树形图 Example
课后练习 8-13树形图
often read detective stories
VP
Specifier
Head
Complement
DEG
V
NP
Mod
N
often
read
detective
stories
the argument against the proposals
NP
Head
Complement
essay
he
wrote
that
was
excellent
The essay that he wrote was excellent
CP C
S
NP
Infl
VP
NP
Det N C
CP
S NP Infl Pst
Pst
V
A
VP V NP
The
essay
that
he
wrote
e
was
excellent
Herbert bought a house she loved that.
Chapter 4 Textbook Exercises
P60-61
Ex.8
～ Ex.13
Exercise 8
Exercise 9 Exercise 10 Exercise 11
Exercise 12
Exercise 13
rich in minerals
AP
Head
Complement
ADJ
PREP
A
huge moon
hung
in
the
black
sky
The man examined his car carefully yesterday.
《树状图模板》课件
01
将树状图模板嵌入到PPT中，方便演示和讲解。
与在线协作工具结合
02
将树状图模板导入到在线协作工具中，方便团队成员共同编辑
和讨论。
与数据可视化工具结合
03
将树状图模板与数据可视化工具结合使用，生成更为直观和生
动的数据展示。
04
树状图模板的常见问题与解 决方案
如何解决树状图模板中的重叠问题
01
总结词：重叠问题
案例二：业务流程的梳理
总结词
简化业务流程理解
详细描述
使用树状图模板可以梳理业务流程，将复杂的流程简化为易于理解的图形。通过 树状图，可以清晰地看出业务流程的各个环节和它们之间的逻辑关系，有助于优 化流程、提高工作效率。
案例三：项目进度的监控
总结词
实时跟踪项目进展
详细描述
树状图模板可以用于监控项目进度，将项目的各个阶段和任务以树状图的形式展示。通过树状图，可以实时跟踪 项目的进展情况，及时发现和解决潜在问题，确保项目按时完成。
树状图模板能够清晰地展示数据的层 级关系，使得数据更加易于理解和分 析。
信息量大
树状图模板可以容纳大量的数据信息 ，并且能够通过缩放和交互来查看不 同层次的数据。
树状图模板的优缺点
• 适用性强：树状图模板适用于各种不同的数据类 型和场景，如分类数据、组织结构、时间序列数 据等。
树状图模板的优缺点
持。
感谢您的观看
THANKS
创建树状图模板的步骤
确定模板类型
根据需求选择合适的树 状图模板类型，如组织 结构图、流程图、项目
规划图等。
设计模板结构
根据实际需求，设计模 板的整体结构，包括节 点数量、层级关系等。
ppt课件树状图
美化树状图可以提高观众的视觉 体验和学习效果。
可以使用不同的颜色、字体、形 状等元素来区分不同的层次和主
题，使整个图更加清晰易读。
在美化树状图时，应注意保持整 体的协调性和美观度，避免过于
花哨或混乱的设计。
03
树状图的应用场景
工作汇报
总结工作成果
树状图可以清晰地展示工作流程 和成果，帮助汇报者总结和呈现
工作情况。
突出重点
通过树状图的结构，可以突出重点 工作和关键节点，使汇报内容更加 聚焦。
便于理解
树状图的层次结构有助于听众更好 地理解汇报内容，快速把握整体情 况。
项目管理
01
02
03
任务分解
树状图可以将复杂的项目 分解成若干个子任务，便 于项目团队更好地分工合 作。
时间安排
通过树状图展示项目各阶 段的进度安排，有助于项 目团队更好地把控时间节 点。
在线协作、实时同步、云存储
详细描述
MindMeister是一款在线思维导图工具，也适用于制作树状图。它支持多人在线协作 ，实时同步编辑，方便团队成员共同创建和修改树状图。同时，MindMeister提供了
云存储功能，用户可以将树状图保存在云端，随时随地访问和编辑。此外， MindMeister还支持多种导出格式，方便用户与其他人分享自己的作品。
信息展示直观
树状图以图形化的方式呈现信息，使得信息更易 于理解和记忆。
支持多级分类
树状图可以展示多级分类信息，适用于对复杂信 息的组织和展示。
缺点
设计难度较大
树状图的设计需要具备一定的美学和设计技巧，否则可能会显得 单调或过于复杂。
不适合展示大量文本
树状图主要用于展示结构化信息，对于大量文本信息的展示可能不 太适合。
树形图法
树形图法
“树形图”是数学中应用最为广泛的图形之一。
在数学计数问题中，每当我们面对一些非常规的题目一筹莫展、无从下手时，枚举法往往可以发挥巨大的威力。
枚举法又叫穷举法，顾名思义，就是把所有符合题目条件的对象一一列举出来，然后根据要求从中挑出合理的。
但是，怎样在枚举的过程中既不重复也不遗漏地枚举出所有符合条件的对象来呢?
