A Generalization of Paillier’s Public-Key System with Applications to Electronic Voting

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新世纪社会医学英语翻译

Unit2 AAmerica is experiencing a major epidemictoday.现今美国正在经历一场重要的流行病。

Unlike epidemics of the past, it is not a disease transmitted by bacteria or viruses.不同于过去的流行病，它不是由细菌或病毒传染的疾病。

This epidemic is an increase in diseases and problems related to stress, and it touches all of our lives.这个流行病的增加是与压力有关的疾病和问题引起的，它涉及我们生活的方方面面。

In 1900 t he average life expectancy in this country was 47, and the major killer diseases included tuberculosis pneumonia,influenza, cholera, typhoid, and smallpox ——infectious diseases which struck people of all ages, regardless of their lifestyle.1900年，这个国家的平均预期寿命为47岁，其主要致命疾病包括肺结核肺炎，流行性感冒，霍乱，伤寒，天花-这些传染性疾病袭击了所有年龄层的人，不管他们的生活方式怎样。

Today,on the other hand,life expectancyhas been extended to 74, thanks in large part to the conquest of the acute infectious disease through improved sanitation, better distribution and storage of foods, and the introduction of immunization and antibiotics.如今，在另一方面，预期寿命已延长至74岁，这在很大程度上是由于对于急性传染病的征服，通过改善卫生条件，更好地分配和储存食物，以及引进免疫方法和抗生素。

A generalisation, a simplification and some applications of paillier’s probabilistic publi

