR), which, as we have seen, is capable of being raised or lowered, and at the extremity of which is the uvula (adjective: UVULAR). All these parts can be readily observedby means of a mirror.(1) Of the movable parts, the lips (adjective: LABIAL), constitute the final orifice of the mouth cavity whenever the nasal passage is shut off. The shape which they assume will, therefore, affect very considerably the shape of the total cavity. They may be shut or held apart in various ways. When they are held tightly shut, they form a complete obstruction or occlusion to the airstream, which may either be momentarily prevented from escaping at all, as in the initial sounds of pat and bat, or may be directed through the nose by the lowering of the soft palate, as in the initial sound of mat. If the lips are held apart, the positions they assume may be summarized under five headings:(a) held sufficiently close together over all their length that friction occurs between them. Fricative sounds of this sort, with or without voice, occur in many languages and the voiced variety [B] is sometimes wrongly used by foreign speakers of English for the first sound in the words vet or wet;(b) held sufficiently far apart for no friction to be heard, yet remaining fairly close together and energetically spread. This shape is taken up for vowels like that in see and is known as the SPREAD lip position;(c) held in a relaxed position with a lowering of the lower jaw. This is the position taken up for the vowel of sat and is known as the NEUTRAL position;(d) tightly pursed, so that the aperture is small and rounded, as in the vowel of do, or more markedly so in the French vowel of doux. This is the CLOSE ROUNDED position;(e) held wide apart, but with slight projection and rounding, as in the vowel of got. This is the OPEN ROUNDED position.Variations of these five positions may be encountered, e.g. in the vowel of saw, for which a type of lip-rounding between open-rounded and close-rounded is commonly used. It will be seen from the examples given that lip position is particularly significant in the formation of vowel quality. English consonants, on the other hand, even including [p,b,m,w] whose primary articulation involves lip action, will tend to share the lip position of the adjacent vowel. In addition, the lower lip is an active articulator in the pronunciation of [f,v], a light contact being made between the lower lip and the upper teeth.(2) Of all the movable organs within the mouth, the tongue is by far the most flexible and is capable of assuming a great variety of positions in the articulation of both vowels and consonants. The tongue is a complex muscular structure which does not show obvious sections; yet, since its position must often be described in considerable detail, certain arbitrary divisions are made. When the tongue is at rest, with its tip lying behind the lower teeth, that part which lies opposite the hard palate is called the FRONT and that which faces the soft palate is called the BACK, with the region where the front and back meet known as the CENTRE (adjective: CENTRAL). These areas, together with the root, are sometimes collectively referred to as the body of the tongue. The tapering section facing the teeth ridge is called the blade (adjective: LAMINAL) and its extremity the tip (adjective: APICAL). The edges of the tongue are known as the rims.Generally, in the articulation of vowels, the tongue tip remains low behind the lower teeth. The body of the tongue may, however, be ‘bunched up’ in different ways, e.g. the front may be thehighest part as when we say the vowel of he; or the back may be most prominent as in the case of the vowel in who; or the whole surface may be relatively low and flat as in the case of the vowel in ah. Such changes of shape can be felt if the above words are said in succession. These changes moreover, together with the variations in lip position, have the effect of modifying very considerably the size of the mouth cavity and of dividing this chamber into two parts: that cavity which is in the forward part of the mouth behind the lips and that which is in the rear in the region of the pharynx.The various parts of the tongue may also come into contact with the roof of the mouth. Thus, the tip, blade, and rims may articulate with the teeth as for the th sounds in English, or with the upper alveolar ridge as in the case of /t,d,s,z,n/ or the apical contact may be only partial as in the case of /1/ (where the tip makes firm contact whilst the rims make none) or intermittent in a trilled /r/ as in some forms of Scottish English. In some languages, notably those of India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, the tip contact may be retracted to the very back of the teeth ridge or even slightly behind it; the same kind of retroflexion, without the tip contact, is typical of some kinds of English /r/, e.g. those used in south-west England and in the USA.The front of the tongue may articulate against or near to the hard palate. Such a raising of the front of the tongue towards the palate (palatalization) is an essential part of the [S,Z] sounds in English words such as she and measure, being additional to an articulation made between the blade and the alveolar ridge; or again, it is the main feature of the [j] sound initially in yield.The back of the tongue can form a total obstruction by its contact with the soft palate, raised in the case of [k,g] and lowered for [ŋ]] as in sing; or again, there may merely be a narrowing between the soft palate and the back of the tongue, so that friction of the type occurring finally in the Scottish pronunciation of loch is heard. And finally, the uvula may vibrate against the back of the tongue, or there may be a narrowing in this region which causes uvular friction, as at the beginning of the French word rouge.It will be seen from these few examples that, whereas for vowels the tongue is generally held in a position which is convex in relation to the roof of the mouth, some consonant articulations, such as the Southern British English /r/ in red and the /1/ in table, will involve the ‘hollowing’ of the body of the tongue so that it has, at least partially, a concave relationship with the roof of the mouth.Moreover, the surface of the tongue, viewed from the front, may take on various forms: there may be a narrow groove running from back to front down the mid-line as for the /s/ in see, or the grooving may be very much more diffuse as in the case of the /I/ in ship; or again, the whole tongue may be laterally contracted, with or without a depression in the centre (sulcalization), as is the case with various kinds of r sounds.(from A. C. Gimson, revised by Alan Cruttenden: Gimson’s Pronunciation of English (6th edn.). Edward Arnold 2001, ch. 2, pp. 12-6.)Text 2How we organize the sounds of languageDavid CrystalPhonetics is the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received. It is a subject that requires as its source of data a human being with a functioning set of vocal organs. The person’s particular language background is not strictly relevant: phoneticians would draw the same conclusions about the production of speech whether they were studying speakers of English, Hindi, or Chinese.But English, Hindi, and Chinese are very different languages, using sounds in very different ways. We therefore need a different focus when we study how languages use sounds, and this is what phonology provides. The aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. We begin by analysing an individual language to determine which sound units are used and which patterns they form – the language’s sound system. We then compare the properties of different sound systems, and work out hypotheses about the rules underlying the use of sounds in particular groups of languages. Ultimately, phonologists want to make statements that apply to all languages.The distinction between phonetics and phonology can be seen from a second point of view. The human vocal apparatus can produce a very wide range of sounds; but only a small number of these are used in a language as units to construct all of its words