“树形图”就可以使我们的枚举过程不仅形象直观，而且有条理又不易重复或遗漏，使人一目了然。
例：甲乙两人进行乒乓球比赛，规定谁先赢三场谁就胜。
第一场甲胜。
问到决出最后胜负为止，共有几种不同的情形？其中甲胜的情形有几种？
解：采用树形图可以很好的刻画整个比赛过程，画出树形图如下：
第一场
第二场
第三场
第四场
第五场
从树形图中可以清楚的看到，到决出最后胜负，共有10种不同情况，其中甲胜利的情形有16种。
图解怎么解读一个树状图
图解怎么解读一个树状图使用范围树状图主要是用来展示不同的对象之间的相似度大小(习惯上称之为距离关系远近)的一个图形。
一般最常用到的是对层次聚类结果的可视化。
但是不仅限于此，我们只要是可以衡量不同对象之间的相似度，都可以通过树状图来进行可视化。
比如，在高通量测序的各个样本当中，利用层次聚类➕树状图来比较各个样本之间的整体表达关系的远近。
例如：下面就展示了六个观测对象，在散点图上的距离关系( 图)以及在树状图的具体呈现( 图)。
基本概念在了解树状图之前，对于树的一些基本概念就需要解释一下。
既然叫做树状图，那么这个图就和树类似的，我们可以把图形的顶端看作是树的根，这样的，往下走到了岔路的时候就是树枝了，所以这个地方就叫做进化枝(clade)，再往下到了末端的时候，就是树叶了，所以这个地方就叫做进化叶(leaf)。
图形解读在整个树状图当中，进化枝的排列可以看出哪些叶子彼此之间相近。
另外，每个叶子的高度也代表了不同叶子之间差异/相似程度。
高度越高，两个叶子区别越大。
这里我们使用5样本的表达谱芯片的数据进行层次聚类然后构建了树状图。
来观察这个样本之间的表达的相似程度。
对于树状图的解读是自下而上进行的。
首先我们可以看到。
Sample 2 和Sample 3两个是最相近的。
再往上可以看到Sample 4和Sample 2/3是在第二个进化枝上，这三个样本相似度次之，进而是和Sample 1相似。
最后才是和Sample 5的具体相似度通过树状图的高度可以看出，Sample 5和Sample 2/3差异是最大的。
整体来看，Sample 5和其他四个样本都有一定程度的差异。
另外，对于一个树状图而言，其高度是有意义的，对于每一个对象的左右的距离就没有什么意义了。
这个基本上就是怎么排列好看怎么来了的。
其他扩展图形以上就是树状图的基本图形解读，同样的其实我们在研究物种进化的时候使用的进化树其实也算是树状图。
解读起来也是一样的。
第十八讲 分类列举与树形图
迁移1 从0、7、4、2四张数字卡片中，挑选三张排成三位 数，能排出多少个不同的三位数？ 18个
迁移2 如图，小明住在A点的位置，B点是学校的位 置，小明从家上学只许向右或向下两个方向走，他 有多少条上学的路线？
A F C D
E
G
H
K
B
6条
热身1 用4、5、6三个数字可以组成多少个不同的三位数？ 从小到大排列564是第几个？ 6个、第4个
例2:右图中有6个点、9条线段。一只甲虫从A点出发要沿线爬 到F点，但不能重复经过同一点或同一段线段，这只甲虫最多 有几种走法？
A B C
D
E
F
点拨 以始发点可到达的最近点来分类，可分三类；再用此法逐一分类列 举。 解答 ABCF、ABF、ABEF、AEBCF、AEBF、AEF、ADEBCF、 ADEBF、F一共九种走法。树形图如图
6条
热身2 现有红、黄、白色三只球，按照颜色不同从左 到右排成一行，共有几种排法？
6种
拓展1 “IMO”是国际数学奥林匹克的缩写。把这三个字母写 成三种不同的颜色，现在共有五种不同颜色的笔，问能写出多 少种不同颜色搭配的“IMO”。 60种
拓展2 一个学生暑假去甲、乙、丙三个城市旅游，他今天在这 个城市，明天就得到另一个城市。第一天他从甲城开始，第 五天人仍然回到甲城。问这个同学有多少条游览路线？
例1: 从1、2、3、4、5、6这六张数字卡片中任意挑出三张 排成一个能被6整除的三位数，可以排出多少个数？ 点拨 如果要求能被6整除，那这个三位数必须能被2整除也能 被3整除，那就是说个位只有2、4、6三种可能，其次三个数 位上数字之和要能被3整除。 解答 我们就以个位是2、4还有6来分类列举。个位是2：312、 612、132、432、342、642、162、462 个位是4：324、 624、234、534、354、654、264、564 个位是6 :216、516、 126、426、246、546、156、456共有24个这样的三位数。 我们可以用一种关系图来表示我们分类列举的方法。这样一 张图我们叫它树形图，最上面一点叫“根”，最下面的点叫 “叶子”，其余的点叫“枝”
英语语言学树型图详细讲解
树形图详细讲解1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NSNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux V Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL A He said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A N Gerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English examd) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN N Herbert found thed) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl majors in linguistics8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advcome tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det Npass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incident?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nreport the incidentd) What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN Nfor lunche) Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNf) What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det Nto the party21。
现代汉语框式图解法例题
现代汉语框式图解法例题常用的现代汉语框式图解法包括树形图、流程图、时序图、思维导图等等。
这些框式图解法在不同的场景下都具有不同的优势，能够帮助人们更加清晰地理解和表达信息。
下面针对各种框式图解法给出实例，并写出相关参考内容。
1. 树形图树形图可以将信息按照层次结构进行组织，是一种比较常见的框式图解法。
例如下面这个树形图：（图）根节点是“座席”，其下包括“业务”和“技术”两个子节点。
而“业务”又分别有“营销”、“客服”和“投诉”三个子节点，“技术”又分别有“维护”、“配置”和“故障”三个子节点。
参考内容：-树形图是按照层次结构组织信息的框式图解法。
-根节点是一级目录，其下每个子节点都是二级目录。
-树形图可以清晰地展示信息的层次结构和相互关系。
2. 流程图流程图可以清晰地展示一个流程中各个步骤之间的依赖关系，是一种比较常见的框式图解法。
例如下面这个流程图：（图）这个流程图展示了一个简单的购物流程，包括浏览商品、加入购物车、结算和支付四个步骤。
其中，“加入购物车”这个步骤需要先选择商品，才能进行；而“支付”这个步骤需要先进行结算，才能进行。
参考内容：-流程图可以清晰地展示一个流程中各个步骤之间的依赖关系。
-流程图的形状包括矩形、圆角矩形、菱形等，不同形状代表了不同的步骤。
-流程图的连线有直线、带箭头的直线、菱形等，不同类型的连线代表了不同的关系。
3. 时序图时序图可以展示一系列事件的发生时间和相互关系，是一种比较常见的框式图解法。
例如下面这个时序图：（图）这个时序图展示了一个简单的电影放映过程，包括拼装和测试、压片和制版、放映和收片三个阶段。
其中，每个阶段的持续时间和相互间隔都有明确的标记。
参考内容：-时序图可以展示一系列事件的发生时间和相互关系。
-时序图的形状包括直线、竖线、带箭头的直线等，不同形状代表了不同的事件。
-时序图的标记包括事件的名称、持续时间和相互间隔等信息。
4. 思维导图思维导图可以帮助人们将信息进行化简和梳理，是一种比较常见的框式图解法。
英语语言学树形图举例
树形图详细讲解1.Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2.The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier.Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3.Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk aboutCPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P Nd) The apple might hit the man.SNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresentN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4.The following sentences contain modifiers of various types.For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5.The following sentences all contain conjoined categories.Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPJim has washed the dirty shirts and pants ORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pants b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux VCrusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6.The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun.Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPN V NYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N V AHe said that Tom asked whether the class was over c) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPGerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English examd) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7.Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause.Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg ANP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN N Herbert found thed) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl majors in linguistics8.The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation.Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrowDeep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advcome tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaperDeep structureCPC SVPNP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det Npass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incidentDeep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nd) What did you eat for lunchDeep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN Nfor lunche) Who should this be reported toDeep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNf) What was Helen bringing to the partyDeep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det Nto the party。
语言学 第四章 树形图 句法
Chapter 4 From word to Text (Syntax)Syntax (grammar)•Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.4.1 Syntactic relations•Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:–4.1.1 positional relation–4.1.2 relations of substitutability–4.1.3 relations of co-occurrence4.1.1 Positional Relation•For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.•The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object•Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.•If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example, The boy kicked the ball–*Boy the ball kicked the–*The ball kicked the boy•The teacher saw the students•The students saw the teacher•Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.–They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.•Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world.•There are 6 possible types of language:–SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.–English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability•The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.–The ______ smiles.manboygirl•It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man–The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.–He went there last week.the day before.•This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations by Hjemslev. •To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence•It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.•For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.•Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 Grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction•Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.–an apple–ate an apple–Mary ate an apple4.2.2 Immediate Constituents•Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:–the girl (NP)–ate the apple (VP)–The girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)In the case of the above example, if two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.A (Sentence)B CThe boy ate the appleTwo ways: tree diagram and bracketingTree diagram:Bracketing•Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.