A Generalisation,a Simpliﬁcation and someApplications of Paillier’s ProbabilisticPublic-Key SystemIvan Damg˚ard and Mads JurikUniversity of Aarhus,BRICS⋆Abstract.We propose a generalisation of Paillier’s probabilistic publickey system,in which the expansion factor is reduced and which allowsto adjust the block length of the scheme even after the public key hasbeenﬁxed,without loosing the homomorphic property.We show thatthe generalisation is as secure as Paillier’s original system.We construct a threshold variant of the generalised scheme as well aszero-knowledge protocols to show that a given ciphertext encrypts oneof a set of given plaintexts,and protocols to verify multiplicative relationson plaintexts.We then show how these building blocks can be used for applying thescheme to eﬃcient electronic voting.This reduces dramatically the workneeded to compute theﬁnal result of an election,compared to the previ-ously best known schemes.We show how the basic scheme for a yes/novote can be easily adapted to casting a vote for up to t out of L can-didates.The same basic building blocks can also be adapted to pro-vide receipt-free elections,under appropriate physical assumptions.Thescheme for1out of L elections can be optimised such that for a certainrange of parameter values,a ballot has size only O(log L)bits.1IntroductionIn[9],Paillier proposes a new probabilistic encryption scheme based on compu-tations in the group Z∗n2,where n is an RSA modulus.This scheme has somevery attractive properties,in that it is homomorphic,allows encryption of many bits in one operation with a constant expansion factor,and allows eﬃcient de-cryption.In this paper we propose a generalisation of Paillier’s scheme using computations modulo n s+1,for any s≥1.We also show that the system can be simpliﬁed(without degrading security)such that the public key can consist of only the modulus n.This allows instantiating the system such that the block length for the encryption can be chosen freely for each encryption,independently of the size of the public key,and without loosing the homomorphic property.The generalisation also allows reducing the expansion factor from2for Paillier’s orig-inal system to almost1.We prove that the generalisation is as secure as Paillier’s original scheme.We propose a threshold variant of the generalised system,allowing a number of servers to share knowledge of the secret key,such that any large enough subset of them can decrypt a ciphertext,while smaller subsets have no useful information.We prove in the random oracle model that the scheme is as secure as a standard centralised implementation.We also propose a zero-knowledge proof of knowledge allowing a prover to show that a given ciphertext encodes a given plaintext.From this we derive other tools,such as a protocol showing that a ciphertext encodes one out of a number of given plaintexts.Finally,we propose a protocol that allows veriﬁca-tion of multiplicative relations among encrypted values without revealing extra information.We look at applications of this to electronic voting schemes.A large number of such schemes is known,but the most eﬃcient one,at least in terms of the work needed from voters,is by Cramer,Gennaro and Schoenmakers[4].This protocol provides in fact a general framework that allows usage of any proba-bilistic encryption scheme for encryption of votes,if the encryption scheme has a set of”nice”properties,in particular it must be homomorphic.The basic idea of this is straightforward:each voter broadcasts an encryption of his vote(by sending it to a bulletin board)together with a proof that the vote is valid.All the valid votes are then combined to produce an encryption of the result,using the homomorphic property of the encryption scheme.Finally,a set of trustees (who share the secret key of the scheme in a threshold fashion)can decrypt and publish the result.Paillier pointed out already in[9]that since his encryption scheme is homo-morphic,it may be applicable to electronic voting.In order to apply it in the framework of[4],however,some important building blocks are missing:one needs an eﬃcient proof of validity of a vote,and also an eﬃcient threshold variant of the scheme,so that the result can be decrypted without allowing a single entity the possibility of learning how single voters voted.These building blocks are precisely what we provide here.Thus we immedi-ately get a voting protocol.In this protocol,the work needed from the voters is of the same order as in the original version of[4].However,the work needed to produce the result is reduced dramatically,as we now explain.With the El Gamal encryption used in[4],the decryption process after a yes/no election pro-duces g R mod p,where p is prime,g is a generator and R is the desired result. Thus one needs to solve a discrete log problem in order toﬁnd the result.Since R is bounded by the number of voters M,this is feasible for moderate size M’s.√But it requiresΩ(M L−1),and so is prohibitively expensive for elections with large L.In the scheme we propose below,this work can be removed completely.Our decryption process produces the desired result directly.We also give ways to implement eﬃciently constraints on voting that occur in real elections,such asallowing to vote for precisely t out of the L candidates,or to vote for up to t of them.In each of these schemes,the size of a single ballot is O(k·L),where k is the bit length of the modulus used1.We propose a variant using a diﬀerent technique where ballots have size O(max(k,L log M)·log L).Thus for k≥L log M,this is much more eﬃcient,and even optimal up to a constant factor,since with less than log L bits one cannot distinguish between the L candidates.Furthermore this scheme requires only1decryption operation,even when L>2.2Related WorkIn work independent from,but earlier than ours,Fouque,Poupard and Stern [6]proposed theﬁrst threshold version of Paillier’s original scheme.Like our threshold scheme,[6]uses an adaptation of Shoup’s threshold RSA scheme[10], but beyond this the techniques are somewhat diﬀerent,in particular because we construct a threshold version for our generalised crypto system(and not only Paillier’s original scheme).In[6]voting was also pointed out as a potential application,however,no suggestion was made there for protocols to prove that an encrypted vote is correctly formed,something that is of course necessary for a secure election in practice.In work done concurrently with and independent from ours,Baudron,Fou-que,Pointcheval,Poupard and Stern[1]propose a voting scheme somewhat similar to ours.Their work can be seen as being complementary to ours in the sense that their proposal is more oriented towards the system architectural aspects of a large scale election,and less towards optimisation of the building blocks.To compare to their scheme,weﬁrst note that there the modulus length k must be chosen such that k>L log M.The scheme produces ballots of size O(k·L).An estimate with explicit constants is given in[1]in which the dominating term in our notation is9kL.Because our voting scheme uses the generalised Paillier crypto system,k can be chosen freely,and the voting scheme can still accommodate any values of L,M.If we choose k as in[1],i.e.k>L log M,then the ballots we produce have size O(k·log L).Working out the concrete constants involved,oneﬁnds that our complexity is dominated by the term11k log L.So for large scale elections we have gained a signiﬁcant factor in complexity compared to[1].In[8],Hirt and Sako propose a general method for building receipt-free elec-tion schemes,i.e.protocols where vote-buying or-coercing is not possible because voters cannot prove to others how they voted.Their method can be applied to make a receipt-free version of the scheme from[4].It can also be applied to our scheme,with the same eﬃciency gain as in the non-receipt free case.3A Generalisation of Paillier’s Probabilistic Encryption SchemeThe public-key crypto-system we describe here uses computations modulo n s+1 where n is an RSA modulus and s is a natural number.It contains Paillier’s scheme[9]as a special case by setting s=1.We start from the observation that if n=pq,p,q odd primes,then Z∗n s+1 as a multiplicative group is a direct product G×H,where G is cyclic of order n s and H is isomorphic to Z∗n,which follows directly from elementary numbertheory.Thus,the factor group¯G=Z∗n s+1/H is also cyclic of order n s.For anarbitrary element a∈Z∗n s+1,we let¯a=aH denote the element represented bya in the factor group¯G.Lemma1.For any s<p,q,the element n+1has order n s in Z∗n s+1. Proof.Consider the integer(1+n)i= i j=0 i j n j.This number is1modulo n s+1for some i if and only if i j=1 i j n j−1is0modulo n s.Clearly,this is the case if i=n s,so it follows that the order of1+n is a divisor in n s,i.e.,itis a number of form pαqβ,whereα,β≤s.Set a=pαqβ,and consider a term a j n j−1in the sum a j=1 a j n j−1.We claim that each such term is divisible by a:this is trivial if j>s,and for j≤s,it follows because j!can then not have p or q as prime factors,and so a must divide a j .Now assume for contradiction that a=pαqβ<n s.Without loss of generality,we can assume that this means α<s.We know that n s divides a j=1 a j n j−1.Dividing both numbers by a, we see that p must divide the number a j=1 a j n j−1/a.However,theﬁrst term in this sum after division by a is1,and all the rest are divisible by p,so the number is in fact1modulo p,and we have a contradiction.Since the order of H is relatively prime to n s this implies immediately that the elementthe following induction step:In the j’th step we know i j−1.This means that i j=i j−1+k∗n j−1for some0≤k<n.If we use this inL((1+n)i mod n j+1)=(i j+ i j2 n+...+ i j j n j−1)mod n j We can notice that each term i j t+1 n t for j>t>0satisﬁes that i j t+1 n t= i j−1t+1 n t mod n j.This is because the contributions from k∗n j−1vanish modulo n j after multiplication by n.This means that we get:L((1+n)i mod n j+1)=(i j−1+k∗n j−1+ i j−12 n+...+i j−1j n j−1)mod n jThen we just rewrite that to get what we wantedi j=i j−1+k∗n j−1=i j−1+L((1+n)i mod n j+1)−(i j−1+ i j−12 n+...+ i j−1j n j−1)mod n j=L((1+n)i mod n j+1)−( i j−12 n+...+ i j−1j n j−1)mod n j This equation leads to the following algorithm:i:=0;for s dot1:=L(a mod n j+1);t2:=i;for j doi:=i−1;t2:=t2∗i mod n j;t1:=t1−t2∗n k−1i:=t1;endKey Generation On input the security parameter k,choose an RSA modulusn=pq of length k bits2.Also choose an element g∈Z∗n s+1such thatg=(1+n)j x mod n s+1for a known j relatively prime to n and x∈H.This can be done,e.g.,by choosing j,x at randomﬁrst and computing g;some alternatives are described later.Letλbe the least common multiple of p−1and q−1.By the Chinese Remainder Theorem,choose d such thatd mod n∈Z∗n and d=0modλ.Any such choice of d will work in thefollowing.In Paillier’s original scheme d=λwas used,which is the smallest possible value.However,when making a threshold variant,other choices are better-we expand on this in the following section.Now the public key is n,g while the secret key is d.encryption The plaintext set is Z n s.Given a plaintext i,choose a randomr∈Z∗n s+1,and let the ciphertext be E(i,r)=g i r n s mod n s+1.decryption Given a ciphertext c,ﬁrst compute c d mod n s+1.Clearly,if c= E(v,r),we getc d=(g i r n s)d=((1+n)ji x i r n s)d=(1+n)jid mod n s(x i r n s)d modλ=(1+n)jid mod n sNow apply the above algorithm to compute jid mod n s.Applying the same method with c replaced by g clearly produces the value jd mod n s,so this can either be computed on theﬂy or be saved as part of the secret key.In any case we obtain the cleartext by(jid)·(jd)−1=i mod n s.Clearly,this system is additively homomorphic over Z n s,that is,the product of encryptions of messages i,i′is an encryption of i+i′mod n s.The security of the system is based on the following assumption,introduced by Paillier in[9]the decisional composite residuosity assumption(DCRA): Conjecture1.Let A be any probabilistic polynomial time algorithm,and assume A gets n,x as input.Here n has k bits,and is chosen as described above,and xis either random in Z∗n2or it is a random n’th power in Z∗n2(that is,a randomelement in the subgroup H deﬁned earlier).A outputs a bit b.Let p0(A,k)bethe probability that b=1if x is random in Z∗n2and p1(A,k)the probabilitythat b=1if x is a random n’th power.Then|p0(A,k)−p1(A,k)|is negligible in k.Here,“negligible in k”as usual means smaller than1/f(k)for any polynomial f()and all large enough k.We now discuss the semantic security of CS s.There are several equivalent formulations of semantic security.We will use the following:Deﬁnition1.An adversary A against a public-key cryptosystem gets the pub-lic key pk generated from secuity parameter k as input and outputs a mes-sage m.Then A is given an encryption under pk of either m or a messagechosen uniformly in the message space,and outputs a bit.Let p0(A,k),re-spectively p1(A,k)be the probability that A outputs1when given an encryp-tion of m,respectively a random encryption.Deﬁne the advantage of A to be Adv(A,k)=|p0(A,k)−p1(A,k)|.The cryptosystem is semantically secure if for any probabilistic polynomial time adversary A,Adv(A,k)is negligible in k.In[9],Paillier showed that semantic security of his cryptosystem(which is the same as our CS1)is equivalent to DCRA.This equivalence holds for any choice of g,and follows easily from the fact that given a ciphertext c that iseither random or encrypts a message i,cg−i mod n2is either random in Z∗n2ora random n’th power.In particular one may choose g=n+1always without degrading security.We do this in the following for simplicity,so that a public key consists only of the modulus n.We now show that in fact security of CS s is equivalent to DCRA:Theorem1.For any s,the cryptosystem CS s is semantically secure if and only if the DCRA assumption is true.Proof.From a ciphertext in CS s,one can obtain a ciphertext in CS1by reducing modulo n2,this implicitly reduces the message modulo n.It is therefore clear that if DCRA fails,then CS s cannot be secure for any s.For the converse,we show by induction on s that security of CS s follows from DCRA.For s=1,this is exact.ly Paillier’s result.So take any s>1and assume that CS t for any t<s is secure.The message space of CS s is Z n s.Thus any message m can be written in n-adic notation as an s-tuple(m s,m s−1,...,m1),where each m i∈Z n and m= s−1i=0m i+1n i.Let D n(m s,...,m1)be the distribution obtained by encrypting the message(m