and sentences. Some languages use very small numbers of sound units – Rotokas, in the Pacific Islands, has only 11, By contrast, !Xũin southern Africa has 141. English (in some accents) has 44. Whereas phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds, phonology studies the way in which a language’s speakers systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.There is a further way of drawing the distinction. No two speakers have anatomically identical vocal tracts, and thus no one pronounces sounds in exactly the same way as anyone else. There is even a considerable amount of variation in the sounds of a single speaker. Yet when using our language we are able to discount much of this variation, and focus on only those sounds, or properties of sound, that are important for the communication of meaning. We think of our fellow-speakers as using the ‘same’ sounds, even though acoustically they are not. Phonology is the study of how we find order within the apparent chaos of speech sounds.Identifying phonemesPhonological analysis relies on the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phrase, whereas other sounds do not. An early approach to the subject used a simple methodology to demonstrate this. It would take a word, replace one sound by another, and see whether a different meaning resulted. For example, we hear pig in English as consisting of three separate sounds, each of which can be given a symbol in a phonetic transcription: [p I g]. If we replace [p] by, say, [b], a different word results: big. [p] and [b] are thus important sounds in English, because they enable us to distinguish between pig and big, pan and ban, and many moreword pairs.In a similar way, [I] and [e] can be shown to be important units, because they distinguish between pig and peg, pin and pen, and many other pairs. And so we could continue, using this technique – the minimal pairs test – to find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning. The technique has its limitations (it is not always possible to find pairs of words illustrating a particular distinction in a language), but it works quite well for English, where it leads to the identification of forty-four important units. In the earliest approach to phonological analysis, these ‘important units’ are called phonemes.Phonemes are transcribed using the normal set of phonetic symbols, but within forward slashes, not square brackets – /p/, /b/, /I/, etc. This shows that the units are being seen as part of a language, and not just as physical sounds.Identifying allophonesWhen we try to work out the inventory of phonemes in a language, using this approach, we soon come across sounds that do not change the meaning when we make a substitution. For example, the consonants at the beginning of shoe and she feel as if they are the same, but in fact they have very different sound qualities. For shoe, the lips are rounded, because of the influence of the following [u] vowel; for she, the lips are spread. If we now substitute one of these sounds for the other, we do not get a change of meaning – only a rather strange-sounding pronunciation. There is only one phoneme here, which we can represent as /S/, but it turns up in two different phonetic ‘shapes’, or variant forms, in the two words. These phonetic variants of a phoneme are known as allophones.When we study a new language, it is important to pay careful attention to the phonetic variations which occur, to ensure that we make the right decisions about which sounds count as phonemes and which count as allophones. We do not know this information in advance; we have to work it out. And in doing so we have to be ready to cope with differences between the way sounds work in different languages. Sound differences that separate allophones in English may separate phonemes in another language, and vice versa – a principle that is clearly illustrated by the l sounds of such words as leaf and pool. The first l (clear l) is articulated much further forward in the mouth than the second (dark l) – as we can feel if we say these sounds slowly to ourselves. In English, these are allophones of a single /1/ phoneme. In Russian, however, they are different phonemes.Identifying distinctive featuresWe need to recognize smaller units than the individual phoneme, in order to explain how sets of sounds are related. We can see this by comparing any two contrasting phonemes in English.•/p/ and /b/ differ in one respect only: /p/ is voiceless, and /b/ is voiced. In other respects, they are the same: they are both bilabial, plosive, oral, and pulmonic egressive;•/p/ and /g/ differ in two respects: there is a contrast of voicing, and there is also a contrast in the place of articulation – bilabial vs. velar;•/p/ and /z/ differ in three respects: this time, there is a contrast in the manner ofarticulation (plosive vs. fricative), alongside the contrasts in voicing and place.All phonemic segments in a language can be analysed in this way, either from an articulatory or an acoustic point of view, and the result is a set of contrasting components known as distinctive features. The English segment /p/, for example, is a combination of the features of voicelessness, plosiveness, and bilabiality. We can show these features by giving them values, symbolized by the signs + and －, as in [±voice], [±nasal]. For example, [n] is both [+nasal] (‘has nasality’) and [+voice ] (‘is voiced’); [p] is [－nasal] (‘has no nasality’) and [－voice] (‘is not voiced’). Once we have worked out the set of these contrasts which distinguish phonemes, we can apply them to all the segments that turn up in a language.Identifying phonological rulesIn traditional accounts of phonology, we would describe a sound as occurring in a particular position within a syllable or word, and that is all. We would not refer to our knowledge of the relationships that exist between the various types of sound in different words and phrases. Yet this information is essential if we are to understand the way sounds systematically relate to each other and to the grammar and lexicon of a language.To illustrate this point, we may consider such pairs of words as telegraph and telegraphy. A phonological analysis of these words is not complete simply by giving each a phonemic transcription: /»tel´gr A:f/ vs. /t´»legr´fi/. We also need to show that, despite the different patterns of vowels within them, the pronunciations are systematically related, with other pairs of words in the language displaying the same kind of relationship, such as microscope and microscopy. Once we know the rule underlying such pairs of words we can apply it to new words that we have not heard before. For instance, if I invent a new device called a blipograph, we intuitively know that there must be a subject called blipography. Or the other way round: if I say I am studying blipography, you would deduce that there must be blipographs.A major focus of phonological investigation is to work out the rules which relate sets of words of this kind. In the present example, one rule would show how the stress shifts predictably between the words. Another would show how the vowel qualities change as a consequence of the stress shift. If we worked out these rules, we could then see whether all such words in the language followed them, or whether there were any exceptions.We do not restrict phonological rules to making statements about the sound patterns of a particular language. We also use them to demonstrate the similarities and differences between the sound systems of different languages. Are there rules like telegraph/telegraphy in other languages – possibly in all languages? The formulation of phonological rules is a critical step along the road to discovering the universal principles governing the use of sound in language.Identifying syllablesWe need to recognize several other important notions, to explain what is happening in sound systems. One of the most important is the syllable. This is a notion that we intuitively recognize. We say such things as, ‘Shall I put it in words of one syllable?’, and most of us would be able to break a long word down into its syllables, or