•(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))•[S[NP[Det The][N girl]][VP[V ate][NP[Det the][N apple]]]]4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions•Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.–Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.•Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including–the basic sentence,–the prepositional phrase,–the predicate (verb + object) construction,–the connective (be + complement) construction.•The boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)•He hid behind the door.(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)•He kicked the ball .(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)•John seemed angry.(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination•Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:1) Coordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .–These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.•Coordination of NPs:–[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]•Coordination of VPs:–[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]•Coordination of PPs:–[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]•Coordination of APs:–[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]•Coordination of Ss:–[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].2) Subordination•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.–The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.•two dogsHead•(My brother) can drink (wine).Head•Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head•(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.Head3) Subordinate clauses•Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:–complement clauses–adjunct (or adverbial) clauses–relative clauses•John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complement clause)•Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner].(adverbial clause)•The woman [that I love] is moving to the south.(relative clause)4.3. Syntactic Function•The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.–Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 Subject•In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case（主格）. •The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.–pater filium amat (the father loves the son)–patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)•In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.–This definition seems to work for these sentences:–Mary slapped John.■ A dog bit Bill.•but is clearly wrong in the following examples:–John was bitten by a dog.–John underwent major heart surgery.•In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).•Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). •Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as–Bill is a very crafty fellow.•but fails in others, such as–(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.–As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.•All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.•The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.What characteristics do subjects have?A. Word order•Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:–Sally collects stamps.–*Collects Sally stamps.B. Pro-forms•The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:–He loves me.–I love him.–We threw stones at them.–They threw stones at us.C. Agreement with the verb•In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:–She angers him.–They anger him.–She angers them.D. Content questions•If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in–John stole the Queen’s picture from the British Council.–Who stole the Queen’s picture from the British council?–What would John steal, if he had the chance?–What did John steal from the British Council?–Where did John steal the Queen’s picture from?E. Tag question•A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.–John loves Mary, doesn’t he?–Mary loves John, doesn’t she?–*John loves Mary, doesn’t she?4.3.2 Predicate•Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.•It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.–The boy is running. (process)–Peter broke the glass. (action)–Jane must be mad! (state)•The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.4.3.3 Object•Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.–Mother bought a doll.–Mother gave my sister a doll.IO DO•In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case （与格）for indirect object.–In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro-nouns).–Mother gave a doll to my sister.–John kicked me.•Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.–John broke the glass. → The glass was broken by John.–Peter saw Jane. → Jane was seen by Peter.•Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.–He died last week.–The match lasted three hours.–He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)4.4. Category•The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:–Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability–Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 Number•Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.–In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.–Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.•In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.–le cheval royal (the royal horse)–les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)4.4.2 Gender•Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.–Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases.–For instance, in Latin, ignis‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine.•English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.–he: she: it–prince: princess–author: authoress•In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.–beau cadeau (fine gift)–belle maison (fine house)–Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)–La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)•Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:–le poele (the stove)–la poele (the frying pan)–le pendule (the pendulum)–la pendule (the clock)4.4.3 Case•The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.–In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.–There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.•In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:–inflection–following a preposition–word order•as manifested in–teacher : teacher’s–with : to a man–John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John4.4.4 Agreement•Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shallalso, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). •This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric （照应）, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent,–Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.•or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:–Each person may have one coin.•Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:–This man runs. The bird flies.–These men run. These birds fly.SentenceClausePhraseWord•the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)•has been doing(verbal phrase)•extremely difficult(adjectival phrase)•to the door (prepositional phrase)•very fast(adverbial phrase)•The best thing would be to leave early.•It’s great for a man to be free.•Having finished their task, they came to help us.•John being away, Bill had to do the work.•Filled with shame, he left the house.•All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.•It’s no use crying over spilt milk.•Do you mind my opening the window?Sentence: (traditional approach)simpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundSentence: (functional approach)Yes/noInterrogativeIndicative wh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptativeBasic sentence types: (Bolinger)•Mother fell.(Nominal + intransitive verbal)•Mother is young.(Nominal + copula + complement)•Mother loves Dad.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).•Mother fed Dad breakfast.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)•There is time.(There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: (Quirk)•SVC Mary is kind.a nurse.•SV A Mary is here.in the house.•SV The child is laughing.•SVO Somebody caught the ball.•SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.•SVOA I put the plate on the table.•SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6 Recursiveness•Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.–All these are means to extend sentences.–How long can a sentence be?•Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.•The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses.–I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …•John’s sister•John’s sister’s husband•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.•that house in Beijing•the garden of that house in Beijing•the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing•a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing4.6.1 Conjoining 连接•Conjoining: coordination.•Conjunctions: and, but, and or.–John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.–Give me liberty or give me death.4.6.2 Embedding嵌入•Embedding: subordination.•Main clauses and subordinate clauses.•Three basic types of subordinate clauses:–Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.–Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.–Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.4.7. Beyond the sentence(Text and discourse)•The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond the traditional sentence boundary.•Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.4.7.1 Sentential Connection•Hypotactic 主次(subordinate clauses):–You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.–We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.•Paratactic 并联(coordinate clauses):–In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.–He dictated the letter. She wrote it.–The door was open. He walked in.4.7.2 Cohesion衔接•Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.•Discoursal / textual Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:–Conjunction 连接–Ellipsis 省略–lexical collocation 词汇搭配–lexical repetition 词汇重复–Reference 指称–Substitution 替代, etc.•“Did she get there at six?”语言学第四章树形图句法“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)•“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. 1 can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)•He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.(Reference)•“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)•I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late.(Logical connection)11 / 11。
图的生成树
设w(e) > w(e’),令T’ = T* - e + e’，则w(T* ) > w(T’) 8
2.1树的基本概念
-
最小树的“割最优条 件”
T*
e
e’
充分性.设T*是生成树并满足定理中的条件但不是最小树，
设最小树为T0. 记eT*\ T0, 将e从T*中删除后产生一个割.
保证不形成圈. （避圈法） 如果当前弧加入后不形成圈, 则加入这条弧, 如果当前 弧加入后会形成圈, 则不加入这条弧, 并考虑下一条弧.
STEP0. 令i=1, j=0, T=.把G的边按照权由小到大排列，即
w ( e 1 ) w ( e 2 ) ; w ( e m )
STEP1. 判断T {ei}是否含圈. 若含圈, 转STEP2, 否则转STEP3.
15
Kruskal 算法的计算复杂性改进
算法实现改进：利用三个数组
size - 用来记录每个链表中所含节点的个数(链表规模)； last - 用来记录每个链表中最后的节点编号 first - 用来记录每个节点所在链表的第一个节点.
如果链表L={1，2，4，5} ，则size(L)=|L|=4, last(L)=5, first(1)= first(2)= first(4) = first(5)=1.
STEP2. 令i=i+1. 若i m,转STEP1;否则结束,此时G不连通,所以没有最小树.
STEP3. 令T=T {ei}, j =j+1.若 j=n-1, 结束，T是最小树; 否则转STEP1.
正确性：圈最优条件 13
2.2 最小树算法 2.2.1 Kruskal 算法（1956 ）
学科树状图
As can be seen, the school of Mechanical engineering who is the most essential school in SJTU mainly consists of four departments including Mechanical Engineering, Power & Energy Engineering, Nuclear Science & Engineering and Industrial Engineering & Logistics Management.As the biggest department of the school of Mechanical engineering, Mechanical Engineering has four academic directions: manufacturing technology and equipment automation, Mechatronic Engineering, Mechanical Design and Theory and Vehicle Engineering. Besides，it is obviously that there are two different parts of manufacturing technology and equipment automation: Biomedical manufacturing and computer integrated manufacturing which are currently main research direction in this area. What is more, Mechatronic and robotics, the most popular research areas in this school, are varieties of Mechatronic Engineering. Last but not least, vehicle engineering can be divided into four categories: auto-body manufacturing, Vehicle Dynamics & Control, advanced engine design and manufacturing and green vehicle and intelligent automotive technologies.Compared with Mechanical Engineering,Power & Energy Engineering also plays an important role in School of Mechanical Engineering. According to different principles, research like clean energy conversion and utilization, utilization of solar energy and energy saving in buildings, advanced theory and application of heat exchange, assembly and control of automobile power and Refrigeration and cryogenic engineering are the representative parts of Power & Energy Engineering.Besides the research mentioned, there are four categories of Industrial Engineering & Logistics Management: Production Systems Engineering, Logistics and Supply Chain management, Quality and Reliability and Service Engineering.。
英语语言学树型图详细讲解
树形图详细讲解1、Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences、a) The old lady suddenly left、Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road、Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road、Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature、N Qual V Deg A2、The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier、Draw the appropriate tree structure for each、a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3、Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences、a) The jet landed、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NSNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories、SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4、The following sentences contain modifiers of various types、For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures、a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5、The following sentences all contain conjoined categories、Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences、a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants、InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out、SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics、SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in、SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt、SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux V Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6、The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun、Draw a tree structure for each sentence、a) You know that I hate war、SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over、SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL A He said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam、SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A N Gerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English examd) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce、SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The children argued over whether bats had wings、SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7、Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause、Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences、a) The essay that he wrote was too long、Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites、Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved、Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN N Herbert found thed) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics、Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl majors in linguistics8、The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation、Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences、a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advcome tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det Npass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incident?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nreport the incidentd) What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN Nfor lunche) Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PN英语语言学树型图详细讲解f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det Nto the party。
树状图PPT图示
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Socata Presentation
Give You The Best
PRESENT
OF THIS SCHEME, WE THANK YOU
FOR YOUR READING, THE
PROPOSAL
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PRESENT Male air bring is Signs first .