s,...,m1)under public key n.If one or more of the m i are replaced by∗’s,this means that the corresponding position in the message is chosen uniformly in Z n before encrypting.Now,assume for contradiction that CS s is insecure,thus there is an adversary A,such that for inﬁnitely many k,Adv(A,k)≥1/f(k)for some polynomial f(). Take such a k.Without loss of generality,assume we have p0(A,k)−p1(A,k)≥1/f(k).Suppose we make a public key n from security parameter k,show it to A, get a message(m s,...,m1)from A and show A a sample of D n(∗,m s−1,...,m1). Let q(A,k)be the probability that A now outputs1.Of course,we must have(∗)p0(A,k)−q(A,k)≥12f(k)for inﬁnitely many k.In theﬁrst case in(∗),we can make a successful adversary against CS1,as follows:we get the public key n,show it to A,get(m s,...,m1),and return m s as output.We will get a ciphertext c that either encrypts m s in CS1,or is a randomciphertext,i.e.,a random element from Z∗n2.If we consider c as an element inZ∗n s+1,we know it is an encryption of some plaintext,which must have either m sor a random element in its least signiﬁcant position.Hence c n s−1mod n s+1is an encryption of(m s,0,...,0)or(∗,0,...,0).We then make a random encryption d of(0,m s−1,...,m1),give c n s−1d mod n s+1to A and return the bit A outputs. Now,if c encrypts m s,we have shown to A a sample of D n(m s,...,m1),and otherwise a sample of D n(∗,m s−1,...,m1).So by assumption on A,this breaks CS1with an advantage of1/2f(k),and so contradicts the induction assumption.In the second case of(∗),we can make an adversary against CS s−1,as fol-lows:we get the public key n,show it to A,and get a message(m s,...,m1).We output(m s−1,...,m1)and get back a ciphertext c that encrypts in CS s−1either (m s−1,...,m1)or something random.If we consider c as a number modulo n s+1, we know that the corresponding plaintext in CS s has either(m s−1,...,m1)or random elements in the least signiﬁcant s−1positions-and something un-known in the top position.We make a random encryption d of(∗,0,...,0),show cd mod n s+1to A and return the bit A outputs.If c encrypted(m s−1,...,m1), we have shown A a sample from D n(∗,m s−1,....,m1),and otherwise a sample from D n(∗,...,∗).So by asumption on A,this breaks CS s−1with an advantage of1/2f(k)and again contradicts the induction assumption.3.1Adjusting the Block lengthTo facilitate comparison with Paillier’s original system,we have kept the above system description as close as possible to that of Paillier.In particular,the description allows choosing g in a variety of ways.However,as mentioned,we may choose g=n+1always without loosing security,and the public key may then consist only of the modulus n.This means that we can let the receiver decide on s when he encrypts a message.More concretely,the system will work as follows:Key Generation Choose an RSA modulus n=pq.Now the public key is n while the secret key isλ,the least common multiple of(p−1)and(q−1).encryption Given a plaintext i∈Z n s,choose a random r∈Z∗n s+1,and let theciphertext be E(i,r)=(1+n)i r n s mod n s+1.decryption Given a ciphertext c,ﬁrst compute,by the Chinese Remainder Theorem d,such that d=1mod n s and d=0modλ(note that the length of the ciphertext allows to decide on the right value of s,except with negligible probability).Then compute c d mod n s+1.Clearly,if c=E(i,r),we getc d=((1+n)i r n s)d=(1+n)id mod n s(x i r n s)d modλ=(1+n)i mod n s+1Now apply the above algorithm to compute i mod n s.4Some Building Blocks4.1A Threshold Variant of the SchemeWhat we are after in this section is a way to distribute the secret key to a set of servers,such that any subset of at least t of them can do decryption eﬃciently,while less than t have no useful information.Of course this must be done withoutdegrading the security of the system.In[10],Shoup proposes an eﬃcient threshold variant of RSA signatures.The main part of this is a protocol that allows a set of servers to collectively andeﬃciently raise an input number to a secret exponent modulo an RSA modulus n.A little more precisely:on input a,each server returns a share of the result,together with a proof of correctness.Given suﬃciently many correct shares,thesecan be eﬃciently combined to compute a d mod n,where d is the secret exponent.As we explain below it is quite simple to transplant this method to our case,thus allowing the servers to raise an input number to our secret exponent dmodulo n s+1.So we can solve our problem byﬁrst letting the servers help us compute E(i,r)d mod n s+1.Then if we use g=n+1and choose d such thatd=1mod n s and d=0modλ,the remaining part of the decryption is easy to do without knowledge of d.We warn the reader that this is only secure for the particular choice of d wehave made,for instance,if we had used Paillier’s original choice d=λ,then seeing the value E(i,r)d mod n s+1would allow an adversary to computeλandbreak the system completely.However,in our case,the exponentiation result cansafely be made public,since it contains no trace of the secretλ.A more concrete description:Compared to[10]we still have a secret exponentd,but there is no public exponent e,so we will have to do some things slightly diﬀerently.We will assume that there are l decryption servers,and a minimumof k<n/2of these are needed to make a correct decryption.Key generationKey generation starts out as in[10]:weﬁnd2primes p and q,that satisﬁes p=2p′+1and q=2q′+1,where p′and q′are primes and diﬀerent from p andq.We set n=pq and m=p′q′.We decide on some s>0,thus the plaintext space will be Z n s.We pick d to satisfy d=0mod m and d=1mod n s.Now wemake the polynomial f(X)= k−1i=0a i X i mod n s m,by picking a i(for0<i<k) as random values from{0,···,n s∗m−1}and a0=d.The secret share of the i’th authority will be s i=f(i)for1≤i≤l and the public key will be n.Forveriﬁcation of the actions of the decryption servers,we need the followingﬁxedpublic values:v,generating the cyclic group of squares in Z∗n s+1and for eachdecryption server a veriﬁcation key v i=v∆s i mod n s+1,where∆=l!. EncryptionTo encrypt a message M,a random r∈Z∗n s+1is picked and the cipher text iscomputed as c=g M r n s mod n s+1.Share decryptionThe i’th authority will compute c i=c2∆s i,where c is the ciphertext.Along with this will be a zero-knowledge proof that log c4(c2i)=log v(v i),which will convince us,that he has indeed raised to his secret exponent s i3Share combiningIf we have the required k(or more)number of shares with a correct proof,we can combine them into the result by taking a subset S of k shares and combine them toc′= i∈S c2λS0,i i mod n s+1whereλS0,i=∆ i′∈S\i−i4In fact the random oracle will be needed only to ensure that the non-interactive proofs of correctness of shares will work.Doing these proofs interactively instead would allow us to dispense with the random oracletext,the decryption protocol outputs the correct plaintext,except with negligible probability.Given an oracle that on input a ciphertext returns the correspond-ing plaintext,the adversary’s view of the decryption protocol can be eﬃciently simulated with a statistically indistinguishable distribution.The full proof will be included in theﬁnal version of this paper.Here we only give the basic ideas:correctness of the scheme is immediate assuming that the adversary can contribute bad values for the c i’s with only negligible probability. This,in turn,is ensured by soundness of the zero-knowledge proofs given for each c i.For the simulation,we start from the public key n.Then we can simulate theshares s i1,...,s ik−1of the bad players by choosing them as random numbers inan appropriate interval.Since d isﬁxed by the choice of n,this means that the shares of uncorrupted players and the polynomial f are nowﬁxed as well,but are not easy for the simulator to compute.However,if we choose v as a ciphertext with known plaintext m0,we can also compute what v f(0)would be,namely v f(0)=v d mod n s+1=(1+n)m0mod n s+1.Then by doing Lagrange interpolation”in the exponent”as in[10],we can compute correct values of v i=v∆s i for the uncorrupted players.When we get a ciphertext c as input,we ask the oracle for the plaintext m.This allows us to compute c d=(1+n)m mod n s−1.Again this means we can interpolate and compute the contributions c i from the uncorrupted players.Finally,the zero-knowledge property is invoked to simulate the proofs that these c i are correct.4.2Some Auxiliary ProtocolsSuppose a prover P presents a sceptical veriﬁer V with a ciphertext c and claims that it encodes plaintext i.A trivial way to convince V would be to reveal also the random choice r,then V can verify himself that c=E(i,r).However,for use in the following,we need a solution where no extra useful information is revealed.It is easy to see that that this is equivalent to convincing V that cg−i mod n s+1is an n s’th power.So we now propose a protocol for this which is a simple generalisation of the one from[7].We note that this and the following protocols are not zero-knowledge as they stand,only honest veriﬁer zero-knowledge.How-ever,ﬁrst zero-knowledge protocols for the same problems can be constructed from them using standard methods and secondly,in our applications,we will always be using them in a non-interactive variant based on the Fiat-Shamir heuristic,which means that we cannot obtain zero-knowledge,we can,however, obtain security in the random oracle model.As for soundness,we prove that the protocols satisfy so called special soundness(see[2]),which in particular implies that they satisfy standard knowledge soundness.Protocol for n s’th powersInput:n,uPrivate Input for P:v,such that u=v n s mod n s+11.P chooses r at random mod n s+1and sends a=r n s mod n s+1to V2.V chooses e,a random k bit number,and sends e to P.3.P sends z=rv e mod n s+1to V,and V checks that z n s=au e mod n s+1,and accepts if and only if this is the case.It is now simple to showLemma2.The above protocol is complete,honest veriﬁer zero-knowledge,and satisﬁes that from any pair of accepting conversations(between V and any prover)of form(a,e,z),(a,e′,z′)with e=e′,one can eﬃciently compute an n s’th root of u,provided2t is smaller than the smallest prime factor of n. pleteness is obvious from inspection of the protocol.For honest ver-iﬁer simulation,the simulator chooses a random z∈Z∗n s+1,a random e,setsa=z n s u−e mod n s+1and outputs(a,e,z).This is easily seen to be a perfect simulation.For the last claim,observe that since the conversations are accepting,we have z n s=au e mod n s+1and z′n s=au e′mod n s+1,so we get(z/z′)n s=u e−e′mod n s+1Since e−e′is prime to n by the assumption on2t,chooseα,βsuch thatαn s+β(e−e′)=1.Then let v=uα(z/z′)βmod n s+1.We then getv n s=uαn s(z/z′)n sβ=uαn s uβ(e−e′)=u mod n s+1so that v is indeed the desired n s’th root of uIn our application of this protocol,the modulus n will be chosen by a trusted party,or by a multi-party computation such that n has two prime factors of roughly the same size.Hence,if k is the bit length of n,we can set t=k/2and be assured that a cheating prover can make the veriﬁer accept with probability ≤2−t.The lemma immediately implies,using the techniques from[2],that we can build an eﬃcient proof that an encryption contains one of two given values, without revealing which one it is:given the encryption C and the two candi-date plaintexts i1,i2,prover and veriﬁer compute u1=C/g i1mod n s+1,u2= C/g i2mod n s+1,and the prover shows that either u1or u2is an n s’th power. This can be done using the following protocol,where we assume without loss of generality that the prover knows an n s’th root u1,and where M denotes the honest-veriﬁer simulator for the n s-power protocol above:Protocol1-out-of-2n s’th powerInput:n,u1,u2Private Input for P:v1,such that u1=v n s1mod n s+11.P chooses r1at random mod n s+1.He invokes M on input n,u2to get aconversation a2,e2,z2.He sends a1=r n s1mod n s+1,a2to V2.V chooses s,a random t bit number,and sends s to P.3.P computes e1=s−e2mod2t and z1=r1v e11mod n s+1.He then sendse1,z1,e2,z2to V.4.V checks that s=e1+e2mod2t,z n s1=a1u e11mod n s+1and z n s2=a2u e22mod n s+1,and accepts if and only if this is the case.The proof techniques from[2]and Lemma2immediately implyLemma3.Protocol1-out-of-2n s’th power is complete,honest veriﬁer zero-knowledge,and satisﬁes that from any pair of accepting conversations(between V and any prover)of form(a1,a2,s,e1,z1,e2,z2),(a1,a2,s′,e′1,z′1,e′2,z′2)with s=s′,one can eﬃciently compute an n s’th root of u1,and an n s’th root of u2, provided2t is less than the smallest prime factor of n.Ourﬁnal building block allows a prover to convince a veriﬁer that three encryptions contain values a,b and c such that ab=c mod n s.For this,we propose a protocol inspired by a similar construction found in[3].Protocol Multiplication-mod-n sInput:n,g,e a,e b,e cPrivate Input for P:a,b,c,r a,r b,r c such that ab=c mod n and e a=E(a,r a),e b=E(b,r b),e c=E(c,r c)1.P chooses a random value d∈Z n s and sends to V encryptions e d=E(d,r d),e db=E(db,r db).2.V chooses e,a random t-bit number,and sends it to P.3.P opens the encryption e e a e d=E(ea+d,r e a r d mod n s+1)by sending f=ea+d mod n s and z1=r e a r d mod n s+1.Finally,P opens the encryptione f b (e db e e c)−1=E(0,r fb(r db r e c)−1mod n s+1)by sending z2=r fb(r db r e c)−1modn s+1.4.V veriﬁes that the openings of encryptions in the previous step were correct,and accepts if and only if this was the case.Lemma4.Protocol Multiplication-mod-n s is complete,honest veriﬁer zero-knowledge,and satisﬁes that from any pair of accepting conversations(between V and any prover)of form(e d,e db,e,f,z1,z2),(e d,e db,e′,f′,z′1,z′2)with e=e′, one can eﬃciently compute the plaintext a,b,c corresponding to e a,e b,e c such that ab=c mod n s,provided2t is smaller than the smallest prime factor in n. pleteness is clear by inspection of the protocol.For honest veriﬁer zero-knowledge,observe that the equations checked by V are e e a e d=E(f,z1)mod n s+1and e fb (e db e e c)−1=E(0,z2)mod n s+1.From this it is clear that wecan generate a conversation by choosingﬁrst f,z1,z2,e at random,and then computing e d,e db that will satisfy the equations.This only requires inversion modulo n s+1,and generates the right distribution because the values f,z1,z2,e are also independent and random in the real conversation.For the last claim, noteﬁrst that since encryptions uniquely determine plaintexts,there areﬁxed values a,b,c,d contained in e a,e b,e c,e d,and a value x contained in e db.The。