speak it out ‘syllable by syllable’. There are also several writing systems in which each syllable is represented by a symbol.Identifying syllables is more difficult to do than might at first appear. A syllable is plainly a unit of sound that is larger than a single segment and usually smaller than a word, but it is not always easy to define the number of syllables in a word or to identify where one ends and the next begins. Do such words as fire, meal, and schism have one syllable or two? Do meteor and neonate have two syllables or three? And in a word like master, where do we draw the line? Should the syllable division be ma-ster, mas-ter, or mast-er?In a phonological approach, we focus on the way sounds combine in a language to produce typical sequences. Syllables are seen as combinations of vowels and consonants. V owels (V) are now defined as units which can occur on their own, or which appear at the centre of a sequence of sounds. Consonants (C) are units which cannot occur on their own, or which appear at the edge of a sequence. Typical sequences in English are CV see, CVC hat, CCVC stop, and CVCC pots. We need to think of these words as sound-sequences, of course, not as spellings – see, for example, is /si:/.In this way the range of syllable types used in a language can be identified and different languages compared. For example, some languages use only V or CV syllables (e.g. Hawaiian); others use several consonants before and after the vowel. English can have as many as three consonants before a vowel (CCC, as in strap and sprig) and up to four afterwards (CCCC, as in glimpsed and twelfths). Here too we need to think of these words as sound-sequences – the end of twelfths, for example, is /1 + f + T + s/.Not all combinations of consonant and vowel can occur in a language. In English, we can combine /s + t + r/ to produce such words as string and strength. But we cannot combine /S + t + r/. There is no word beginning with shtr. On the other hand, German has several words beginning with this sequence, such as Strang (‘cord’) and Strand (‘beach’). Although the initial letter of these words is s, it is pronounced [S].The syllable, in this view, takes its place as an important abstract unit in explaining the way vowels and consonants are organized within a sound system. There is, moreover, evidence for the psychological reality of syllables from the study of speech errors. When we make a ‘slip of the tongue’, we mix up the parts of two successive words, substituting one sound for another. The kinds of substitutions usually display the influence of syllabic structure: for example, initial consonants tend to replace each other. We often say such things as feak and weeble (for weak and feeble), swopping the initial consonants; but it would be most unusual to say leak and keeble, putting an end consonant in an initial position. This suggests that a slip of the tongue is really a slip of the phonological part of the brain.(from David Crystal: How Language Works. Penguin 2005, ch. 11, pp. 66-72.)Text 3English consonantal allophonesDavid OddenWhile the physical difference between t and t h in English is just as real as the difference between t and d, there is a fundamental linguistic difference between these two relationships. The selection of t versus d may constitute the sole difference between many different words in English: such words, where two words are differentiated exclusively by a choice between one of two segments, are referred to as minimal pairs.(1) [d] [t] [d] [t]d ire t ire d o t woD ick t ick ha d ha tsai d se t ben d ben tThe difference between [t] and [d] is contrastive (also termed distinctive) in English, since this difference - voicing - forms the sole basis for distinguishing different words (and thus, [t] and [d] contrast).The choice of a voiceless aspirated stop such as [t h] versus a voiceless unaspirated stop such as [t], on the other hand, never defines the sole basis for differentiating words in English. The occurrence of [t] versus [t h] (also [k] versus [k h], and [p] versus [p h]) follows a rule that aspirated stops are used in one phonological context, and unaspirated stops are used in all other contexts. In English, [t] and [t h] are predictable variants of a single abstract segment, a phoneme, which we represent as /t/. Predictable variants are termed allophones – the sounds are in complementary distribution because the context where one variant appears is the complement of the context where the other sound appears. As we have emphasized, one concern of phonology is determining valid relations between surface phonetic segments and the abstract mental constructs, the phonemes, which represent the unity behind observed [t]~[t h] etc. The implicit claim is that despite physical differences, [t] and [t h] (also [k] and [k h], [p] and [p h]) are in a fundamental sense “the same thing”: reducing physically realized [t t h k k h p p h] to /t k p/ and supplying the information “realised as [t] vs. [t h]” recognizes these regularities.1. AspirationWe will turn our attention to rules of pronunciation in English, starting with aspiration, to see what some of these regularities are. In the first set of words below, the phonemes /p, t, k/ are aspirated whereas they are not aspirated in the second set of words.(2) Aspirated stopspool [p h uwl] tooth [t h uw T] coop [k h uwp]pit [p h"t] tin [t h"n] kill [k h"l]。
英国文学史教学大纲
《英国文学史》课程教学大纲课程代码：070141024课程英文名称：British Literature课程总学时：48 讲课：48 实验：0 上机：0适用专业：英语大纲编写（修订）时间：2017. 10一、大纲使用说明（一）课程的地位及教学目标《英国文学史》是英语专业学生的必修课。
高校英语专业的学生不仅应具有扎实的语言基本功，还应具有广博的人文知识和较高的文化素质，英国文学史及选读这门课程不仅可以增强学生的语言基本技能和综合运用语言的能力，还可以扩大知识面，提高自身的文化素养，学会欣赏和分析文学作品，培养对西方文化的敏感性和宽容性，提高独立思考、分析和解决问题的能力。
（二）知识、能力及技能方面的基本要求具备阅读、欣赏、理解英国文学原著的能力，掌握文学批评的基本知识和方法。
通过阅读和分析英国文学作品，提高语言基本功和人文素质，增加对西方文化的了解和对文化差异的敏感性、宽容性,批判地吸收世界文化精髓；熟悉英国文学发展的进程。
了解不同时期、不同流派的作家写作的时代背景，把握时代特征。
了解作家的创作思想、创作过程以及作品的思想内涵及艺术特色；独立解决学习中遇到的语言和背景知识方面的问题；能够读懂有一定难度的文学原著和历史传记，在理解的基础上分析文章的思想观点、篇章结构和文体风格；能够完成读书报告、课程论文。
（三）实施说明课程教学以教师讲座为主，问答、讨论相结合。
重点讲授英国文学的发展脉络、主要流派、文学思潮以及作家的创造思维，讨论作品的主题思想、文物、语言特色等，培养学生对作品的领悟能力及批判能力。
同时辅以课后作业、课后电影欣赏等内容。
课后作业要求分析讨论所给问题及欣赏评论指定作品，赏析讨论以小论文的形式完成，鼓励学生课前搜集作家作品资料，整理成文在课堂进行口头陈述，逐渐培养学生概括、分析以及思辨的能力。
采用多种教学手段，相关作家作者配有影音材料辅助教学。
（四）对先修课的要求无（五）对习题课、实践环节的要求无（六）课程考核方式1. 考核方式：考试2. 考核目标：重点考察英国文学史上重要文学流派，重点作家及对其作品赏析的能力。
《英国文学史及选读》教学大纲
《英国(yīnɡɡuó)文学史及选读》教学大纲课程(kèchéng)编码：071202总学时数：144一、课程性质、目的(mùdì)和要求通过(tōngguò)对英国文学史及选读的重点作家、作品的系统学习，学生应达到(dá dào)下列要求1．初步获得英国文学史的基础知识，掌握各历史时期文学发展的概况及特征，对有代表性作家的重要作品的思想性和艺术性有初步了解。
2．通过对各历史时期代表作家重要作品片段的学习，对各时期的文学思潮、流派及主要作家的写作风格和语言艺术有初步了解，从而提高对英语文学作品的鉴赏力，提高语言水平，更好地完成中学英语教育任务。
3．能以马列主义文艺理论的基本观点分析和评价作家和作品。
二、教学内容、要点与课时安排1．文艺复兴时期的文学。
2．十八世纪现实主义小说。
3．浪漫主义诗歌。
4．十九世纪批判现实主义小说。
5．现代主义文学。
本课程在第一学年开设，第一学期18周，每周4课时，第二学期18周，每周4课时，总计144课时。
各章节的教学内容、要点安排和具体课时安排如下：第一学期 72课时第一章古英语和中古时期的英国文学 12课时教学主题：古英语和中古时期的英国文学教学要点：盎格鲁—撒克逊时期的文学特征；英雄史诗Beowulf的故事(gùshì)内容和诗体特征。
1．盎格鲁—诺曼时期的文学特征；骑士文学的发展(fāzhǎn)概况，主题和类别；骑士故事(gùshì)“Sir Gawain and Green Knight”的故事(gùshì)内容。
2．十四世纪英国文学概况(gàikuàng)；William Langland的长诗“Piers thePlowman”的思想内容及其社会意义； Geoffrey Chaucer的文学成就；乔叟的代表作The Canterbury Tales的内容简介和社会意义；学习The Canterbury Tales中的片段。
英国文学教学大纲
《英国文学B》课程教学大纲课程编号：351900课程英文名称：British Literature1 结构本课程大纲规定了该课程的教学目标，总体要求，课程内容、课时分配与教学要求、课程考核要求和选用教材及参考资料，。
2 课程简介该课程是英语专业（经贸方向）本科生在高年级（三、四年级）必修的英语专业文化课程。
它从理论上涵盖了英国文学从中世纪到二十世纪的整个历史，并选择了各个时期经典作家的经典作品（节选）作为文本，形式完整地包括了诗歌、散文、小说、戏剧，旨在以英国文学的发展脉络为提纲挈领，通过对各个文学流派的代表作家和代表作的介绍和赏析，使英语专业本科生对文学作品的鉴赏能力有一个最为感性的认识。
3 课程教学目标本课程的教学目标是以英国文学的发展脉络为提纲契领，通过对各个文学时期的代表作家和代表作的介绍和赏析，让学生了解英国各文学阶段重要作家及其文学代表作品，对经典的文学作品进行第一感的赏析，从而达到提高文学修养、提升英语输出能力的目的。