Creepiest god air fish land.
OF THIS SCHEME, WE THANK YOU FOR YOUR READING, THE AirPbRriOnPgOisSASiLgns first. Creepiest god air fish.
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Male air bring is Signs first . Creepiest god air fish land.
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Signs first . Creepiest god air fish land.
PRESENT
OF THIS SCHEME, WE THANK YOU FOR YOUR READING, THE PROPOSAL
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OF THIS SCHEME, WE THANK YOU FOR YOUR READING, THE PROPOSAL
PRESENT
OF THIS SCHEME, WE THANK YOU FOR YOUR READING, THME, WE THANK YOU FOR YOUR READING, THE PROPOSAL
语言学树形图word精品
树形图详细讲解1. In dicate the category of each word in the follow ing senten ces. a) The old lady sudde nly left. Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det N d) He n ever appears quite mature. N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate each. a) full of peoplefull of peopleb) a story about a sen time ntal girlNPQual VNPofte n read detective storiesd) the argume nt aga inst the proposalsDetNtree structure forAPVPNPPPNPe) move towards the win dowVPPPDet N3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the followi ng sentences. a) The jet Ian ded.In flP(=S)The jetb) Mary became very ill.In flP(=S)VP VPNmove towards the win dowWhat will you e talk about e d) The apple might hit the S man. VP Det Aux NP DetTheapplemighthit themanNP/XDet N Infl VPPstIan ded NP InflVP Pst Vbecame veryMary c) What will you talk about?CPillNPInflS z NP InflVP NPORIn flP(=S)V NPN Qual VNPHe ofte n reads etective stories4. The followi ng sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each senten ce, first ide ntify the modifier(s), the n draw the tree structures.a) A frighte ned passe nger Ian ded the crippled airpla ne.In flP(=S)Det A N Pst VNP Det A NA frighte ned passe nger Ian ded the crippled airpla neDetThe NVPDet apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories. OR InflP(=S)NP Infl VP NP Infl VPb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.In flP(=S)An unu sual event occurred before the d) A qua int old house appeared on the grassy hill.In flP(=S)5. The follow ing sentences all contain conj oined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.Det ANPA huge c) An unu sual event occurred before the meeting.In flP(=S)N Pst V■- N meet ingDetPDet A NA qua int oldhouse appeared on the grassyhillNPInfl VPDet AN Pst VPPmoonInfl NPDet AVPPPNP Det*NPInfl VPAPPInflP(=S)Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Hele n put on her clothes and wentout. SNPORNPJimVPInflhasVwashedNPDet A NPN CON Nthe dirty shirts and pants NPInflP(=S)Infl VPCONVHele n put on her clothes andc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNPwent outVPCONMary is fond of literature but (is)VPNPtired of statisticsHele n put on her clothesand went outVPCONVe) Crusoe knows that spri ng will come and the snow will melt.6. The followi ng sentences all contain embedded clauses that fun ctio n as compleme nts of a verb, an adjective, a prepositi on or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.NP VPInflCONVPN Pres VPVPVNPbut (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SSAdvSCONand the mysterious man came inThe detective went outSNPNYouCrusoe knows that spri ng will will melt NPNcome and the snowORCP CIn flP(=S)Gerry can not believe the fact thatA nna flun ked the En glish examb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over. Ssaid that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can 'believe the fact that Anna flun ked the En glish exam.Infl NPVPCP CPresSNPVPNPYou know that hatewarNPHeVPCC SNPASNDetNd) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce. SCPNVL AC-S A /l\Det N V NP NPN Det NChriswas happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The childre n argued over whether bats had wings. SVP k"-^CPa) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureThe essay he wrote that wastoo longNPDetVP八VPNP VP NP NThe childre n whether bats argued over 7. Each of the follow ing sentences contains a relative clause. Draw trees for each of the senten ces. had win gsthe deep structure and the surface structureNP VPNPVPSurface Structure CPb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPSNPNVPVDetTheCPNPessay thatAPDegSInflNPPstVPV NPwas too longhe wrote eSNPThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface Structure CPSSInflNP NP VPPres V NPThe dog that he keeps bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPSNP VPVInflHerbertNfound the manNPshe loved whoSurface Structured) The girl whom he ofte n quarrels with majors in linguistics.CPSNP VPVInflHerbert man (whom) she lovedNPNefound theDeep structureCPSC InflNPSThe girl hePPVofte n quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface Structure CP8. The derivati ons of the followi ng senten ces in volve the inversion tran sformatio n. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow?SSNPPPVNPThe girl e majors in lin guisticsofte nquarrelswhom he withDeep structureAdvPAdvyou would come tomorrowSurface structureAdvPAdvwould you come tomorrowb) Can you pass me the n ewspaper?Deep structurec) Should the stude nts report the in cide nt?the stude nts shouldreport the in cidentyou can pass me the n ewspaperSurface structureCan you pass me the newspaper Deep structureshould the studentse report the in cidentd) What did you eat for lun ch?Deep structuree) Who should this be reportedtoDeep structureSurface structurethis should be reported to whomf) What was Hele n bringing to theparty?NPwhomSurface structureCPCInflSbeshould this reported toDeep structureCPC SSurface structureCPNP C S。
语言学第四章树形图句法
Chapter 4 From word to Text (Syntax)Syntax (grammar)•Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.4.1 Syntactic relations•Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:–4.1.1 positional relation–4.1.2 relations of substitutability–4.1.3 relations of co-occurrence4.1.1 Positional Relation•For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.•The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object•Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.•If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example, The boy kicked the ball–*Boy the ball kicked the–*The ball kicked the boy•The teacher saw the students•The students saw the teacher•Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.–They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.•Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world.•There are 6 possible types of language:–SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.–English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order. 4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability•The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.–The ______ smiles.manboygirl•It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man–The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.–He went there last week.the day before.•This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations by Hjemslev.•To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence•It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.•For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.•Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 Grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction•Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.–an apple–ate an apple–Mary ate an apple4.2.2 Immediate Constituents•Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:–the girl (NP)–ate the apple (VP)–The girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)In the case of the above example, if two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediateconstituents of A. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.A (Sentence)B CThe boy ate the appleTwo ways: tree diagram and bracketingTree diagram:Bracketing•Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.•(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))•[S[NP[Det The][N girl]][VP[V ate][NP[Det the][N apple]]]]4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions•Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.–Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.•Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including–the basic sentence,–the prepositional phrase,–the predicate (verb + object) construction,–the connective (be + complement) construction.•The boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)•He hid behind the door.(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)•He kicked the ball .(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)•John seemed angry.(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination•Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: 1) Coordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . –These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.