新世纪博士生综合英语Unit-6-Death-and-Justice课文及译文

Unit 6：Death and JusticeHow Capital Punishment Affirms LifeBy Edward I. Koch死亡与司法死刑如何肯定生命Edward I. Kochst December a man named Robert Lee Willie, who had been convicted of raping and murdering an eighteen-year-old woman, was executed in the Louisiana state prison. In a statement issued several minutes before his death, Mr. Willie said: “Killing people is wrong… It makes no difference whether it’s citizens, countries, or governments. Killing is wrong.” Two weeks later in South Carolina, an admitt ed killer named Joseph Carl Shaw was put to death for murdering two teenagers. In an appeal to the governor for clemency, Mr. Shaw wrote: “Killing was wrong when I did it. Killing was wrong when you do it. I hope you have the courage and moral strength to stop the killing.”去年12月，一个名叫罗伯特.李.威利的罪犯在路易斯安那州的监狱中被处决，罪名是强奸和谋杀一名18岁的女子。

英语国家概况课程教学大纲教案

英语国家概况课程教学大纲教案英语国家概况课程教学大纲教案(2011.4学年第1学期)(一)课程教学目的和要求随着我国对外交往的日益频繁和涉外工作的需要，大学生不仅有必要学好英语语言能力，还应该对英语国家社会与文化基本情况进行大致了解，以便进一步搞好夸文化交流。