4 总体要求知识点1）作者简介所包含的基本内容：a) 作者在英国文学上的地位 b)作者生平简介C)作者的创作风格和代表作 d)作者对英国文学的贡献2）代表作（节选）的解读和赏析能力1）培养学生用英文介绍作者的能力2）培养学生的文学作品阅读和赏析的能力5 教学要求5.1 课程的基本内容及要求Preface of Selected Readings in British Literature教学内容：1) 中世纪文学 2）英国文艺复兴时期 3）浪漫主义文学 4）现实主义文学5）现代派文学 6）当代文学教学要求和目的：掌握各文学流派和代表作家重点难点：1) 英国文艺复兴时期文学 2）浪漫主义文学 3）现实主义文学 4）意识流文学教学方法：以PPt形式讲授Unit 2 William Shakespeare教学内容：作者简介及代表作Hamlet(独白)赏析教学要求和目的：使学生掌握戏剧台词断句和颂念的要领重点难点：Humanism/Hesitation教学方法：教师的讲解和示范相结合Unit 3 Francis Bacon教学内容：作者简介及代表作Of Marriage and Single Life赏析教学要求和目的：了解散文的写作风格重点难点：格言警句的欣赏教学方法：以PPt形式讲授Unit 6 Romantic Poets (I)教学内容：作者简介及代表作赏析教学要求和目的：浪漫主义诗歌的特征和情感的体验重点难点：Robert Burns; Samuel T. Coleridge教学方法：教师的讲解和示范相结合Supplement Love Poems教学内容：作者简介及代表作赏析教学要求和目的：让学生对爱情诗有感性的认知重点难点：对应的妙用教学方法：教师的讲解和示范相结合Unit 7Jane Austen教学内容：作者简介及代表作Pride and Prejudice（节选）赏析教学要求和目的：掌握小说的要素和反讽的运用重点难点：文学人物Mr and Mrs Bennet的性格分析教学方法：课堂上学生阅读与教师提问相结合Unit 8 Romantic Poets (II)教学内容：作者简介及代表作赏析教学要求和目的：浪漫主义诗歌的特征和情感的体验重点难点：George G. Byron;Percy B. Shelley教学方法：以PPt形式讲授和学生的诗朗诵相结合Unit 12 Thomas Hardy教学内容：作者简介及代表作赏析教学要求和目的：掌握小说的要素及人物的描写重点难点：Predestination/Symbolism教学方法：课堂上学生阅读与教师提问相结合Unit 13 Modern Dramatists教学内容：作者简介及代表作赏析教学要求和目的：对唯美主义戏剧的感性认识重点难点：格言警句的解读教学方法：教师的讲解和示范相结合Unit 15 20th-Century British Poets (I)教学内容：作者简介及代表作The Waste Land (节选)赏析教学要求和目的：对意识流手法的感知和象征物寓意的理解重点难点：意识流手法教学方法：教师的讲解和示范相结合Unit 16 Virginia Woolf教学内容：作者简介及代表作Mrs Dalloway赏析教学要求和目的：对意识流手法中时间和视角的无痕切换的感知重点难点：Stream of Consciousness教学方法：教师的讲解和示范相结合5.2 学时分配6 课程考核要求考核既是为了检验学生对课程的学习掌握情况，帮助教师不断总结教学经验，改进教学方法与技巧；同时也是为了对学生的学习做出客观、公正、科学的评价，并引导学生明确学习方向，逐步适应学科课程的特点，最终起到夯实基础、强化能力的作用。
英国文学新大纲
英国文学选读课程教学大纲Anthology of English Literature一、课程性质与任务（一）课程性质英国文学选读是英语专业的一门专业核心课程，讲授对象为英语专业三年级学生，以文学作品为载体，培养学生文学方面的人文基础知识，通过对作品的情节、写作技巧、主题分析，拓展学生的思维模式和创新精神，提高学生的思想道德修养和人文素养的一门专业必修课程。
（二）课程任务通过本课程的理论教学使学生具备以下知识和能力：1. 课程核心任务是厚实学生英语语言文学知识，在文学中提高语言技能，开阔国际视野。
2.通过阅读经典小说，观看文学名著影片，巩固所学文学知识，扩大词汇量，培养学生阅读、分析以及理解小说作品的鉴赏能力、思辨能力和文学批判能力。
3. 基于作品文本解读，引导大学生以积极的态度提高思想、政治、及道德品质等方面的修养，培养良好的思想道德素质，全面提高学生的人文素质。
二、教学活动目标（一）课程目标课程目标1：通过本课程的学习，使学生对小说、诗歌、戏剧和散文四大文学题材有大概的认知，了解英国不同时期和阶段的重要作家及代表作品，熟悉代表作家的文学生涯、创作思想、艺术特色及其小说代表作的思想内涵。
（支撑毕业要求指标点1-1）课程目标2：能够在文化背景和文本的学习过程中增强词汇的积累和理解，拓展学生的阅读、写作和翻译能力，提高英语学习的兴趣，引导学生勤于思考，勇于评论，培养学生的鉴赏和表达能力。
（支撑毕业要求指标点2-4）课程目标3：在作品赏析过程中让学生体悟人性、弘扬人性、完善修养，提高思想道德品质，从而树立正确的三观。
（支撑毕业要求指标点2-2）（二）思政目标思政目标1：通过对英国文学不同阶段的历史、写作风格、代表作家等方面的综合掌握，培养丰富学生的情感，使当代大学生更好地践行“不忘本来、吸收外来、面向未来”的光荣使命。
思政目标2：通过中西方文学的比较，让学生真正贯彻习主席提出的“文明因交流而多彩，文明因互鉴而丰富”，通过比较丰富和完善学生的人文知识结构，提高综合素养。
北科大-语言学(内部资料)课堂教学阅读资料-7-2016考研必备
Supplementary ReadingsChapter 7 Language and SocietyTable of ContentsText 1. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Sampson)Text 2. Language and Society (Heath)Text 3. The Acquisition of Sociolinguistic Competence (Bayley & Regan)Text 4. Cross-cultural Skills—Crossing the Disciplinary Divide (Cowley & Hanna) Text 5. A Sociohistorical Critique of Naturalistic Theories of Color Perception (Ratner)Text 1The Sapir-Whorf HypothesisGeoffrey SampsonThe subject of this chapter is not so much a geographically or chronologically distinguishable school of thinkers, as an idea which has held a perennial fascination for linguists of diverse schools, and indeed for very many people who have never been students of language in any formal sense. This idea—that a man’s language moulds his perception of reality, or that the world a man inhabits is a linguistic construct—although in one form or another a very old one, has become associated with the names of the Americans Edward Sapir (1884-1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941), and more particularly with the latter.The work of these writers might well have been treated in the last chapter, since it fell squarely within the tradition initiated by Boas. I have chosen to discuss Sapir and Whorf in a separate chapter, because the aspect of their work which we shall examine represents a rather special development within the Descriptivist school, and one which conflicted fairly sharply with the thought of many other members of that school. Sapir and Whorf fully shared the relativism of Boas and his Descriptivist successors, with its emphasis on the alienness of exotic languages, while never being influenced by the behaviorism (in either “good” or “bad” senses) of Bloomfield. (Behaviorism was an element which Bloomfield imported into the Descriptivist tradition rather than finding it already there—Boas, and indeed Bloomfield himself in his early writing, were happy to discuss meanings and spent little time worrying about the logical status of linguists’ data. But Bloomfield succeeded in taking most of his colleagues with him in his conversion to behaviorism, which is why I say that there was a conflict between the ideas summarized as the “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis” and the ideas of other Descriptivists.)Sapir studied languages of the Pacific coast of North America, and began his career in charge of anthropological research at the Canadian National Museum; in 1925 he moved to the University of Chicago, and in 1931 to Yale. Much of his work was quite comparable to that of other Descriptivist linguists, though he differed from the behaviorists in stressing that patterns revealed by linguistic analysis were patterns in speaker’s minds (it is significant that the collection of his papers published in 1949 bears the title Selected Writings in Language, Culture and Personality), and Sapir took it for granted that if one wants to know how a language is structured for its speakers it is appropriate to ask them1. Sapir’s independence of his American colleagues’ assumptions is particularly obvious in his notion of linguistic “drift”, behind the more-or-less random fluctuations which make up the detailed history of any language, Sapir thought, there was a long-term tendency for that language to modify itself in some particular direction, as the coming and going of waves on a beach marks a steady long-term tidal movement (Sapir 1921, ch. 7). This idea comes very close to implying that a language has life of its own in some more than metaphorical sense, and it would clearly have been anathema to a methodological individualist such as Bloomfield.On the issue with which this chapter is concerned, Sapir was by no means single-minded. Theoccurrence of his name in the term “Sapir-Whorf hypothesis” is perhaps due more to the fact that Whorf took his general approach to linguistics from Sapir than to Sapir’s being one of the most active proponents of that hypothesis. (The term was introduced by J. B. Carroll (Whorf 1956, p.27).) In his popular book Language, indeed, Sapir suggests that differences between languages are merely differences in modes of expressing a common range of experiences, rather than corresponding to differences in the experiences themselves (Sapir 1921, p. 218). Later, though, Sapir changed his mind. Consider, for example, the following passages:Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity asordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become themedium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to realityessentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solvingspecific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the “real world” is to alarge extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group. No two languages are eversufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in whichdifferent societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached.[1929, p. 209; my italics]Language … not only refers to experience largely acquired without its help but actually definesexperience for us by reason of its formal completeness and because of our unconscious projection ofits implicit expectations into the field of experience…. Such categories as number, gender, case,tense, … are not so much discovered in experience as imposed upon it because of the tyrannical holdthat linguistic form has upon our orientation in the world. [1931; my italics]These remarks might be interpreted as mere truisms, but if taken literally they are strong statements. The special contribution of Whorf was, by means of detailed analysis of certain American Indian languages, to make as convincing a case as has ever been made for believing that we must acknowledge the view expressed by Sapir as true in a quite radical, untrivial sense.Benjamin Lee Whorf, a descendant of seventeenth-century English emigrants to Massachusetts, was in his scholarly work an outstanding example of the brilliant amateur. After taking a degree in chemical engineering he began a successful career as a fire-prevention inspector with an insurance company in Hartford, Connecticut, and despite several offers of academic posts he continued to work for the same company until his death at the age of 44. (Whorf learned lessons from his professional work which encouraged