•Coordination of NPs:–[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]•Coordination of VPs:–[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]•Coordination of PPs:–[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]•Coordination of APs:–[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]•Coordination of Ss:–[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].2) Subordination•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.–The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.•two dogsHead•(My brother) can drink (wine).Head•Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head•(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.Head3) Subordinate clauses•Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:–complement clauses–adjunct (or adverbial) clauses–relative clauses•John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complement clause)•Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner].(adverbial clause)•The woman [that I love] is moving to the south.(relative clause)4.3. Syntactic Function•The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.–Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 Subject•In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case（主格）.•The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.–pater filium amat (the father loves the son)–patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)•In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.–This definition seems to work for these sentences:–Mary slapped John.■ A dog bit Bill.•but is clearly wrong in the following examples:–John was bitten by a dog.–John underwent major heart surgery.•In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).•Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). •Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as–Bill is a very crafty fellow.•but fails in others, such as–(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.–As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.•All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.•The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.What characteristics do subjects have?A. Word order•Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:–Sally collects stamps.–*Collects Sally stamps.B. Pro-forms•The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:–He loves me.–I love him.–We threw stones at them.–They threw stones at us.C. Agreement with the verb•In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:–She angers him.–They anger him.–She angers them.D. Content questions•If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in–John stole the Queen’s picture from the British Council.–Who stole the Queen’s picture from the British council?–What would John steal, if he had the chance?–What did John steal from the British Council?–Where did John steal the Queen’s picture from?E. Tag question•A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.–John loves Mary, doesn’t he?–Mary loves John, doesn’t she?–*John loves Mary, doesn’t she?4.3.2 Predicate•Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.•It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.–The boy is running. (process)–Peter broke the glass. (action)–Jane must be mad! (state)•The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.4.3.3 Object•Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.–Mother bought a doll.–Mother gave my sister a doll.IO DO•In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case （与格）for indirect object.–In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns).–Mother gave a doll to my sister.–John kicked me.•Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.–John broke the glass. The glass was broken by John.–Peter saw Jane. Jane was seen by Peter.•Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.–He died last week.–The match lasted three hours.–He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)4.4. Category•The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:–Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability–Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 Number•Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.–In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.–Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.•In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.–le cheval royal (the royal horse)–les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)4.4.2 Gender•Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis ofword classes.–Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seemquite arbitrary in many cases.–For instance, in Latin, ignis‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine. •English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they aremainly of the natural gender type.–he: she: it–prince: princess–author: authoress•In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.–beau cadeau (fine gift)–belle maison (fine house)–Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)–La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)•Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:–le poele (the stove)–la poele (the frying pan)–le pendule (the pendulum)–la pendule (the clock)4.4.3 Case•The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.–In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.–There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.•In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:–inflection–following a preposition–word order•as manifested in–teacher : teacher’s–with : to a man–John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John4.4.4 Agreement•Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).•This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric （照应）, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent, –Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.•or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:–Each person may have one coin.•Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:–This man runs. The bird flies.–These men run. These birds fly.SentenceClausePhraseWord•the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)•has been doing(verbal phrase)•extremely difficult(adjectival phrase)•to the door (prepositional phrase)•very fast(adverbial phrase)•The best thing would be to leave early.•It’s great for a man to be free.•Having finished their task, they came to help us.•John being away, Bill had to do the work.•Filled with shame, he left the house.•All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.•It’s no use crying over spilt milk.•Do you mind my opening the window?Sentence: (traditional approach)simpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundSentence: (functional approach)Yes/noInterrogativeIndicative wh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptativeBasic sentence types: (Bolinger)•Mother fell.(Nominal + intransitive verbal)•Mother is young.(Nominal + copula + complement)•Mother loves Dad.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).•Mother fed Dad breakfast.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)•There is time.(There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: (Quirk)•SVC Mary is kind.a nurse.•SVA Mary is here.in the house.•SV The child is laughing.•SVO Somebody caught the ball.•SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.•SVOA I put the plate on the table.•SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6 Recursiveness•Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.–All these are means to extend sentences.–How long can a sentence be?•Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.•The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses.–I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …•John’s sister•John’s sister’s husband•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.•that house in Beijing•the garden of that house in Beijing•the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing•a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing4.6.1 Conjoining 连接•Conjoining: coordination.•Conjunctions: and, but, and or.–John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.–Give me liberty or give me death.4.6.2 Embedding嵌入•Embedding: subordination.•Main clauses and subordinate clauses.•Three basic types of subordinate clauses:–Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.–Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.–Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.4.7. Beyond the sentence(Text and discourse)•The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond thetraditional sentence boundary.•Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.4.7.1 Sentential Connection•Hypotactic 主次(subordinate clauses):–You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.–We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.•Paratactic 并联(coordinate clauses):–In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.–He dictated the letter. She wrote it.–The door was open. He walked in.4.7.2 Cohesion衔接•Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.•Discoursal / textual Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:–Conjunction 连接–Ellipsis 省略–lexical collocation 词汇搭配–lexical repetition 词汇重复–Reference 指称–Substitution 替代, etc.•“Did she get there at six?”“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)•“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. 1 can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)•He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.(Reference)•“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)•I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late.(Logical connection)。