该课程主要介绍了英国、美国、加拿大、澳大利亚和新西兰等地的社会与文化基本状况。

(二)课程教学重点和难点1、重点:了解掌握5 个说英语的国家人文、地理、气候特征，政府政治与经济制度，以及文化教育特点。

2、难点:地貌特征产生的原因，各政府政治执政的相同模式和不同点。

(三)教学方法讲解和讨论并用。

(四)课时安排:总课时:36课时，每堂课一个专题。

(五)考核方式 : 期末考试(六)参考教材王恩铭《英语国家概况》上海外语教育出版社 2008谢福之《英语国家概况》外语教学与研究出版社 20071教学日历(语1-4’c )周星时授授课内容课外作业、参考书目书课教材页序名、章节、起教学大纲的章节、题目、形号、题序号止页码内容,章节、起止页码次期数式22 Mon.Wedn.Fri. 2 讲 P2-8 Part One : Geographic features of课 UK3 Mon.Wedn.Fri. 2 讲 P12-41 Part Two: The people and history课 4 Mon.Wedn.Fri. 2 讲 P42-61 Part three: Government and politics课 5 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲 P81-99 Part four: Religion and education 课 6 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲 Part five: Geographic features of 课 P 114-123 USA 7 Mon.Wedn.Fri. 2 讲国庆休假、实习课 8 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲课9 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲课 10 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲P 124-155 Part Six: History and American课 P145- 154 identity11 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲P156-175, Part Seven: Political situation and课 178-187 social service 12 Mon.Wedn. Fri 2 讲P188- 205 Part eight: Legal system, education 课 and Religion in American life 13 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲P 226-238Part Nine : The Land and people of 课Canada 14 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲Part Ten: History and culture life 课 15 Mon.Wedn. Fri 2 讲P239,262,271 Part Eleven: The land and people of课 P284-305 Australia16 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲 Part Twelve: Government, politics, 课 P317-338 culture life 17 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲 Part thirteen: The land and the 课P340 people of New Zealand 18 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲Part fourteen: History and political 课 P349-360system 19 Mon.Wedn.Fri 2 讲Review 课Lecture One Geography of U K Question for discussion:1) Where does Britain lie?2)What is its full name?33)What is the total land area of the United Kingdom?4)What is British Isles?5)How long does its coastline run?1. Geographic features and its total area.:Britain is situated in Western Europe and is separated from the European continent in the east by the North Sea, the Strait of Dover and the English Channel in the south. It is an insular(保守的)country. Its coastline runs 12,429 km, It is one of the countries with longest coastline. To thewest of it lies the Atlantic Ocean, across and beyond it is America. The Straits of Dover between France and England is quite narrow and itis 33 km across. In 1985 the British government and the French government decided to build a channel tunnel under the Straits of Dover so that England and France could be joined together by road. Thischannel tunnel was opened to traffic in May 1994 after eight years hard work.The Britain faces Scandinavia Peninsular (Norway, Sweden and Denmark) to the northeast and to the North lies Iceland To the south across the English Channel lies France and Belgium and to the east across North Sea lie Germany and Holland.The total area is about 244,820 square kilometers.It Is over 1,000 km. from south to north and it is about 500 km.from west to east.2. The names of UKIts full name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, usuallyshortened , abbreviated to the United Kingdom or U.K.. It may also called Great Britain, Britain or informally England.England: 130.000skm, 60% of whole island.British Isles: Two large islands and several small onesBritain:The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.Great Britain :England, Wales, ScotlandBritain is divided into highland area and lowland area.It has large mountain ranges : the Pennies :Bulk of Pennines(奔宁山脉) is moorland.The Cumbrian Mountain Range, the Grampian Mountains , the Cambrian Mountain Range and such important rivers as Thames River ,the Seven River, Mercy River, the Humber, the Clyde River and the Forth.Scotland has an area of 78,760 square kilometers in northern part.It is situated in the north of Great Britain with a good number of mountains and islands. There are 800 islands which contain Hebrides, Shetland and Orkney islands. Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland.Wales: Wales is in the west of Great Britain. It has an area of20,761 square kilometers and it take up less than 9% of the whole island. The capital of Wales is Cardiff. Most of Wales is mountainous. The hills rise steeply from the sea and rather flat on top. 6% of Wales is covered with forest and much of the country is pastureland for sheep and cattle. Wales on the WesternProminence. 20.700skm, 9% of the whole island.Wales was united to England in 14th centuryNorthern Ireland takes up the northern fifth of Ireland. It has an area of 14,147 square kilometers. It is made up of six counties that consist of fertile, drumlin [`dr?mlin] (鼓丘) countrysurrounding Lough Neagh. Belfast is the capital of Northern Ireland. Mountains in the north4and south, separated by the fertile basin of Lough Neagh, mainly agricultural, industrial center: two ports– Belfast and Londonderry.3. Climate and Weather ------A maritime type of climate:1) moderated by the Atlantic Gulf Stream, milder than places in the same latitude. 2) equable: winters are mild, temperature exceed 4c inthe west, lower in the east. July about 18c. 13c in the northern Scotland.3) changeable day-t-day conditions.4) Rainfall throughout the year. No marked dry season.In Britain the weather is rainy, changeable and unpredictable. In fact it has a favorable maritime climate. It rarely rises above 32? in summer or falls below –10? in winter. Wintersare mild, not too cold and summers are cool, not too hot.― Can I compare thee to the summer‘s day ?‖Rainfall: Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,ooo mm.It is rainy and so changeable and unpredictable. One can experience four seasons in the course of a single day. Britain is famous for its fogs. The smoke-fogs of the big town, which used to develop in winter time whenever there was not enough wind to blow the smoke away, were horrible, unhealthy and dangerous to movement4. Rivers and lakes and natural resourcesThere are many lakes and rivers in England: but not very large.1) the longest river: Severn River, 355km2) Thames River, 338km, in Oxford3) Clyde River in Scotland4) lakes lies in Northern Scotland & the Cambria Mountains and North Wales England is rich in coal, iron, tin, copper, oil and gasThere are no large land-based oilfields except in North Sea. (also gas)5. Exercise:Tell if the following are true or false1) The island of great Britain is geographically divided into three parts: England , Scotland and Wales. ( + )2) People in different parts of Britain like to use the name Englandto refer to their country. ( - )3) Today more than half of people in Wales still speak the ancient Welsh language.( - ) 4) In terms of population and area, NorthernIreland is the second largest part of the United Kingdom. ( - )5) The longest river of Britain originates in Wales. ( + )6) Because of political troubles, Northern Ireland has been quite significant among the four constituent parts of the United Kingdom. ( + )7) Though the climate in Britain is generally mild, the temperaturein Northern Scotland often falls below -10‘c in January. ( - )8) The two main islands of the British Isles are Great Britain and Ireland. ( + )59) Cardiff is the capital city of Scotland. ( - )10) According to a 2005 census, Britain now has a population of 60 million. ( + ) 11) Among the four parts of United Kingdom, Wales is the smallest. ( - ) 12) English belong to the Germanic group of Indo-European family of language. ( + ) 13) Almost a quarter of the Britishpopulation lives in northwestern England. ( - ) 14) The introduction of Christianity to Britain added the first element of Latin and Greek words to English. ( + )15) The evolution of Middle English was reinforced by the Norman influence. ( + )Lecture Two The People(1)Question for discussion:1) What are the Celtic languages? Are they still alive?2) How has English language evolved in history? Is it important tothe UK‘s class structure?3) What are the minor languages spoken in the UK,Overview: Population: 56,500,000English 80%; Welsh 5%; Scots 10%; Irish 4%.1. The English: Anglo-Saxon in origin, Germanic tribes conquered in the 5th, 6th AD. Norman French, Under William of Normandy in 1066. Welsh, Scot, Irish: Celts from north-western Europe, invaded Britain between700BC and 200BC.1.1 The characteristics of English people: reserved, unemotional, courteous; shy of strangers; suspicious of change and slow to accept new ideals; solid and dependable with a high sense of honesty, duty and justice; physically and morally courageous; conscious of his place inthe social order, disliking any show of emotion and lack of control.2. The Welsh is composed of two groups of people:1) sheep farmers in the mountainous regions of the centre and north;2) industrial workers in the south2.1 Characteristics of Welsh people: musical, emotional, cheerful, proud of their past, and welcoming to friends but suspicious of foreigners. They lived hard-working lives of the Welsh The culturalpride in Wales is very strong, famous for their love of music and poetry. Welsh is an ancient Celtic language, more different from English than English is from French or German.3. Characteristics of the Scots: inventive, hard-working, serious-minded and cautious withmoneyA) Highlanders live by farming sheep and fishing, being proud, independent, hardy B) Lowlanders live in industrialized urban areas.2) Great empire builders, fierce soldiers . ―Devils in skirts‖ or―ladies from hell‖ are nicknames ofScottish soldiers for their bravery.3) Distinctive national dress: kilt, pleated skirts( 百折裙)4.Characteristics of Irish: introspective(好反省的) dreamers and poets, argumentative and6aggressive.1) IRA: the Irish Republican Army on the Catholic side. 2) Ulster Unionists, (Loyalists) on the Protestant side.5 . Immigrants:1) escape political or religious persecution2) seek a better life3) A) from old dominions of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South AfricaB) Eastern European refugeesC) West Indies, India & PakistanD) Chinese, Greek, Turkish Cypriots, Italian, Spaniards Emigration from Britain to Canada and Australia, USA (doctors, scientists) ---- “brain drain‖6. The Origins of a Nation6.1. early settlement (---55BC)A) the first immigrants: Iberians from Spain & Portugal about 5000 years ago.their relics: Stonehenge 石林(stone monuments) on Salisbury Plain in southwest of England.B) 3 waves: Celts from north-west Europe after 700 BC., 500 BC, and 100 BC — tall, red hair and blue eyes.C) Celtic conquerors blended with Iberian6.2. Roman Britain (55BC –410)1) Julius Caesar came to Britain in 55BC.2) Roman occupation lasted about 400 years.6.3 Impacts on its culture1) brought Christianity to England2) built roads all across Britain3) towns grew up along the Roman roads4) English upper classes became completely Romanized, Roman landowners and officials.5) Social systems: laws, taxes6) Roman language---Latin7) system of writing & numbering8) written description of the land, peoples9) engineering skills, architecture7. Anglo-Saxon times (446-871)Three Germanic tribes invaded England: Angles, Saxons and Jutes. The name England is namedafter Angles.7.1. Danish InvasionAt the turn of 8th century, Danes, or Vikings, invaded England from Norway & Denmark.8. NormansThe Norman Conquest in 1066.78.1 Consequences: William of Normandy and his French-speaking followers set up a strong central government which brought a new unified discipline and control to England. 8.2. French became the official language.8.3. established a feudal system.8.4. Contacts between England & France increased.Exercises:1. Decide whether the following are true or false:1) The British history before 55BC is basically un documented. (+)2) The name of Britain came from a Celtic tribe ---the Britons. (+)th3) The Anglo-Saxons came to Britain in the mid 5 century. (+) th4) The Vikings began to attack the English coast in the 8 century.(+).2. Choose the best answer:1) The ____ attack on Roman ended the Roman occupation in Britain in 410.A. NormanB. DanishC. CelticD. Germanic (d)th2) By the late 7 century, _____ Christianity became the dominant religion in England.A. CelticB. Anglo-SaxonC. GermanicD. Roman (d)Part I Politics Feudal EnglandRecorded history in Britain began in the year 55BC, when Julius Caesar and his Roman troopsththinvaded the island. Between the 8 and 5 centuries BC, the Celts inhabited the island and becamethe dominant residents. The name Britain came from the Britons, a Celtic tribe. In 43AD, Britainthsubsequently became a Roman province and it remains so until the beginning of the 5 century.Many of the native Celtic were driven to the mountainous region of Scotland and Wales, which remain unconquered by the Romans. The Roanswere excellent builders and they constructed towns and cities which prospered far longer than any previous settlements on the island. In 410, Germanic barbarians attacked Roman, forcing all Roman troops to leave Britain, which ended the Roman occupation of the island. These warriors included the Angles, the Saxons and Hutes. From that time on, English, the language of the Angles, replaced the old Celtic language as the dominant language of the land. As the Anglo-Saxon were not Roman Christian, St. Augustine was sent to Britain to convert the Anglo Saxon people in 587 with 40 missionaries. They converted many Anglo-Saxons to Roman Christians. Augustine founded a church and a monastery in Canterburythand became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in 601. By the late7 century Roman Christianitythbecame the dominant religion in Britain. In the 8 century the Vikings from the Scandinaviancountries of Northern Europe to attack the English coast. The seven Anglo-Saxons= kingdom in England gradually united under Alfred the Great. In 1042, Edward the Confessor,, as a piousChristian, built Westminster Abbey, which exists today. On September 28, 1066, William crossed the channel with a formidable army. His army defeated the English army King Harold (brother in law of Edward) at the battle of Hastings. and began the Norman Conquest of England, which marked the establishment of feudalism in England.By the year 1154, Henry II, William‘s great grandso n, ascended the throne and thus began therule of the House of Anjou(also known as (the House of Plantagenet). Henry II is best remembered for his reform of the courts and the laws, He improved the courts of justice,8introduced the jury system and institutionalized common law. After Richard I, son of Henry II, was killed in France, his brother John ascended the throne in 1199. He was defeated in a war in France and lost Normandy in 1204. Dissatisfied with John‘s leadership, the lords forced him tosign the Magna Carta(大宪法), which is regarded as the foundation of the Britishconstitutionalism and it provides the basic principles for the protection of individual rights. P15 The Hundred Years War (1337-1453) was a series of wars between England and France over trade, territory, security and the throne. This war had significant impact on the English society. It promoted the English concept of nationalism and promoted the development of the textile industry.The War of the Roses was a series of Civil War between two great noble families: the House of York, whose badge was a white rose, and the House of Lancaster, whose badge was a red rose. Both houses battled for power, wealth and ultimately the throne. in the end , the House of Lancaster won and their leader Henry Tudor became King Henry VII andstarted the rule of the House of Tudor, an efficient centralized government.1. Under William’s rule, the Normans changed England to a feudal state under an absolute kingship.2. King Arthur: in 6th, the central figure of many legends about him and his Knights of round Table.3. the Magna Carta– Great Charter, a document signed in 1215 byKing John, to recognize the rights of barons.4. Hundred Years’ War: between England & France from 1337 to 1453in France. French drove English partly through the inspiration of Joan of Arc (a French saint & national heroine), partly through the effective use of guns.5. Wars of the Roses: struggle for the throne of England (1455-1485)between . The houses of Lancaster, whose badge was a red rose, and York, a white rose. Impacts: the war weakened both nobility and the monarch.6. The Black Death: a deadly bubonic plague(淋巴腺鼠疫), struck Europe in middle of 14th,reached England in 1348. ? of the population died.7. Religious Revolution1) the Catholic Church:A) headed by the Pope;B) members accept the gospel of Christ and the teachings of the Bible.C) Any revolt against the traditional Christian faith was “heresy”.D) in the Middle Ages, Pope was powerful2) Protestant Church:A) whose faith and practice originated with the principles of the Reformation. B) Pope’s political power and religious authority declinedin 16th, Protestant churches sprang up in Northern Europe, and in the Elizabethan age, became gradually the do minant faith. 3) Henry VIII’s divorce question, married his brother’s widow, a Spanish princess, who gave adaughter, Mary, not a son.4) Bloody Mary: a devout Catholic, burnt so many protestants; succeeded by Elizabeth I. 5) Elizabethan age: literary achievement, Shakespeare, an age of adventure on the sea.There was an inevitable conflict between the Roman Catholic Churchand the King of9England who had established absolute monarchy. At that time , theonly person who could grant a divorce was the Pope. So Henry VII started the Reformation movement by declaring a break with Rome. He carried outa wholesale suppression of the monasteries and declared himself to bethe ―only supreme head of the church( in his Act of Supremacy in 1534). The Reformation was in essence a political movement in a religious guise.Part II The English Civil War1. a bitter power struggle (1642-1648) between the monarchy and Parliament.2. the victory of the Parliament led to the execution of Charles I in 1649, and the temporary overthrow of the monarchy.3. a republic founded by Oliver Cromwell for more than ten years.4. King Charles I: divine rights to govern,Ruled without parliament, levied taxes without parliament’s approval.5. Cromwell: Roundhead leader, defeated the King Charles I.The Glorious Revolution1. in 1688, Catholic king James II fled to France.2. the throne was offered to his Protestant daughter and her husband Dutch king William.3. the Bill of Rights was passed by Parliament to restrict the power of the Monarchy.4. beginning of the Constitutional Monarchy in Britain.5. Since then every English monarch rules by permission of Parliament.6. the theories of divine or hereditary right to the throne were ended.7. Bloodless Revolution7.Background:7.1. The 18th century saw ascendancy of the middle class in the life of the nation, with the development of commerce & industry.7.2. Glorious Revolution established the authority of middle class over the crown. 7.3. The union of Scotland and England into the nation of Great Britain --- the Act of Union of 1707.7.4. The Seven Years’ War (1756-63) in North America (French and India War) --- which left Britain predominant in North America and in India, Britain became the world’s leading colonialpower.7.5. In the 2nd half of the 18th century, the great economic and social changes were taking place in Britain --- agricultural and home-based trades and industries gradually gave way to factory-based industries with complex machinery.7.6. England was a great trade nation, with much private capital ready for investment. Not only was trade free to move throughout the British Isles, but also there was freedom of movement between the social classes. Middle class values encouraged self-reliance and enterprising initiative.7.8. Political leaders were interested in commerce. The growing population provided a market. Farmers‘ improved methods of cultivation freed much labor, which became available for employment in the town factories, and also increased food supplies for towns. 7.9 18th century was a time of peace and stability. Foreign plunder, the newly acquired wealth10after 7 years’war. Industrial Revolution first began in the textile industry, which was accelerated by important mechanical inventions ---- flying shuttle, spinning jenny, especially the steam-engine by James Watt in 1769.Results1. Factories came into being because they brought about more profits to the owners.2. New cities sprang up, population was concentrated in towns and cities.3. The power of influence of industrial capitalists grew greater.4. It gave birth a new social-economic class – proletariat who were exploited cruelly.5. It brought many economic advantages to Britain and made Britain rich and powerful. Chartist MovementThe Chartist Movement (1836-48): the industrial and commercial classes, with the support of the working classes, demanded to reform the old voting system.Exercise:Tell whether the following are true or false:1) The Magna Carts was designed to protect the rights of both the privileged class and thetownpeople. (-)2) The Hundred Years‘ War was a series of wars fought between England and Normans for tradeand territory. (-)3) Westminster Abbey was built at the time of Edward the Confessor. (+)4) The Norman Conquest marked the establishment of feudalism in England. (+) 5) The end of the Wars of Roses led to the rule of the House of Tudor (+)6) The direct cause for the Religious Reformation was King HenryVIII‘s efforts to divorce hiswife. (+)Lecture Three Government System P31A nation of Constitutional Monarchy1. The Monarch respects the Constitution.2. In law, the monarch is head of the executive, an integral part of the legislature; head of the judiciary; commander-in-chief of3. In the Glorious Revolution, William and Mary became the joint rulers of Britain, and the Constitutional Monarchy began.4. The Bill of Rights which was passed in 1689 restricted the power of the monarchy.The British Constitution1.1. It is unwritten1.2. Its components include Acts of Parliament, the Prerogative of the Crown, Conventions of the Constitution, Common Law and Parliamentary Privilege.1.3. It is more flexible than the written ones in other countries.2. Conventions of the Constitution2. 1. They form an important part of the Constitution just aswritten laws do. 2. 2. They are rules which are not written down but which everyone agrees must be followed in11practice.2. 3. They include the following:1) the powers of the Crown are exercised mainly by Ministers;2) the Queen must act on the advice of Ministers;3) Ministers are responsible to parliament for their actions;4) the sovereignty of Parliament3. Common Law3. 1. It is one of the main components of the British Constitution.3. 2. It refers to the Bills which have been passed by courts.3. 3. It marked a sharp decline in powers of the Monarch.4. The Bill of Rights4. 1. It was the Bill passed by the Parliament in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution. 4. 2. It laid down a number of things that future monarchs could not do. 4. 3. It marked a sharp decline in powers of the Monarch.4. 4. It marked the beginning of the British Constitutional Monarchy5. General Election5. 1. General Election is held at least every five years.5. 2. The country is divided into 635 constituencies, each of which returns one Member of Parliament.5. 3. The one who has the most votes in a constituency becomes a Member of Parliament. 5. 4. The leader of the party with the largest number of members returned to the House of Commons becomes Prime Minister.6. Party system in Parliament6. 1. The leader of the party with the largest number of members returned to the House of Commons becomes Prime Minister and is invited by the Queen to form a government; 6. 2. The party with the next largest numbers of supporters in the Commons becomes the official Opposition to Government.6. 3. The Prime Ministers and other ministers sit on the7. Political Parties7. 1. The UK has a two-party system.7. 2. The Conservative is major right-wing party.It supports free enterprise and is generally opposed to nationalization and to extending the social services. So conservatives are those who have something to conserve and they usually hate the great changes in society.It believes actively in the pursuit of greater social and economic equality. The Labor Party is a party of moderate socialism in favor of Nationalization of key industries. It has always been anti-Communist, supported by some middle class and intellectuals. It is also a main party for working class people.It draws most of its support from highly urban and industrialized people.127.3 . The Liberal Party is the third largest political party since 1922. 7.4. The Social Democratic Party was formed in 1981 by a small number of right-wing Labor party politicians.8. British Parliament8.1. It includes 3 elements:1) the Crown;2) the House of Lords;3) the House of Commons8.2. It is the supreme law-making authority in Britain.8.3. The real center of parliamentary power is in the House of Commons. 8.4. Other functions:1) to control and criticize the executive government;2) to control the raising and the spending of money.9. The House of Lords9.1. Its members are peers, most of whom are hereditary.9.2. Its powers have been severely reduced by the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949. 9.3. It must pass all financial legislation sent to it from the House of Commons, and can delay other Bills for only one year.9.4. It has a special judicial function.9.5. The Lord Chancellor=Speaker10. The House of Commons1). It consists of 635 elected Members of Parliament.2.) MPs have a number of privileges, eg. The freedom of speech in Parliament. 3). it is by far the most powerful and important element in Parliament, therefore plays the key role in the activities of Parliament as a whole.4.) The Speaker presides over the meeting in the House of Commons.Exercise:1. Answer the following questions:1) Which of the following is just rules and p ractices, but don‘t exist legally?A. Statutory LawB. Common LawC. Conventions2)The constitution can be altered or amended by Monarchy, so it is subjects to different bodies, like politicians, judges and scholars. right? *3) Who is the head of the executive branch ____? A. legislature,B .executive C. judiciary 4) Parliament consists of the king or Queen, the house of Lords and the House of Commons. Is it right?5) Prominent bishops of the church of England are included in the House of Lords? (yes) 6) What‘s the legislative function of the House of Lords? to examine the revise bills. 7). How often is a general election of the government held? 58). Which of the two Houses has the power of drafting new laws?9). The one important function of the House of Commons is scrutinize or restrain the actions of。