his belief that world-view is moulded by language. In analysing a large number of reports of how fires had started, Whorf tells us (1941a, p. 135), he began by assuming that only physical factors would be relevant but came to realize that language often played an important role: for instance, people behaved cautiously near what they categorized as “full petrol drums” but carelessly near “empty petrol drums”, although the “empty” drums contained explosive petrol vapour and were thus even more dangerous than the full ones.) Whorf’s linguistic interests were originally rather diverse; when in 1931 Sapir moved to Yale University, only thirty-odd miles from Hartford, Whorf became a regular collaborator of his and began to focus his attention mainly on Hopi, a language of Arizona. Much of Whorf’s writing discusses the special, very un-European world-view which he believed to be implied by various features of Hopi grammar.Whorf makes the point that only certain grammatical categories in any language are markedovertly, as, for example, the distinction between present and past tense is marked in every finite verb which occurs in English. There exist also numerous “covert” categories, or “cryptotypes” as Whorf sometimes calls them. For instance, in English the names of countries and towns form a “cryptotype” because, although they outwardly resemble other nouns, they cannot be reduced to pronouns after the prepositions in, at, to, from (Whorf 1945, p. 92). Thus one can say I live in it when “it” refers back to a phrase such as that house or that basement, but not when it refers to Kendal or Bulgaria— even though I live in Kendal, I live in Bulgaria are perfectly correct. Whorf felt that such covert categories were more telling than the overt categories of a language in establishing the world-view of its speakers, on the ground that the use of overt markers may be merely learned by rote but “cryptotype” can be manipulated consistently only if the categorization which they imply is real for the speaker. (If all country-names and town-names ended in some special suffix, say -ia, then an Englishman could simply remember “nouns ending in -ia may not pronominalize after a preposition” , but since they in fact have no special form we must think of them as a semantic class.) In Hopi rain-prayers, it seems that clouds are spoken of as if they were alive. Whorf points out that from this alone one cannot know whether the usage “is some metaphor or special religious or ceremonial figure of speech”, or whether the Hopi actually believe that clouds are living beings. However, the distinction between animate and inanimate exists as a covert category in Hopi. Any noun used to refer to a living being is pluralized in a special way (even when the noun is not basically animate, so that, for example, the Rolling Stones in Hopi would take the animate plural of “stone”); and the word for “cloud” is invariably pluralized in the animate way, which demonstrates that the Hopi do indeed believe clouds to be alive (Whorf 1956, p. 79).2Although this neatly illustrates Whorf’s point about the importance of covert categories, it is not a particularly good example of the differences Whorf claims to exist between Hopi and European world-views: in this case the categories animate/inanimate are perfectly normal for a European, and the only question concerns the status of clouds with respect to these categories. (We shall consider a better example of Whorf’s thesis about linguistic diversity shortly.) Nevertheless, even here it is possible to take a sceptical stance. Thus, suppose that we encounter another tribe in which sex is a “covert category”, so that, say, all nouns referring to females evoke special suffixes in words modifying them; and suppose further that many words for inanimate objects, such as “stone”, “water”, “moon”, belong to the female cryptotype, while others, such as “iron”, “fire”, “sun” behave like the words for males. Clearly Whorf would have to conclude that this tribe holds some sort of animistic view of Nature, according to which everything that exists is alive and has a sex. But there is such a tribe: they live just across the Channel form Dover, and if there is one thing the French are not it is surely animists. Whorf did not in fact apply his notions to differences between the familiar European languages; he felt that these all presupposed the same world-view because of the long period in which Europe had shared a common culture, and he referred to them collectively as “Standard Average European”. It is perhaps appropriate to be cautious, at least, in accepting a theory which says that certain communities see the world in ways startlingly different from ours, but which is illustrated almost wholly by reference to primitive tribes about whose beliefs we have little independent evidence. The non-European language with which the present writer is best acquainted is Chinese; although traditional Chinese ideas about the world differ greatly from the European ideas, the two intellectual systems do not seem to possess quite the same quality of mutual incommensurability that Whorf alleges to occur with Hopi vis-à-vis“Standard Average European”. One cannot help wondering whether this may be because Chinese civilization, although, like that of the Hopi, quite independent of Europe, has been articulate enough to refute the flights of fancy in which a Whorf might be inclined to indulge on the basis of formal characteristics of Chinese grammar.In fact, the various contrasts in world-view for which Whorf argues differ greatly in the extent to which they are surprising or controversial. Boas had already made the point that, for instance, where English has on word snow Eskimo has separate basic roots for snow falling, snow on the ground, drifting snow, and so forth; at this relatively concrete level disparities between the conceptual schemes of different languages are fairly familiar, and there is no doubt that they influence perception—it can be shown that people’s conceptions of their surroundings are modified by the conceptual categories their language happens to provide (Lenneberg and Roberts 1956, p. 31; cf. Herman et al. 1957; Hanson 1958). Whorf discusses cases of this kind, but they are not what he is primarily interested in. “What surprises most”, Whorf rightly says, “is to find that various grand generalizations of the Western world, such as time, velocity and matter, are not essential to the construction of a consistent picture of the universe” (1940, p. 216). Hopi, in particular, “may be called a timeless language”: the language does not recognize time as a linear dimension which can be measured and divided into units like spatial dimensions, so that for instance Hopi never borrow spatial terms to refer to temporal phenomena in the way so common in European languages (before the door ~ before noon, between London and Brighton ~ between 9 and 10 a.m., in the box ~ in the morning), nor does Hopi permit phrases such as five days since daytime is not a thing like an apple of which one can have one or several. Furthermore, Hopi verbs do not have tenses comparable to those of European languages. And since there is no concept of time, there can be no concept of speed, which is the ratio of distance to time: Hopi has no word for “fast”, and their nearest equivalent or “He runs fast” would translate more literally as sometimes like He very runs. If the Hopi rather than Europeans had developed sophisticated scientific theories, Whorf suggests, modern physics would be very different from what it is, though it might be equally self-consistent and satisfactory.Notes:1 Sapir has been cited by members of the modern, Chomskyan school as a forerunner of their own movement. I find this judgment somewhat forced; Sapir did not construct explicit arguments against the behaviorist principle, as Chomsky has done, he merely remained uninfluenced by the arguments for behaviorism ( Sapir was interested in questions of substance rather than of methodology).2 The following English parallel may be worth mentioning. In conservative dialects of English, including my own, animateness is a covert category in that only animate nouns may take the “Germanic Genitive” (N’s as opposed to of N; innovating dialects permit expressions such as the car’s wheels, the theory’s influence, but these phrases are ill-formed for me). I have been mildly disturbed to notice that the one noun in my own speech which consistently takes the Germanic genitive in prima facie violation of this rule is the noun computer.