语言学第四章树形图句法
Chapter 4 From word to Text (Syntax)Syntax (grammar)•Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.4.1 Syntactic relations•Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:–4.1.1 positional relation–4.1.2 relations of substitutability–4.1.3 relations of co-occurrence4.1.1 Positional Relation•For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.•The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object•Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.•If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example, The boy kicked the ball–*Boy the ball kicked the–*The ball kicked the boy•The teacher saw the students•The students saw the teacher•Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.–They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.•Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world.•There are 6 possible types of language:–SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.–English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order. 4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability•The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.–The ______ smiles.manboygirl•It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man–The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.–He went there last week.the day before.•This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations by Hjemslev.•To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence•It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.•For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.•Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 Grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction•Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.–an apple–ate an apple–Mary ate an apple4.2.2 Immediate Constituents•Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:–the girl (NP)–ate the apple (VP)–The girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)In the case of the above example, if two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediateconstituents of A. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.A (Sentence)B CThe boy ate the appleTwo ways: tree diagram and bracketingTree diagram:Bracketing•Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.•(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))•[S[NP[Det The][N girl]][VP[V ate][NP[Det the][N apple]]]]4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions•Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.–Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.•Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including–the basic sentence,–the prepositional phrase,–the predicate (verb + object) construction,–the connective (be + complement) construction.•The boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)•He hid behind the door.(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)•He kicked the ball .(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)•John seemed angry.(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination•Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: 1) Coordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . –These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.•Coordination of NPs:–[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]•Coordination of VPs:–[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]•Coordination of PPs:–[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]•Coordination of APs:–[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]•Coordination of Ss:–[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].2) Subordination•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.–The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.•two dogsHead•(My brother) can drink (wine).Head•Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head•(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.Head3) Subordinate clauses•Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:–complement clauses–adjunct (or adverbial) clauses–relative clauses•John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complement clause)•Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner].(adverbial clause)•The woman [that I love] is moving to the south.(relative clause)4.3. Syntactic Function•The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.–Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 Subject•In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case（主格）.•The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.–pater filium amat (the father loves the son)–patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)•In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.–This definition seems to work for these sentences:–Mary slapped John.■ A dog bit Bill.•but is clearly wrong in the following examples:–John was bitten by a dog.–John underwent major heart surgery.•In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).•Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). •Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as–Bill is a very crafty fellow.•but fails in others, such as–(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.–As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.•All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.•The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.What characteristics do subjects have?A. Word order•Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:–Sally collects stamps.–*Collects Sally stamps.B. Pro-forms•The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:–He loves me.–I love him.–We threw stones at them.–They threw stones at us.C. Agreement with the verb•In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:–She angers him.–They anger him.–She angers them.D. Content questions•If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in–John stole the Queen’s picture from the British Council.–Who stole the Queen’s picture from the British council?–What would John steal, if he had the chance?–What did John steal from the British Council?–Where did John steal the Queen’s picture from?E. Tag question•A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.–John loves Mary, doesn’t he?–Mary loves John, doesn’t she?–*John loves Mary, doesn’t she?4.3.2 Predicate•Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.•It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.–The boy is running. (process)–Peter broke the glass. (action)–Jane must be mad! (state)•The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.4.3.3 Object•Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.–Mother bought a doll.–Mother gave my sister a doll.IO DO•In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case （与格）for indirect object.–In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns).–Mother gave a doll to my sister.–John kicked me.•Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.–John broke the glass. The glass was broken by John.–Peter saw Jane. Jane was seen by Peter.•Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.–He died last week.–The match lasted three hours.–He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)4.4. Category•The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:–Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability–Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 Number•Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.–In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.–Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.•In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.–le cheval royal (the royal horse)–les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)4.4.2 Gender•Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis ofword classes.–Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seemquite arbitrary in many cases.–For instance, in Latin, ignis‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine. •English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they aremainly of the natural gender type.