用英文介绍中国政体

用英文介绍中国政体The System of People's CongressI. The nature and position of the system of people's congre ssThe system of people's congress is an organizational form for the state power in China. It is China's fundamental political system.The power in the People's Republic of China belongs to the people and the organ for the people to exercise state power is the National People's Congress and local people's congresses at all levels.The National People's Congress (NPC) and local people's congresses are established through democratic elections, responsible to and supervised by the people.State administrative, judicial and procuratorial organs are created by, responsible to and supervised by the people's congresses.The National People's Congress is the highest org an of state power. Local people's congresses are local organs of state power.II. The National People's Congre ss1. The composition and term of office of the NPCThe NPC is composed of deputies elected from the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalit ies directly under the Central Government and deputies elected by the armed forces.Deputies to the NPC are organized into delegations according to the units they are elected from. Each delegation is headed y a chairman and vice chairmen.All the ethnic minorities are entitled to appropriate representation.The NPC is elected for a term of five years.The Standing Committee of the NPC must ensure the completion of election of deputies to the succeeding NPC two months prior to the expiration of the term of office of the current NPC. Should extraordinary circumstances prevent such an election, it may be postponed and the term of office of the current NPC extended by the decision of a vote of more than two-thirds of all those on the Standing Committee of the current NPC. The election of deputies to the succeeding NPC must be completed within one year after the termination of such extraordinary circumstances.The NPC meets in session once a year and is convened by its Standing Committee.A session of the NPC may be convened at any time the Standing Committee deems it necessary or when more than one-fifth of the deputies to the NPC so propose.2. The functions and powers of the NPCThe NPC exercises the following functions and powers:(1) to amend the Constitution;The amendment of the Constitution shall be proposed by the Standing Committee of the NPC or more than one-fifth of the deputies to the NPC and can only be adopted by a majority of no less than two-thirds of the deputies to the NPC.(2) to supervise the enforcement of the Constitution;(3) to enact and amend basic laws governing criminal offences, civil affairs, the state organs and other matters;(4) to elect the President and the Vice President of the People's Republic of China;(5) to decided on the choice of the Premier of the State Council upon nomination by the President, and on the choice ofthe Vice Premiers, State Councilors, Ministers in charge of ministries or commissions, the Auditor-General and the Secretary-general of the State Council upon nomination by the Premier;(6) to elect the Chairman of the Central Military commission and, upon nomination by the Chairman, to decide on the choice of all other members of the Central Military Commission;(7) to elect the President of the Supreme People's Court;(8) to elect the Procurator-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate;(9) to examine and approve the plan for national economic and social development and the report on its implementation;(10) to examine and approve the state budget and the rep ort on its implementation;(11) to alter or annul inappropriate decisions of the Standing Committee of the NPC;(12) to approve the establishment of provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government;(13) to decide on the establishment of special administrative regions and the systems to be instituted there;(14) to decide on questions of war and peace; and(15) to exercise such other functions and powers as the highest organ of state power should exercise.(16) The NPC has the right to remove the following functionaries:1) The Chairman and Vice Chairman of the People's Republic of China;2) The Premier of the State Council, the Vice Premiers, State Councilors, Ministers in charge of the ministries or commissions,the Auditor-General and the Secretary-general of the State Council;3) The Chairman, Vice Chairman and other members of the Central Military Commission;4) The President of the Supreme People's Court; and5) The Procurator-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate.III. The Standing Committee of the NPCThe Standing Committee of the NPC is the permanent organ of the NPC. When the NPC is not in session, the Standing Committee performs the right of the highest organ of state power. It is responsible to and reports to the NPC.1. The composition and term of office of the Standing Committee of the NPCThe Standing Committee of the NPC is composed of the Chairman, Vice Chairmen, Secretary-general and members.Ethnic minorities are entitled to appropriate representation on the Standing Committee.The NPC elects and has the power to recall members of the Standing Committee.Those on the Standing Committee shall not serve in state administrative, judicial and procuratorial organs. The term of office of the Standing Committee corresponds with that of the NPC and it shall exercise its power until a succeeding Standing Committee is elected by the succeeding NPC.The Chairman and Vice Chairmen of the NPC shall not serve more than two consecutive terms.2. The functions and powers of the Standing CommitteeThe Standing Committee of NPC exercises the following functions and powers:(1) to interpret the Constitution and supervise its enforcement;(2) to enact and amend laws, with the exception of those which should be enacted by the NPC;(3) to partially supplement and amend, when the NPC is not in session, laws enacted by the NPC provided that the basic principles of these laws are not contravened;(4) to interpret laws;(5) to review and approve, when the NPC is not in session, partial adjustments to the plan for national economic and social development or to the state budget that prove necessary in the course of their implementation;(6) to supervise the work of the State Council, the Central Military Commission, the Supreme People's Court and the Supreme People's Procuratorate;(7) to annul those administrative rules and regulations, decisions or orders of the State Council that contravene the Constitution or the law;(8) to annul those local regulations or decisions of the o rgans of state power of provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government that contravene the Constitution, the law or the administrative rules and regulations;(9) to decide, when the NPC is not in session, on the choice of Ministers in charge of ministries or commissions, the Auditor-General or the Secretary-general of the State Council upon nomination by the Premier of the State Council;(10) to decide, upon nomination by the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, on the choice of other members of the Commission, when the NPC is not in session;(11) to appoint or remove, at the recommendation of the President of the Supreme People's Court, the Vice Presidents and Judges of the Supreme People's Court, members of its Judicial Committee and the President of the Military Court;(12) to appoint or remove, at the recommendation of the Procurator-General of the Supreme People's Procuratorate, the Deputy Procurators-General and the procurators of the Supreme People's Procuratorate, members of its Procuratorial Committee and the Chief Procurator of the military procuratorate, and to approve the appointment or removal of the chief procurators of the people's procuratorates of provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government;(13) to decide on the appointment or recall of plenipotentiary representatives abroad;(14) to decide on the ratification or abrogation of treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states;(15) to institute systems of titles and ranks for military and diplomatic personnel and of other specific titles and ranks;(16) to institute state medals and titles or honor and decide on their conferment;(17) to decide on the granting of special pardons;(18) to decide, when the NPC is not in session, on the proclamation of a state of war in the event of an armed attack on the country or in fulfillment of international treaty obligations concerning common defense against aggression;(19) to decide on general mobilization or partial mobilization;(20) to decide on the imposition of martial law throughout the country or in particular provinces, autonomous regions, or municipalities directly under the Central Government; and(21) to exercise such other functions and powers as the NPCmay assign to it.3. Organs of the Standing CommitteeThe Chairman of the Standing Committee of the NPC directs the work of the Standing Committee and convenes its meetings. The Vice Chairmen and the Secretary-general assist the Chairman in his work.The Chairman, Vice Chairmen and Secretary-general constitute the Council of Chairmen which handles the important day-to-day work of the Standing Committee of the NPC.The Standing Committee of the NPC establishes a deputy credentials examination committee to examine the credentials of the deputies to the current NPC through by-elections and those newly elected to the succeeding NPC.The credentials examination committee is composed of the chairman, vice chairman and members, nominated from among the members of the Standing Committee by the Council of Chairmen and agreed upon by the plenary session of the Standing Committee.The NPC establishes special committees to examine, discuss and draw up relevant bills and draft solutions under the direction of the NPC and its Standing Committee.When the NPC is not in session, its special committees work under the direction of the Standing Committee of the NPC.The 9th NPC has established nine special committees, namely the ethnic groups committee, the law committee, the finance and economic committee, the education, science, culture and health committee, the foreign affairs committee, the overseas Chinese committee, the civil and judicial affairs committee, the environment and resources protection committee and the agriculture and rural areas committee.Normally, the special committees are chaired by Vice Chairmen or members of the Standing Committee of the NPC.The NPC and its Standing Committee may, when they deem it necessary, appoint committees of inquiry into specific questions and adopt relevant resolutions in the light of their reports.IV. Local people's congre sse s and their standing committees People's congresses are established in provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the Central Government, autonomous prefectures, counties, autonomous counties, cities, municipal districts, townships, ethnic townships and towns. Standing committees are established at people's congresses at and above the county level.1. The term of office of local people's congre sse sThe term of office of people's congresses of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government and cities divided into districts is five years.The term of office of the people's congresses of counties, autonomous counties, cities not divided into districts, municipal districts, townships, ethnic townships, and towns is three years.2. The functions and powers of local people's congresse sLocal people's congresses at various levels ensure the obser vance and implementation of the Constitution and the law and the administrative rules and regulations in their respective administrative areas. Within the limits of their authority as prescribed by law, they adopt and issue resolutions and examine and deci de on plans for local economic and cultural development and for the development of public services.Local people's congresses at and above the county level shall examine and approve the plans for economic and socialdevelopment and the budgets of their respective administrative areas and examine and approve the reports on their implementation. They have the power to alter or annul inappropriate decisions of their own standing committees.The people's congresses of provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the Central Government, of cities which are capitals of the provinces or autonomous regions as well as large cities approved by the State Council have the right to adopt local regulations in the light of their regional political, economic and cultural characteristics.Local people's congresses at their respective levels elect and have the power to recall governors and deputy governors, or mayors and deputy mayors, or heads and deputy heads of counties, districts, townships and towns.Local people's congresses at and above the county level elect and have the power to recall presidents of people's courts and chief procurators of people's procuratorates at the corresponding level.The election or recall of chief procurators of people's procuratorates shall be reported to the chief procurators of the people's procucratorates at the next higher level for submission to the standing committees of the people's congresses at the corresponding level for approval.3. The composition, functions and powers of the standing committees of local people's congre sse s The standing committee of a local people's congress at and above the county level is composed of a chairman, vice chairmen and members, and is responsible and reports on its work to the people's congress at the corresponding level.A local people's congress at or above the county level electsand has the power to recall members of its standing committee.No one on the standing committee of a local people's congress at or above the county level shall hold office in state administrative, judicial and procuratorial organs.The standing committee of a local people's congress at or above the county level discusses and decides on major issues in all fields of work in its administrative areas; supervises th e work of the people's government, people's court and people's procuratorate at the corresponding level; annuls inappropriate decisions and orders of the people's government at the corresponding level; annuls inappropriate resolutions of the people's congress at the next lower level; decides on the appointment or removal of functionaries of state organs within the limits of its authority as prescribed by law; and, when the people's congress at the corresponding level is not in session, recalls individual deputies to the people's congress at the next higher level and elects individual deputies to fill vacancies in that people's congress.The standing committees of people's congresses of the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the Central Government, cities which are capitals of provinces or autonomous regions as well as large cities approved by the State Council have the power to adopt local regulations in the light of the local regional political, economic and cultural characteristics, when the people's congresses at the corresponding level are not in session.V. People's congre sse s of townships, ethnic townships and townsThe term of office of people's congresses of townships, ethnic townships and towns is three years. Such a people'scongress establishes a presidium headed by the chairman and vice chairmen. The presidium is responsible for convening the meetings of the people's congress.The functions and powers of the people's congresses of townships, ethnic townships and towns mainl y include the following:1. The power to examine and decide on major issue sTo decide on the plans for the construction of local economy, cultural undertakings and public understandings, in accordance with national plans; to examine and approve local financial budgets and report on the implementation of the budgets; and to decide on the implementation plans for civil work in their own regions.2. The power to elect, appoint and remove local functionariesTo elect or recall the heads and deputy heads of the townships, ethnic townships and towns.Candidates for the heads and deputy heads of the townships, ethnic townships and towns are to be nominated by the presidiums of the people's congresses or no less than ten deputies.The presidiums or more than one-fifth of the deputies to the people's congresses of the townships, ethnic townships and towns may propose the removal of the above-mentioned functionaries when the people's congresses are in session. The proposal of removal are submitted to the congresses by the presidiums.All elections are by secret ballot.3. The power of supervisionTo examine the work report of the governments of the townships, ethnic townships and towns, annul their inappropriatedecisions and decrees, and recall or remove functionaries making up the governments of the townships, ethnic townships and towns.VI. Deputies to the people's congre sse s1. The election of deputiesDeputies to the NPC are elected by the people's congresses of the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government and by the armed forces.Deputies to the people's congresses of the provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the Central Government and cities divided into districts are elected by the people's congresses at the next lower level.Deputies to the people's congresses of counties, cities not divided into districts, municipal districts, townships, ethnic townships and towns are elected directly by the electorates.2. The rights of the deputies(1) During the se ssion1) Right to draft proposals for bills;2) Right to raise suggestions, criticisms and put forward opinions;3) Right to vote in election and decide on appointment;4) Right to examine issues;5) Right to propose the recall of functionaries;6) Right to raise bills for questioning and conduct hearings;7) Right to draft suggestions;8) Right to vote; and9) Right to impunity.(2) Not in se ssion1) Right to maintain contact with original voting units;2) Right to inspect;3) Right to propose provisional sessions;4) Right to audit other meetings;5) Right to participate in committees for investigating specified issues;6) Right to sit in meetings of the people's congress and its standing committee of the original unit the deputy is elected from;7) Right of special protection of the person; and8) Right to privileges for deputies.。