(From Geoffrey Sampson, 1980. Chapter 4, Schools of Linguistics: Competition and Evolution. London: Hutchinson.)Language and SocietyIan Heath1. Effect of change on languageSocial changes produce changes in language. This affects values in ways that have not been accurately understood. Language incorporates social values. However, social values are only the same as linguistic values when the society is a stable and unchanging one. Once society starts changing, then language change produces special effects.In the article “Problems of Language”, I presented the view that language was created so that the person could fulfil long-term desires. The use of language forms a closed loop, since it is modelled on the loop of projection and introjection. The difference between the two loops is simply that the psychological one is based on individual meanings and the linguistic one on social values. This link between language and social values is one of identity, but only as long as society is static or is evolving slowly. In a static society, the language is the society. Society is its language. The two are one.Language and society are two different systems since the structure within language centres on the static signifier whilst the structure within consciousness orientates on the dynamic signified. In times of stability the dynamic structure of consciousness is put on hold, so linguistic values and social values are one. However, as society changes so the dynamic structure gradually comes into the foreground. Perhaps it is more accurate to put this effect the other way around: as the dynamic structure of consciousness becomes accentuated, so society begins to change.2. As society changes, social values and linguistic values begin to diverge.Language contains traditional values – this is what is implied in the ideas of social conditioning and social learning. In a static society, traditional values are unquestioned. Hence social learning takes the form of social conditioning. Social conditioning is the unquestioned or confused adherence to social norms, and occurs when society is taken to be self-referential. Society is the judge of its own needs. The only circumstance that normally breaks social conditioning in some degree is change. Therefore in a period of fast social change, chaos occurs as social norms are questioned, altered and perhaps even rejected. New norms are slowly generated. This chaos ensures that society can no longer be regarded as being self-referential. In this situation of chaos, language is grasped as being self-referential. Then language is no longer necessarily tied to social reality. In such times, values change as the values within language change and we may witness radical innovation in artistic genres. For example, the nineteenth century saw the focus on art for art’s sake, along with science for science's sake (neither art nor science were to be dependent of values external to themselves, such as social usefulness). Then the problem of grappling with the new possibilities of language produced the dense symbolism of Mallarmé. In twentieth-century literary theory the text has become autonomous and self-contained, and/or the reader has acquired total freedom in his interpretation of the text.To explain how this process happens I bring in politics. Consider a static, unchanging society. This has conservative, even right-wing, social values and a rigid hierarchy of authority or power. Society and politics have coalesced into a uniform model of conformism. Initially this model suited contemporary needs. But as evolution progresses and new needs appear, which cannot be met under this model, so the existing social norms become a handicap. This restrictiveness on human development eventually becomes challenged. Activists and non-conformists begin to initiate social change by confronting the system of authority. Thinkers give direction to new ideas on freedom and justice. Left-wing politics are born.Social change intensifies emotional responses. These new intensities bring forth creative abilities in art. Change is always handled intuitively before it can be expressed in intellectual ideas. Art is the herald of linguistic change. New art is usually born in the catharsis stage of social abreaction. Once new genres of art have become established, the intellectual attempts to verbalise their meanings and the reasons for their birth start to separate language values from social values. The clarification of such intellectual ideas is a slow process. Language is no longer necessarily tied to social reality: language becomes self-referential. As social change moves into the stage of abreactional backlash the new linguistic values are sifted and only those needed to solve current problems are retained. Society again centres on right-wing politics; such politics attempt to return society back into a stable, static state. If this attempt is successful, then the new model of stability is more in tune with contemporary needs than the previous model was. This stability occurs when social values have ‘caught up’ with the new linguistic values. Then once again society and language become one. …Different genres of art may move through this sequence at different speeds and at different times from each other. So there may be mini-sequences of social change overlapping each other.The sequence of social change that I have outlined shows that any society is really a language community. The individual transforms his meanings into social values via language. Values have to become incorporated into language before they can become incorporated into the stock of social values. Language brings forth the social reality.4. Language creates societyThis relation is not apparent in static societies; it is easy to assume that society antedates language. Even ‘primitive’ societies are no exception. A ‘primitive’ society is one where language use is primitive, and indicates hunter-gatherer tribes – yet a tribe cannot be established until the necessary linguistic signs for authority are created. Society cannot be created until a group of people has some values in common. And values require a language to embed them and articulate them. It is language that brings people together and keeps them together. Language always precedes society. Even in small groups this relation holds: for example, in a political discussion group the people come together because they already have, or want to learn, a common political language.5. Two language phenomena1) Ethnic DestructionLanguage is modelled on the loop of projection and introjection. This makes possible a destructive cultural phenomenon. When a foreign language is imposed on a group (or ethnic minority) that group is eventually destroyed. When a person changes his primary language, or even his culture, he automatically changes his pattern of projection and introjection. Hence his needs change. His old way of life disappears.There are two qualifications to this view. The rate of change depends on how related the languages are: the more related they are, the more gradual is the change. Secondly, immigrants may only speak their adopted language in their adopted society ; they many retain their ethnic language in their family settings. This retention of the ethnic language slows down the cultural destruction of the group.Abandoning native languages leads to a ‘melting pot’ pattern of immigrant assimilation. This pattern cannot work in the long-term, since the immigrants’ sense of identity is destroyed. A new sense of identity cannot be created without community support, and this is often lacking for the immigrant. A cosmopolitan culture is much better than a melting pot culture, and is better suited to the widening possibilities in choice of values that is opening to the modern world. Therefore, in today’s age of cosmopolitanism, it is bad politics and bad psychology to try to persuade immigrants to abandon their native language.2) Pursuit of truthTimes of change produce a special phenomenon: the pursuit of truth. In times of change, social values (representing tradition) and language values begin gradually to diverge because they begin to reflect different needs, those of tradition and those of modernity. Within this ‘gap’ arises the possibility of pursuing the search for truth. This gap allows the spectator to view both social values and language as separate realities that are running on parallel courses. Truth is always the result of comparing the old with the new. In a static society, social values and language are one; there is no means of attempting a re-valuation of existing values. Tradition is the only mode of knowledge. Hence, in a static society, the pursuit of truth can never arise.