–he: she: it–prince: princess–author: authoress•In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.–beau cadeau (fine gift)–belle maison (fine house)–Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)–La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)•Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:–le poele (the stove)–la poele (the frying pan)–le pendule (the pendulum)–la pendule (the clock)4.4.3 Case•The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.–In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.–There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.•In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:–inflection–following a preposition–word order•as manifested in–teacher : teacher’s–with : to a man–John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John4.4.4 Agreement•Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).•This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric （照应）, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent, –Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.•or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:–Each person may have one coin.•Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:–This man runs. The bird flies.–These men run. These birds fly.SentenceClausePhraseWord•the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)•has been doing(verbal phrase)•extremely difficult(adjectival phrase)•to the door (prepositional phrase)•very fast(adverbial phrase)•The best thing would be to leave early.•It’s great for a man to be free.•Having finished their task, they came to help us.•John being away, Bill had to do the work.•Filled with shame, he left the house.•All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.•It’s no use crying over spilt milk.•Do you mind my opening the window?Sentence: (traditional approach)simpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundSentence: (functional approach)Yes/noInterrogativeIndicative wh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptativeBasic sentence types: (Bolinger)•Mother fell.(Nominal + intransitive verbal)•Mother is young.(Nominal + copula + complement)•Mother loves Dad.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).•Mother fed Dad breakfast.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)•There is time.(There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: (Quirk)•SVC Mary is kind.a nurse.•SVA Mary is here.in the house.•SV The child is laughing.•SVO Somebody caught the ball.•SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.•SVOA I put the plate on the table.•SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6 Recursiveness•Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.–All these are means to extend sentences.–How long can a sentence be?•Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.•The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses.–I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …•John’s sister•John’s sister’s husband•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.•that house in Beijing•the garden of that house in Beijing•the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing•a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing4.6.1 Conjoining 连接•Conjoining: coordination.•Conjunctions: and, but, and or.–John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.–Give me liberty or give me death.4.6.2 Embedding嵌入•Embedding: subordination.•Main clauses and subordinate clauses.•Three basic types of subordinate clauses:–Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.–Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.–Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.4.7. Beyond the sentence(Text and discourse)•The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond thetraditional sentence boundary.•Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.4.7.1 Sentential Connection•Hypotactic 主次(subordinate clauses):–You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.–We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.•Paratactic 并联(coordinate clauses):–In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.–He dictated the letter. She wrote it.–The door was open. He walked in.4.7.2 Cohesion衔接•Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.•Discoursal / textual Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:–Conjunction 连接–Ellipsis 省略–lexical collocation 词汇搭配–lexical repetition 词汇重复–Reference 指称–Substitution 替代, etc.•“Did she get there at six?”“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)•“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. 1 can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)•He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.(Reference)•“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)•I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late.(Logical connection)。
树状图
Infl P(S)NP Infl VPV NP PPDet AP N None pstDet N P NPAAP NAA crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme cautionInfl P (s)NP Infl VPDet AP N V PPP NPADet AP NAA huge moon hung in the black skyInfl P（S）NP infl VPDet N pst V NP Adv AdvDet NThe man examined his car carefully yesterdayInfl P (S)NP Infl VPDet AP N PP V PPP NP P NPDet N Det N A wooden hut neat the lake collapsed in the stormInflP(=S)NP ＶＰAux V NPNDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsInflP(=S)NP ＶＰAux V NPNDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsInflP(=S)NP VPVP CON VPVP NP V Adv V P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outInflP(=S)NP Infl VPpstVP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outInflP(=S)NP VPVP CON VPNVP NP VP NP V A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics InflP(=S)InflNP VPnonpstVP CON VPNVP NP VP NP V A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsSNP VPN V CPC SNP VPNV NPN You know that I hate watSNP Infl VPN Nonpst V CPC SNP VPNV NPN You know that I hate watNP VPN VP NPNP CPV C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A NGerry believe the fact that Anna flunked the English examSNP VPN V A CPC SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det N Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-RoyceNP VPDet N VP CPV P C SNP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wingsCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPV NPN NThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPV NPN N NThe was too longDeep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPDet N CPC SNP Infl VPN V NPNHebert bought a house she loved thatSurface structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPDet N CPC SNP NP Infl VPN N V NPNHebert bought a houseDeep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP VPNPN V NThe girl he adores whom majors in linguisticsSurface structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPC Infl S P NPNP NP VPNPN N V NThe girl whom he adores e majors in linguisticsDeep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V AdvPAdvYou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SInfl NP VPN Infl V AdvPAdvcome tomorrowDeep structureCPC SNP VPInfl V NP PPNN P NPDet NHelen did bring what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SN InflNP VPInfl V NP PPNN P NPDet Nbring e to the party。
哇，好大一棵树！——如何优雅地画句法树形图丨语言学午餐
哇，好⼤⼀棵树！——如何优雅地画句法树形图⼁语⾔学午餐相信很多语⾔学、⾮语⾔学学⽣，在看到句法学的书上、论⽂上、试卷上出现这样的东西——你想的第⼀个问题可能是——这XX是什么？当你知道这是句法树形图之后，你想的第⼆个问题可能是：教科书上那些树是怎么画出来的⼩编今天就给⼤家简单讲解⼀下该如何使⽤软件来 “画树”，是不是很兴奋？！当然如果你是 LaTex ⾼级玩家，这篇⽂章不适合你，建议你去写⼀篇详细攻略来造福⼴⼤⼈民群众..……⼩编想介绍三种画树⽅法，分别可以推荐给⼊（电）门（脑）玩（苦）家（⼿）、中等玩家、⾼（强）端（迫）的（症）玩（患）家（者）三类童鞋。
本篇就先介绍前两种，下⼀次会介绍如何使⽤ LaTex 来画树。
⼊门玩家篇：在线软件 phpSyntaxTree其实⽬前⽹络上有⾮常多的在线⽹站可以⽣成语⾔学树，⼩编在这⾥就介绍⼀款简单实⽤的软件：phpSyntaxTree。
这款软件直接在⽹站上就可以使⽤，不需要下载，是由⼀个⼩型软件公司ironcreek开发的，完全免费。
具体使⽤⽅法也很简单，就是⽤中括号 [ ] 来绘制所有的节点，举⼀个例⼦：[S [NP phpSyntaxTree][VP [V creates][NP nice syntax trees]]]给句法学菜鸟的贴⼼提⽰：S、NP、VP、V 等等都是⾔学结构名称，分别是句⼦、名词短语、动词短语和动词。
跟在这些属性分类词汇后⾯的则是具体的语⾔成分，这个例⼦⽣成的树是这样的：“phpSyntaxTree这个软件可以画出漂亮的句法树”可以看到，在最外括号的S是树的根（root），⽽S括号内的 NP VP 两个括号成分，则是 S 的⼦节。
或许你已经注意到，这个软件还⾃动⽀持“三⾓形”的简略画法，如果在⼀个 [ ] 是以P开头的类型词，且该 [ ] 没有其他中括号且有复数的语⾔成分存在，那么就会⾃动⽣成⼀个“三⾓形”来进⾏简略结构，这⾥按照标杆理论的画法，省略了 -N’-N 的部分。
树形图
这些是为了方便画的。
至于是放在IP 还是CP下要看句子复杂程度。
另外,X’的使用在一个树形图中尽量一致。
1. The dog that he keeps bites.IPNP ’Det N’I VPN CP V’C’C IP VThe dog that he keeps bites2. He is right across the road.IPNP VPV APA PPHe is right across the roadIPNP VPV PPDeg p’PHe is right across the road .3. The tired teacher may work slowly.你考虑下看对不？我记得是这么画呢、ADV The tired teacher may work alowlyADVslowly4. John said Peter sang the aria from La Boheme.IPNP VPN V CPC IPNP VPV NPDet N’N PP John said Peter sang the aria from La Boheme.IPNP VPN V CPC IPNP VPV NP PPJohn said Peter sang the aria from La Boheme. 5. The boy the man the woman loved saw ran away这个题是说如果有歧义的话是画两个，但是没有的话就画一个。
我只看出一个来。
IPNP VP Det N’N CPC IPNP VPDet N’N CPCThe boy the man the woman loved saw run away.。