英国文化试题 (基础题)

Cultural Knowledge ContestBritish CulturePart I Single-Choice QuestionsDirections: Read the following unfinished statements or questions carefully. For each unfinished statement or question, four suggested answers marked [A], [B], [C] and [D] are given. Choose the one that you think best completes the statement or answers the question.1. The transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft-animal–based economy towards machine-based manufacturing started with the mechanization of ___________.[A] the textile industries[B] the iron industries[C] the coal industries[D] the steel industries2. The invention of the flying shuttle by ________enabled wider cloth to be woven faster, but also created a demand for yarn that could not be fulfilled.[A] Richard Arkwright[B] Harry Brearley[C] Edmund Cartwright[D] John Kay3. The water frame, invented by __________, could be powered by a water wheel.[A] Richard Arkwright[B] Harry Brearley[C] Edmund Cartwright[D] John Kay4. The first practicable steam engine was invented by Thomas Newcomen, and was used for pumping water out of mines and then, a much more powerful steam engine was invented by ___________.[A] Richard Arkwright[B] Harry Brearley[C] James Watt[D] John Kay5. From 1815 to 1870 Britain reaped the benefits of being the world's ________modern, industrialized nation.[A] fourth[B] third[C] second[D] first6. By _________ Britain had a well integrated, well engineered system that provided fast, on-time, inexpensive movement of freight and people to every city and most rural districts.[A]1840[B]1850[C]1860[D]18708. After the loss of the American colonies in ______, Britain built a "Second British Empire", based in colonies in India, Asia, Australia, Canada.[A]1783[B]1784[C]1785[D]17869. After WWI, in _______, the Wall Street Crash affected Britain and the Great depression began. After that, Britain gradually withdrew to adopt Tariff Reform as a measure of protectionism.[A] 1930[B] 1929[C]1928[D]192711. Which of the following newspaper is the world's oldest national newspaper?[A] The Times.[B] The Observer.[C] The Guardian.[D] The Financial Times.13. In Britain most advertising is carried______.[A] in newspapers[B] in magazines[C] on television[D] on radio15. Which of the following organizations does not Great Britain belong to?[A] EU[B] NATO[C] APEC[D] OSCE16. Britain has its nuclear naval force since______.[A] it's one of the developed countries in the world[B]it's a traditional sea power[C]it has an advanced industry[D] it's able to produce submarines17. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland recognized the People's Republic of China in ______.[A] 1950[B]1949[C] 1951[D] 196018. In terms of circulation, the biggest circulated newspaper in UK is _________.[A] The Times[B] The Guardian[C] Financial Times[D]Daily Telegraph19.The term" Fleet Street" is referred to as___________.[A] The embassies concentrated street[B]The newspaper headquarters concentrated street[C] The wartime museums concentrated street[D] The luxurious commodities shops concentrated street20. According to________, the British admitted the independence of America.[A] Treaty of Versailles[B] Treaty of Rome[C] Treaty of Paris[D] Treaty of Maastricht21. The British people are great lovers of betting. The most money they bet mainly on_________.[A] bingo[B] horse racing[C] football pools[D] dog racing22. ________ is regarded as the most English of games.[A] Tennis[B] Soccer[C] Rugby[D] Cricket23. Big Ben, the most famous landmark in London, its name comes from_________[A] the person who built it[B] the fact that it is really very heavy[C] the name of the head of the British parliament[D] the way it looks like24. Halloween is a ________[A] summer festival[B] night time festival[C] pilgrims’ holiday[D] day for family reunion26.______ is the first weekday after Christmas, a legal holiday in English, Wales, Northern Ireland , New Zealand, Australia and South Africa.[A] Thanksgiving Day[B] Anzac Day[C] St. Valentine’s Day[D] Boxing Day27. ____is the home of golf.[A] England[B] Scotland[C] Wales[D] Ireland28.____ birthday is a great event in Britain since it marks the beginning of full manhood or woma nhood.[A] The twenty-first[B] The eighteenth[C] The nineteenth[D] The twentieth29._______ is the biggest and most well-known church in London.[A] Whitehall[B] St. Paul’s Cathedral[C] Westminster Abbey[D]St. Peter’s Basilica31. The British Monarchy is _______.[A] elective [B] democratic [C] hereditary [D] dictatorial32. The _______ is used as a symbol of the whole nation and is described as the representative of the people.[A] Prime Minister[B] Crown[C] Parliament[D] Church33. Currently there are three major national parties in Britain: the Conservative Party, _______, and the Liberal Democrats.[A] the Liberal Party[B] the Democratic Party[C] the Labour Party[D] the Republican Party34. The party that has the majority of seats in _______ will form the government in Britain.[A] the House of Commons[B] the House of Lords[C] the Privy Council[D] the Cabinet35. _______ is the supreme administrative institution which manages state affairs.[A] The Queen[B] The British Government[C] The Cabinet[D] The Privy Council36. In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the jury consists of _____ people in criminal and civil cases. In criminal trials by jury, the judge passes sentence but the jury decide the issue of guilt or innocence.[A] eleven[B] twelve[C] fourteen[D] fifteen38. China and Britain established the diplomatic relations at the ambassadorial rank in the year of .[A] 1950[B] 1954[C] 1972[D] 199739. Hamlet, , King Lear and Macbeth are generally regarded as Shakespeare's four great tragedies.[A] Romeo and Juliet[B] Oliver Twist[C] Othello[D] Tess of the d'Urbervilles41. England occupies the ______portion of the U.K.[A] Northern[B] Eastern[C] Southern[D] Western42. London is situated on the River of ________.[A] Parret[B] Thames[C] Spey[D] Tennessee43. The total area of the U.K. is _____.[A] 211,440[B] 244,110[C] 241,410[D] 242,53444. Physiographically Britain may be divided into _____ provinces.[A] 13[B] 12[C] 14[D]1545. Britain’s main cereal crop is _____.[A] oats[B] corn[C] barley[D] rye46. The highest mountain in England is _____.[A] Mt. Mourne[B] Mt. Snowdon[C] Mt. Seafell[D] Mt. Rocky47. Great Charter was signed by________ in 1215 under the press of the barons.[A] King John[B] King Alfred[C] King Arthur[D] King Lear48. Great Charter consists of ________ clauses.[A] 53[B] 54[C] 63[D] 64Part II Multiple-Choice QuestionsDirections: Read the following unfinished statements or questions carefully. For each unfinished statement or question, four suggested answers marked [A], [B], [C] and [D] are given. Choose the answers which you think best complete the statement or answer the question.1. Who are British authors in the following list?[A] William Faulkner[B] John Milton[C] Dorothy Wordsworth[D] Robert Frost2. Which of the following authors belongs to the period of modernism?[A] Chalotte Bronte[B] John Milton[C] James Joyce[D] Virgin Woolf3. Which of the following works is the representative works of William Shakespeare?[A] Romeo and Juliet[B] Hamlet[C] The Merchant of Venice[D] As you Like it4. Which of the following works are the representative works of James Joyce?[A] Ulyssess[B] Dubliners[C] To the Lighthouse[D] A Passage to India5. Which of the following writing techniques are modernist writing techniques?[A] Stream of consciousness[B] The third person reminiscent narrative[C] Multiple perspective narrative[D] The mixture of the past and the present6. Who are the representative poets in the Romanticism period?[A] Percy Shelley[B] Dorothy Wordsworth[C] John Keats[D] T. S. Eliot7. Which of the following quotations are attributed to William Shakespeare?[A] To be, or not to be[B] Better a witty fool than a foolish wit.[C] A light heart lives longer.[D]Time of life is short; to spend that shortness basely, it would be too long.9. D. H. Lawrence (1885–1930), who wrote with understanding about the social life of the lower and middle classes, and the personal life of those who could not adapt to the social norms of his time. Which of the following works are his representative works?[A] Tess of the d’Urbervilles[B] Lady Chatterley’s Lover[C] Women in Love[D] Sons and Lovers12. The main faith in Britain are_______.[A] Christian[B] Muslim[C] Jewish[D]Sikh13. Most of the buildings on campus are made of bricks, collectively they get a name of ―Red Bricks‖, these universities are referred to as__________.[A] Manchester[B] Birmingham[C] Liverpool[D] Sheffield14. Which of the following countries have nuclear weapons capabilities?[A] Britain[B] Italy[C] the United States[D] Russia15. The most prestigious private school in Britain are___________.[A] Eaton College[B] Harrow College[C] Winchester School[D] Rugby School16. Which of the following British dynasties existed from1603 till now?[A] The Stuart[B] The Hanoverians[C]Saxe-Coburg-Gotha[D]The Tudor17. Which of the following armies had ever invaded Great Britain?[A] Roman[B] Saxon[C] Viking[D] Norman18.Which of the following countries are NOT member Commonwealth Realms of Britain?[A] United States[B] France[C] Pakistan[D] India20. Which of the followings are involved in making the British foreign policy?[A] Queen Elizabeth.[B] The foreign and commonwealth Office.[C] The Prime Minister and Cabinet.[D] The Ministry of Defense and the Treasury.21. Which of the following holidays are bank (public) holidays? ___________[A] New Year’s Day[B] Easter Monday[C] Christmas Day[D] Halloween22. Many of the world’s famous sports began in Britain, including__________.[A] football[B] golf[C] basketball[D] rugby24. British celebrate May Day_______.[A] as it marked the end of harsh winter[B] on May 5th[C] through music and dancing[D] traditionally with the characters such as ―Robin Hood‖25. Easter is the oldest and most important Christian Festival, on which day people ________.[A] celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ[B] commemorate the death of Jesus Christ[C] traditionally give bird eggs painted in bright colors as gifts[D] celebrate with chocolate eggs nowadays27. The traditional English breakfast includes _______[A] sausages[B] baked beans[C] fried bread[D] fish and chips28.__________live in Buckingham Palace today.[A] Prime minister David Cameron[B] The Queen and Prince Philip[C] Duke of York Prince Andrew[D] Prince Edward and his wife29. People in England on Halloween day will_________.[A] curve out Pumpkins as lanterns[B] dress up in costume[C] eat roasted turkey[D] knock on doors and demand a treat30. University boat race___________.[A] can be traced back to 19th century[B] is held every autumn[C] Cambridge won the first race in 1829[D] happens on the Thames River31. The functions of the British parliament include____________.[A] passing laws[B] voting for taxation[C] examining government policy[D] debating major issues32. Please choose the statements that are true about the Prime Minister __________________.[A] The Prime Minister is the head of the government[B] The Prime Minister organizes the Cabinet and presides over its meetings[C] The Prime Minister reports the government’s work to the King or Queen[D] The Prime Minister asks for the King’s or the Queen’s last word in deciding governmentpolicy33. Every British citizen aged 18 or over has the right to vote in the general election with the exception of _____________.[A] certified lunatics[B] certified accountants[C] criminals[D] peers who already have seats in the House of Lords[E] ministers who already have seats in the House of Commons34. Which of the following descriptions about the Conservative Party are true?[A] party of the Left (the reformists)[B] party of the relatively rich and privileged[C] party of the relatively underprivileged[D] uphold the maintenance of order and authority[E] favor monopoly capitalists[F] aims at nationalization of big enterprises35.The House of Lords consists of ______________.[A] the Lords Spiritual(上议院的神职议员),[B] the Archbishops and most prominent bishops of the Church of England[C] the Lords Temporal (上议院的世俗议员)[D] hereditary peers[E] life peers(终身贵族)36. Which of the following statements are true about the British Constitution?[A] There is no written constitution in the UK.[B] The British Constitution is made up of statute law, common law and conventions.[C] The House of Commons determines common law and interpret statute law.[D] British governance today is based upon the terms and conditions of the constitution.37. Which of the following statements are true about Queen Elizabeth I?[A] She persecuted and burnt many Protestants.[B] She ruled England, Wales and Ireland for 45 years and remained single.[C] Her reign was a time of confident English nationalism and of great achievements in literatureand other arts, in exploration and in battle.[D] She declared England a Commonwealth.38. The aims of the Opposition in the House of Commons are to __________.[A] contribute to the formulation of policy and legislation[B] oppose government proposals[C] seek amendments to government bills[D] put forward its own policies in order to win the next general election41. The ancestors of many English people were the ancient ________.[A] Angles[B] Britons[C] Saxons[D] Gaels42. One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance to ______ .[A] their immediate lord[B] the king[C] the church[D] the mayor43. Which of the following are among Shake speare’s four great tragedies?[A] King Lear[B] Macbeth[C] Hamlet[D] Romeo and Juliet44. There are three political divisions on the islands of Great Britain: ________.[A] England[B] Scotland[C] Wales[D] Ireland45. Britain is separated from the European continent by ________.[A] North Sea[B] Ben Nevis[C] Strait of Dover[D] English Channel47. Scotland has about 800 islands, including ______.[A] the Orkney[B] Shetlands[C] Hebrides[D] Prince of Wales49. The official name of the United Kingdom is ______.[A]the United Kingdom of Great Britain[B] Great Britain[C] Ireland[D] Northern Ireland50.______ are the capitals of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.[A] Edinburgh[B] Cardiff[C] Isles[D] BelfastPart III True or FalseDirections: Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1. The Edwardian era (1901-1914) stands out as a time of peace and plenty. There were no severe depressions and prosperity was widespread.2. The First World War saw a decline of economic production, with a major reallocation to munitions. It forced Britain to use up its financial reserves and borrow large sums from the U.S.3. After 1900 the Great Britain dominated global steel production, while the US industry languished.4. The Roosevelt Administration was committed to large-scale economic support of Britain and in early 1941 enacted Lend-Lease, whereby America would give Britain supplies totaling $31.4 billion which had to be repaid.5. During the 1970s Britain suffered a long running period of relative economic decline, followed by severe inflation, strikes and union power as well as inflation, with neither the Conservative government nor the Labour government being able to halt the country's economic decline.6. From the second quarter of 2013, the UK's economy continued to grow for five consecutive quarters, the longest since Q1 of 2008.8. The British literature has a very long history, starting from the Middle age.10. Many British novels become the world bestsellers, among which is a series of novels about Harry Potter, written by J. K. Rowling.11. The observer, which is still published every Sunday, first appeared in 1791, making it the world's oldest national newspaper, while The Times, which began publishing in 1785, is the United Kingdom's oldest daily newspaper.12. Founded in 1922, and headquartered at west London, BBC is the largest radio station in Britain and one of the largest in the world.13. Besides BBC, in Britain, people could receive a great many channels from all over the world, and people may watch a wide range of TV programs due to their different tastes.14. In the UK, the Universities are public bodies which receive funds from central government, the amount of funding each university receives is based on its size, the number of students it teaches and the research it conducts.15. Among the European nations, Britain is the largest investor in China.16. Bulls are the most numerous livestock in the UK.18 Officially speaking the British press is "free" from government control and censorship and can print what it likes, there is no limits to what will appear in the daily paper.19. The British Broadcasting Corporation-more familiarly known as the BBC is Britain's main public service broadcaster, founded in 1927 as a public service radio station, later moved into TV and film.21. The world’s most famous tennis tournament is Wimbledon.22. Polo was brought to Britain from China in the 19th Century by army officers. It is the fastest ball sport in the world.23. England’s national sport is football.24. Mother’s Day in UK comes in May every year.25. In Britain, Boxing Day is usually celebrated on the following day after Christmas Day, whichis 26 December.26. Many of Christmas customs began long before Jesus was born. They came from earlier festivals which had nothing to do with the Christian church.27. The Tower of London was once a prison.30. London New Year parade starts at midnight, as Big Ben strikes the coming of the New Year.31. The UK is a democratic federal state.32. The present British parliament consists of the House of Lords and the House of Commons.33. The president of the House of Lords is the Lord Chancellor, and the presiding officer of the House of Commons is ―Mr. Speaker‖.34. The party that has the majority of seats in the House of Commons will form the government in Britain.35. In Britain, the House of Commons has no power to prevent the passing of legislation approved by the House of Lords.36. As a rule, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is the Prime Minister who is automatically appointed by the Sovereign, and on the Prime Minister’s adv ice the Sovereign formally appoints all the ministers.37. Lords, usually called peers(贵族), either inherited the seat from their forefathers or are appointed by the sovereign.38. MPs (Members of Parliament) in the House of Commons are appointed by the Prime Minister and the Cabinet to represent the people in the UK.41．The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.42. Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain are England, Scotland and Ireland.43. England is in the northern part of Great Britain.44. England is the largest, most populous section.45. Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Its capital is Edinburgh.46. English Renaissance literature is primarily artistic, rather than philosophical scholarly.47. Thames River is the longest and most important river in Britain.50. Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east.Part IV MatchDirections: Match the pictures in Column A with their descriptions in Column B. 1）Please match the works with its right author1) Column A Column Ba. Charlotte Bronte 1.The Wastelandb. Charles Dickens 2. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Manc. T S Eliot 3. Jane Eyred. Jonathan Swift 4. Oliver Twiste. Daniel Defoe 5. Pride and Prejudicef. Jane Austen 6. Robinson Crusoeg. James Joyce 7. Gulliver’s Travelh. Thomas Hardy 8.The Mayor of Caster bridge3）Match the location with its right description3) Column A Column Ba)10 Downing Street 1.traditional place of coronation and royal weddingsb) Buckingham Palace 2. t he Queen’s weekend homec) Westminster Abbey 3. commemorating a British naval victoryd) Palace of Westminster 4. the Queen’s official London residencee) Windsor Castle 5. Prime Minister’s Officef) Trafalgar Square 6. Houses of Parliament5-9）Match the picture with its right description5) Column A Column Ba. 1. Netballb. 2. Poloc. 3. Rugbyd. 4. Cricket7) Column A Column Ba. 1. Princess Dianab. 2. Charles Darwinc. 3. Florence Nightingaled. 4. Isaac Newton9) Column A Column Ba. 1 Elizabeth Ib. 2 William Shakespearec. 3 Winston Churchilld. 4 Francis BaconPart V Filling in the BlanksDirections: Complete the following blanked sentences with one or more words. 1. London’s ____________shops are part of a uniquely British take-away tradition.3. On Halloween, when children knock on doors demanding a treat, they will say____________.4. ___________ and Regents Street----London's busiest shopping areas--- are decorated with Christmas lights each year.5. The UK (United Kingdom) is made up of four big regions: England, __________, __________ and __________.6. Constitutionally the Queen seems to have great power —every act of the state is done in her name, but in fact the vital power lies in ________ and ________.7. The House of the Commons is divided in the light of political parties. The stronger party forms __________ and the weaker the Opposition. In the General Election, the party which wins the second largest number of seats becomes the official Opposition, with its own leader and ―__________‖.9. The industrial revolution, which begins in Great Britain, dates from________ to_________. 11. The Romantic Period in British literature is traced back from the year of ___________ to ________ and the Victorian Age is from ________ to ________.12. After 1840 in economy Britain abandoned mercantilism and committed its economy to ___________, with few barriers or tariffs.14. The BBC has___________ channels. BBC 1 entertains people with sports, drama, current affairs, etc. BBC2 provides_______________ with documentaries and shows.15. _____________ about business is not only printed at home but also printed in other countries of the world.16. There are ___________ members of the Commonwealth including_____________ countries as well as_____________ industrial countries.17. During World War II, as a war leader, ______received massive popular support and led his country to final victory in 1945.18. ______, the great roman general, invaded Britain for the first time in 55BC.20. ______ is the second largest city in England and a metropolitan district and an industrial and manufacturing city.Part VI Short Answer QuestionsDirections: Give your answer to each of the following questions.1. What are the British main trade and industries?2. What are the five important periods of British literature?3. Could you please list five of the most important tragedies and comedies by William Shakespeare?5. How did the British Broadcasting Corporation operate?7. What are some of the characteristics of British newspaper culture?10. Why and where do children hang up Christmas stockings on Christmas Eve?11. When is Easter day?12. What is a constitutional monarchy?14. Describe William Shakespeare?15. Describe the weather of EnglandCultural Knowledge ContestEnglish CultureanswersPart I1-5ADACD 6、8、9 BAB11、13、15 BBB 16-20 BADBC21-24 BDAB 26-29 DBAB31-35 CBCAB 36、38、39 BCC41-45 BBDCC 46-48CACPart II1. BC2.CD3.ABCD4.AB5.ACD6.ABC7.ABCD 9.BCD 11.ABC 12.ABCD 13.ABCD 14.ACD 15.ABCD 16. ABC 17. ABCD 18.AB 20.BCD 21.ABC 22.ABD 24.ACD 25.CD 26. ACD 27.ABC 28.BCD 29. ABD 30.AD 31.ABCD 32.ABC 33.ACD 34.BDE 35.ABCDE 36.ABD 37.BC 38. ABCD 41.AC 42.AB 43.ABC 44.ABC 45.ACD 47.ABC 49.AD 50.ABDPart III1 T2 T3 F （True Statement: After 1900 the US dominated global steel production, while the Great Britain’s industry languished.）4 F （True Statement: The Roosevelt Administration was committed to large-scale economic support of Britain and in early 1941 enacted Lend-Lease, whereby America would give Britain supplies totaling $31.4 billion which had not to be repaid.）5 T6 T8T10T11 T12T13 F (True Statement: Because of the limited number of channels, not only does nearly everyone watch TV, but nearly every one watch the same thing.)14T15T16 F ( Bulls-Sheeps)18 F (no limits-limits)19 F (1927-1922)21 T22 F (China-India)23 F (football-cricket)24 F (May-March)25 T26 T27 T30 F ( midnight-midday)31 F(True statement: The UK is a state of both a parliamentary democracy and aconstitutional monarchy. )32 F(True statement: The present British parliament consists of the Queen, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons.)33T34T35 F (True statement: In Britain, the House of Lords has no power to prevent the passing of legislation approved by the House of Commons.)36T37T38 F (True statement: MPs (Members of Parliament) in the House of Commons are elected by the people in the UK to represent them.)41T42 F （Ireland-Wales)43 F (Northern-Southern)44T45 F (Edinburg - Belfast)46 T47 F (True Statement: Thames River is the second longest and most important river in Britain)50 TPart IV1）a3 b4 c1 d7 e6 f5 g2 h83) a5 b4 c1 d6 e2 f35) a4 b3 c1 d27) a4 b3 c2 d19) a2 b3 c4 d1Part V1. fish and chip3. Trick or Treat5. Wales; Scotland; Northern Ireland7. The Government; shadow cabinet11. 1785-1830; 1830-190112. free trade14. two; special interest audiences15. Financial Times16. fifty; developing; advanced17.Winston Churchill18.Julius Caesar20. BirminghamPart VI1. British main industries today are banking and finance, steel, transport equipment, oil and gas, and tourism.2. Old and Middle English LiteratureNeoclassical PeriodThe Romantic PeriodVictoria PeriodModern Period3. 5 tragedies:Romeo and JulietHamletOthelloKing LearThe Tragedy of Macbeth5 comedies:A Midsummer Night’s DreamThe Merchant of VeniceMuch Ado about NothingTwelfth NightAs you like it4. Mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies. Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling—which became a favorite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch.5. The BBC was founded in 1926 as a public service radio station and later moved into television. It's now Britain's main public service broadcaster. It currently has two TV channels. BBC 1 specializes in shows with a broad appeal. BBC 2 supplies people with documentaries and shows aimed at particular social groups. The BBC also provides the World Service which broadcasts in English and 43 other languages throughout the world.6. Britain used to rule a third of the globe and thus became a great empire in the world. After the Second World War, the British Empire began to decline as more and more former colonies declared their political independence. Throughout the next few decades, the process of decolonization continued, though sometimes the process was full of violence. The end of the great British Empire was inevitable. Today the age of。