(From Ian Heath, /)Text 3The Acquisition of Sociolinguistic CompetenceRobert Bayley & Vera ReganIn recent years, researchers in second language acquisition (SLA) have paid increasing attention to the socio-cultural context of language learning. Studies have drawn from a variety of sociolinguistic frameworks to examine: the relationship between second language (L2) speakers’ multifaceted social identities and their opportunities for access to the target language (e.g. Norton, 2000); gender and choice of code in bilingual contexts (e.g. Woolard, 1997); the effects of gender and style on L2 speakers’ choice among phonological variants (e.g. Major in press); language use in multilingual adolescent urban peer groups (e.g. Rampton, 1995); and home language practices and minority language maintenance (e.g. Schecter and Bayley, 2002). In pursuing a wide range of questions concerning second language acquisition and use, researchers have drawn upon theoretical constructs and research methods developed in various sociolinguistic subfields and allied areas, including language socialization (e.g. Bayley and Schecter, 2003; Kramsch, 2002), cross-cultural communication (e.g. Cameron and Williams, 1997), and conversation analysis (e.g. Markee, 2000). Indeed, some scholars have called for a reconceptualization of SLA research to redress what they see as the ‘imbalance between cognitive and mentalistic orientations, and social and contextual orientations to language’ (Firth and Wagner, 1997: 295).In addition to studies that employ various qualitative approaches, such as many of those mentioned above, a considerable number of studies have adopted the methods of data collection and analysis developed by William Labov and others in variationist sociolinguistics. These studies have attempted to account for the variable production of second language learners and to elucidate how investigations of variability in learner speech can expand our knowledge of the second language acquisition of forms and structures that are usually regarded as obligatory in the target language (e.g. Bayley and Preston, 1996; Tarone, 1985; Wolfram, 1985; Young, 1991), as well as target language patterns of variation (e.g. Adamson and Regan, 1991). A full discussion of work that combines insights from sociolinguistics and SLA is beyond scope of this introduction (but see Young 1999 for a recent review of sociolinguistic approaches to SLA). Here we focus on studies that have adopted the methods of mainstream sociolinguistics in the Labovian tradition and, more briefly, work in conversation analysis.VARIATIONIST STUDIESVariationist studies of second language speech have shown that variation in interlanguage, or learner speech, like variation in native speech, is highly systematic and subject to a range of linguistic and social constraints. For example, in an early study, Wolfram (1985) showed that past tense marking in theEnglish of Vietnamese immigrants in the Washington, D.C. area was systematically constrained by saliency, defined as the difference between the base and past tense forms of the verb, and, in the case of regular past tense verbs, by the features of the surrounding phonological environment.A few years later, Young (1991) used variable rule analysis to study plural marking by adult Chinese learners of English. His results showed that interlanguage plural marking is subject to a complex set of constraints including proficiency level, redundant plural marking ,the syntactic function of the NP, and the features of the proceeding and final segments. Bayley (1994) also used variable rule analysis to examine data from Chinese learners of English living in California.Multivariate analysis showed that past tense marking, like plural marking by the speakers in Young’s study, was significantly affected by a range of linguistic and social factors. When describing past events, speakers were more likely to use past tense forms with perfective verbs and to use bare forms with imperfectives.In addition, as in Wolfram’s (1985) study, past tense marking was affected by the saliency of the difference between the past tense form and the base form, with more salient forms more likely to be marked. Finally, the speakers’ social networks played a significant role. Speakers with mixed native English-speaking and Chinese social networks were more likely to use past tense forms than those whose social networks were restricted to other speakers of Chinese.Studies such as Wolfram (1985), Young (1991) and Bayley (1994), among others, have established that the variation we see in learner speech is systematic and can be analyzed in much the same way that sociolinguists have long examined native speaker variation. Other studies of L2 variation have addressed a number of key questions in SLA. For example, Berdan (1996) raised questions about the concept of fossilization in his reanalysis ofSchumann’s (1978) study of negation by Alberto, a “fossilized” Spanish-speaking learner of English. To take another example, in a recent study of the acquisition of Hungarian verbal morphology by Chinese learners living in Budapest, Langman and Bayley (2002) show that, contrary to claims by Bybee (2002) and others, frequency cannot fully account for the production of untutored language learners, while Bayley and Langman (in press) and Regan (2002) provide evidence that individual patterns of variation are consistent with group patterns.The work discussed so far has examined the acquisition of grammatical features that are generally regarded as obligatory in the target language, characterized by Adamson and Regan (1991) as the vertical continuum, or what Mougeon, Rehner and Nadasdi refer to in their study of CanadianFrench immersion students in this issue as “Type 1” variation. Variationist sociolinguistics, however, has suggested, convincingly in our view, that far from being a peripheral element, knowledge of variation is part of speaker competence.The implication of this position is that, in order to become fully proficient in the target language, second language learners also need to acquire native-speaker (NS) patterns of variation, referred to by Mougeon et al. as “Type 2” variation or by Adamson and Regan as the horizontal continuum.Given such a view, research questions that become central include:1.Are learner patterns of variation similar to NS patterns?2.If learner patterns of variation differ from NS patterns, how and why do they differ?3.What are the processes by which NS variation patterns are acquired, and what is the effectof context on this process?。
北科大-语言学内部教学课件-2016考研必备-4
Perseverative coarticulation
• If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation （重复协同发音） or left-toright coarticulation (L > R), as in the case of map. Thus in the string …CD…, sound C influences sound D. • map
4.1 Phonological analysis
• Phonology is the study of sound systems, in order to identify the distinctive sounds in a particular language, and to discover the patterns the sounds fall into. It has two primary aims: 1) to discover the principle governing the organization of sounds; 2) to explain the variations that occur. The technical term for the distinctive sounds is “phoneme” (音位).
英国文学I 教学大纲.doc
《英国丈学I》教学大纲课程名称：英国文学I学分：2学时：32先修课程：基础英语、英美概况适用专业：英语教育开课系部：外语系一、课程性质、目的和培养目标课程性质：本课程为英语专业高年级专业方向课，旨在使学生对英国文学形成和发展的全貌有一个大致的了解；并通过阅读具有代表性的重点作品，理解作品的内容，学会分析作品的艺术特色，并努力掌握正确评价文学作品的标准和方法，提高学生的文学欣赏水平及其文学批评能力。
本课程还同语言教学相结合，增强学生语言表达能力。
目的和培养目标：培养学生阅读、欣赏、理解英语文学原著的能力，掌握文学批评的基本知识和方法。
通过阅读和分析英美文学作品，促进学生语言基本功和人文素质的提高，增强学生对英国文学及文化的了解。
二、课程内容和建议学时分配课程内容：第一章盎格鲁-撒克逊时期(2学时)《贝奥武甫》第二章盎格鲁-诺曼时期(2学时)《高文和他的绿衣骑士》第三章杰弗里•乔叟(2学时)《坎特伯雷故事集》第四章英国文艺复兴时期的文学(6学时)(1)文艺复兴运动(2)人文主义思潮(3)文艺复兴时期的重要作家(4)威廉•莎士比亚a、莎士比亚生平及戏剧创作生涯b、莎士比亚作品的思想意义及艺术成就c、《威尼斯商人》片断赏析d、《哈姆雷特》片断赏析e、《第十八首十四行诗》赏析第五章十七世纪资产阶级革命和王朝复辟时期(10学时)(1)历史背景(2)约翰•邓恩a、玄学派诗简介及玄学诗的特点b、邓恩生平及其创作生涯c、《别离辞•节哀》赏析d、十四行待《死亡，别傲慢》赏析(3 )约翰•弥尔顿a、弥尔顿的生平及文学创作b、史诗《失乐园》的主要内容及其特色c、《失乐园》选读第六章十八世纪(启蒙时期)(10学时)(1)启蒙运动(2)新古典主义(3)新古典主义时期的启蒙文学(4 )乔纳森•斯威夫特a、乔纳森•斯威夫特的政治及创作生涯b、乔纳森•斯威夫特的人文观c、乔纳森•斯威夫特讽刺散文的语言风格d、《格列佛游记》的梗概、结构及主题e、《格列佛游记》选读(5)理查德•比•谢立丹a、谢立丹戏剧创作生涯及主要作品b、谢立丹戏剧主题及写作技巧c、《造谣学校》选读(6)威廉•布莱克a、生平、政治宗教观点和诗歌创作主张b、《天真之歌》《经验之歌》c、布莱克诗歌的主要特点及思想意义d、《伦敦》赏析e、《老虎》赏析三、教材和参考书目（一）使用教材吴伟仁编：《英国文学史及选读》（第一册），外语教学与研究出版社，1997年（二）参考书目1、王佐良、李赋宁等主编：《英国文学史》（五卷本），外语教学与研究出版社，2005年2、王守仁主编：《英国文学选读》，高等教育出版社，2003年3、刘炳善编著：《英国文学简史》，河南人民出版社，1993年4、陈嘉编著：《英国文学史》（四卷英文版），商务印书馆，1998年5、陈嘉编著：《英国文学作品选读》（三卷本），商务印书馆，2003年6、王佐良等主编：《英国文学名篇选注》，商务印书馆，1989年7、庄锡昌主编：《西方文化史》，高等教育出版社，2003年8、吴伟仁、印冰编著：《英国文学史及选读学习指南》（第一册），中央民族大学出版社,2002 年四、课外学习要求要求学生课前预习下一次课的上课内容，了解作家的生平和创作特点；课后要求学生复习并撰写读书报告。
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《英国文学选读》教学大纲陈红薇课程编号：0802091 开课院系：英语系课程类别：专业必修适用专业：英语专业课内总学时：72 学时学分：7一、课程教学目的本课程属于语言外国文化课程，主要是向学生介绍英国最具代表性的作家以及主要作品。
通过该课程，来提高学生对英国文学的鉴赏能力，提高他们对语言的掌握和自身修养。
同时，通过对重点篇章的精细评析、大量地阅读名著、课上的翻译、和针对长篇小说进行的问题测验，使这门课程成为一、二年级精读、泛读、写作、甚至翻译课程的延伸；此外，针对学生口语的问题，每节课组织学生围绕一些与所讲内容有关的题目和问题进行口语训练。
力争把这门课上成一个真正意义上的专业综合课。
二、课程教学基本要求1) 本课程教学形式以介绍、赏析为主，介绍作家的生平、背景、代表作品和风格，并对重点篇章进行精细阅读和分析。
2) 此外，要求学生背诵一定数量的诗歌，同时鼓励学生积极进行课外资料查询，上课组织讨论，并定期要求他们写出读书报告，或做一些文学翻译的试笔。
3) 必读两本小说:Pride and PrejudiceJane Eyre其它阅读参考书目：Wuthering HeightsDavid CopperfieldRebeccaTess of the D’UrbervillesThe Grass is SingingTreasure Island1．课程重点：名篇、名著的分析: Shakespeare, John Donne, Paradise Lost, 19th c romantic poetry (Wordsworth, Shelley, John Keats), 19th c realist fiction (Dickens, Bronte sisters), Thomas Hardy, D. H. Lawrence2．课程难点：Hamlet, John Donne’s Poetry, Milton’s Paradise Los t; Wrdsworth’s poetry, Shelley’s poetry, Keat’s poetry, analysis of Novels such as Jane Eyre, Tess of the D’Urbervilles3．能力培养要求：1) 系统阅读英国文学的名著2) 通过阅读文学来培养一种对英语语言本身的亲和感3）了解英国文化和历史4) 提高文化修养和素质三、课程教学内容与学时：课程内容包括从中世纪乔叟时期、历经文艺复兴、18和19 世纪的小说、诗歌、直到20世纪前半期的整个英国文学发展过程中的主要作家和他们的代表作。
课程设置为18周，36个学时。
课程内容安排第一周English Literature (Introduction) /The age of Chaucer：The Canterbury Tales第二周English Renaissance第三周Shakespeare (Introduction)Sonnets 18，29The Merchant of Venice第四周Hamlet（* Romeo and Juliet）第五周Metaphysical poets: John Donne第六周Milton and Paradise Lost第七周The eighteenth century and the rise of the novelPride and Prejudice (Checking the students’ reading)第八周Sentimental poetry and Thomas GrayEarly romantic poetry: Robert Burns第九周The Age of Romanticism + William Wordsworth第十周Percy Shelley / John Keats第十一周The Victorian Age / Charles Dickens第十二周Charlotte Bronte: Jane Eyre(* Emily Bronte: Wuthering Heights)第十三周Thomas Hardy: Tess of the D’Urbervilles第十四周The Twentieth Century English literatureGeorge B. Shaw: Mrs Warren’s Profession + Video: Pygmalion第十五周W.B. Yeats + Poetry Reading第十六周Lawrence : Sons and Lovers第十七周James Joyce: Dubliners (“Araby”) + literature translationThe Theatre of Absurd: Waiting for Godot + Drama performance 第十八周Conclusion + Review**必读小说: Pride and Prejudice Jane Eyre**需背名篇:1. Canterbury Tales (Prologue): When the sweet showers of Aril fall andshoot”2. Shakespeare’s sonnets（18, 29）3. The Merchant of Venice(p.104, 107) : “The quality of mercy is notstrained”4. Hamlet (p.144) : “To be or not to be”5. Paradise lost (first three stanzas) : “…What though the filed be lost?”6. Wordsworth: I wandered lonely as a Cloud7. Tintern Abbey (first stanza): “Five years have past; five summers, withthe lengt h”8. Shelley: One word is too often profaned9. .Shelley: Ode to the West Wind (IV, V)10. John Keats: Ode to the Nightingale ( IV)11. Austen: Pride and Prejudice –“”12. Charles Dickens: Dombey and Son(The earth was made to givethem …)13. Emily Bronte: Wuthering Heights (My love to Linton is like … )14. Charlotte Bronte: Jane Eyre–Do you think I can stay to becomenothing to you?15. Robert Browning: “She had A heart …Who’d stoop to blame This sortof trifling?”四、教材与参考书教材：罗经国编，《新编英国文学选读》（上、下），北京大学出版社，第1版，1996年此外，还有大量增加材料，如在Charles Dickens一讲，除了课本上的Dombey and Son的选章以外，还让学生阅读了Oliver Twist, David Copperfield, Great Expectations三部小说的第一章的片断。
参考书：1. Lu Peixian, A Student's Edition of Milton, The Commercial Press, 19902. M. H. Abrams, ed., The Norton Anthology of English Literature (I, II), W.W.Norton & Company, 4th edition, 19793. Henry Lawrence, Betsy Seifter, The McGraw-Hill Guide to English Literature(I, II), McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19854. William H. Pritchard, Lives of the Modern Poets, Faber and Faber, 19805. Frank Kermode, John Hollander, eds., The Oxford Anthology of EnglishLiterature (Volume II), Oxford University Press, 19736. Christopher Gillie, Longman Companion to English Literature, Longman,19777. 王佐良、何其莘主编，《英国文艺复兴时期文学史》，外语教学与研究出版社，1996年8. 王佐良、周珏良主编，《英国二十世纪文学史》，外语教学与研究出版社，1994年9. 王佐良、周珏良等主编，《英国文学名篇选注》，商务印书馆，第3版，1989年10. 何其莘著，《英国戏剧选集》，外语教学与研究出版社，第1版，1992年11. 刘炳善编著，《英国文学简史》，上海外语教育出版社，第1版，1981年五、作业1. 课前阅读所要讲的作品,和两部小说2. 准备presentation3. 背诵一些名篇。