Unit 3

Total neglect is not the answer to hypochondria. Paraphrase?
steer an intelligent course between promiscuous pill-popping and irresponsible disregard of genuine symptoms. to make people know what kind of symptoms need to be taken seriously and take the right pills at the right time
suppress v.
to prevent oneself from having or expressing a feeling to suppress a smile/yawn/shiver the suppression of emotion egs. She was unable to suppress her anger. Trans. 他强压住了怒火。 2. to prevent from growing/developing drugs that suppress the appetite suppressant
Part 3
Ways Harms of pain-killers blame measures
Glossary
escalate rattle off boomerang malaise promiscuous telltale presto
antagonistic barrage neurosis--neurotic neurology indoctrinate recuperative modicum

数学名言(中英)

The problem is the heart of mathematics．(问题是数学的心脏。

)??哈尔莫斯He who seeks for methods without having a difinite problem in mind seeks for the most part in vain．(心中没有一定的问题而要寻找方法的人，多半都是徒劳无获的。

)?? 希尔伯特The problem solver may do creative work even if he does not succeed in solving his own problem；his effort may lead him to means applicable to other problems，Then the problem solver may be creative indirectly be leaving a good unsolved problem which eventually leads others to discovering fertile means．(即使在解某一道题时，解题者未获成功，他也可能做了有独创性的工作；他的努力可能使他得到适用于解决其他问题的工具。

此外，他可能留下一个很好的未解决问题，这个问题最终能使其他人发现更有成效的解题手段。

这样，他间接地作出了独创性的贡献。

)??波利亚One of the virtues of a good problem is that it generates other good problems．(一道好题的价值之一在于它能产生其他一些好题。

)??波利亚Each problem that I solved became a rule which served afterwards to solve other problems．(我解决过的每一个问题都成为日后用以解决其他问题的法则。

学术英语_社科Unit5五单元原文及翻译

UNIT 5 Sociology Matters1.Culture is the totality of learned,socially transmitted customs,knowledge,material objects,and behavior.It includes the ideas,values,customs,and artifacts of groups of people.Though culture differ in their customs,artifacts,and languages,they all share certain basic characteristics.Furthermore,cultural characteristics change as cultures develop ,and cultures infuence one another through their technological ,commercial, and artistic achievements.文化是指社会传播学，海关，知识，材料的对象，和行为。

它包括思想，价值观，习俗，和人群的文物。

尽管文化在他们的习俗，文物，和语言不同，但是他们都有一些共同的基本特性。

此外，当文化发展时文化特征也在变化，并且文化通过他们的技术，商业，艺术成就相互影响。

Cultural universals文化共性2.All societies,despite their differences,have developed certain general practices known as cultural universals.Many cultural universals are ,in fact,adaptations to meet essential human needs ,such as people’s need for food ,shelter,and clothing. Anthropologist George murdock compiled a list of cultural that included athletic sports, cooking ,funeral ceremonies,medicine,and sexual restrictions.所有的社会，尽管他们的差别，已经形成了一定的一般做法被称为文化的共性。

5_The_One_Against_the_Many

Lesson Five The One Against the ManyArthur M. Schlesinger Jr.●ObjectivesAfter studying this essay, students will be able to:1. grasp the main idea of the argumentation (A society should allow free flow of manyviewpoints in order to develop itself.)；2. relate what is discussed in the essay to Chinese experience and the current worldsituation so as to better understand the points (the great setback we suffered by sticking to dogmatism in the past, our principles of non-interference and peaceful co-existence in dealing with international affairs );3. get themselves familiar with some key philosophical terms such as pragmatism,dogmatism, absolutism, dialectics, rationalism, determinism, empiricism, ideal, ideology, etc.;4. grasp the major techniques employed in developing the argument (contrast, citingexamples, clear organization of ideas, etc.)5. conduct a series of reading, listening, speaking and writing activities related to thetheme of the unit.●About the titleWhen you first see this title, you might wonder what it is about. What is the one and what is the many? Is it about a war between two parties who vary greatly in number? That is to say, the title is very attractive. It draws readers‘ attention and interest at the first glance. That is one of the many skills you should learn. When you write an article, it is important to give it a good title. A good beginning means half success.●General StructureThe whole text include as many as 7 parts.Part I is the opening paragraph. In this one-sentence paragraph, the author, right to the point, raise the issue of American experience in achieving rapid national development.Part II (Paras.2-6). In this part, the author lists all those Factors that facilitated the rapid social and economic development of the United StatesWhat is the fundamental factor according to the author? Could you find the original sentence from the text? (para.6) ---- ―But fundamental to all of these… has been the national rejection of dogmatic preconceptions about the nature of the social and economic order.Part III (P aras.7 -10) Ideology and Pragmatism and American’s Attitude towards ThemHere, the author defines the term ―ideology‖and points out that though not always immune to the temptation of ideology, Americans have been skeptical about ideology and have accepted pragmatism in most of the time in American history. The American Revolution is used as an example to illustrate the difference between pragmatism and ideology.Part IV (Paras.11-12) Ideals and IdeologyIn this part, the author uses Thomas Jefferson as an example to illustrate thedistinction between ideals and ideology.Part V (Paras.13-14) What is wrong with faith in Ideology?In answering this question, the author points out that the ideologists confuse ideology, an abstraction from reality, with reality itself. This confusion leads to two bad results, in the interpretation of history and the choice of public policy.Part VI (Paras.15-19) Differences between the Ideologist and PragmatistFrom two aspects, the author further illustrates (elaborates on) the difference between the ideologist and the pragmatist, that is, how they differ in their views of history and their approaches to issues of public policy.Part VII (Paras.20-22) Conclusion: the Many should be the ChoiceIn this concluding part, the author sums up the conflict of our time (i.e. the conflict between ideologists and pragmatists). He analyses the goal of ideologists and the goal of free men, leading to the conclusion that the many should be the choice.Detailed study of the text bodyPara.11.In an epoch dominated by the aspirations of new states for nationaldevelopment…●period, epoch, era and agePeriod is the general term for any portion of historical timeEpoch and era are often used interchangeable, but in strict discrimination, epoch applies to the beginning of a new period marked by radical changes, new development, etc. and era, to the entire period.e.g.: The founding of new China marked a new epoch in Chinese history.The 20th century was an era of technological revolution.Age is applied to a long period identified with some dominant personality or distinctive characteristic.e. g. the Stone Age, the Middle Ages; the Victorian Age●From this statement, could you guess when this essay was written?If you know world history well enough, you may know that the essay was probably written in the late 1960s or early 1970s when many countries in Asia and Africa won their independence and wanted to develop their countries. You can see that the author is keen to international situation, which makes his essay worth of reading. In fact, the author‘s viewpoints are still of great value to us today since we are seeking for a rapid national development.Part II (Paras.2-6)Para.22.Every country, of course, has its distinctive development problems…●What role does this sentence play?---- It is a transitional sentence.●Is it true to say so? --- Absolutely right. The development problems andsolutions vary from country to country. Usually one can draw insights from those useful experiences of other countries but to try to copy use one model for different problems and situations is to invite disaster. In our history, we tried to copy the model of former soviet unions. Was it successful? Of course not. This is the best example●Capacity: ability to do things.3.The country was blessed by notable advantages….Bless: to favorBe blessed with: to be favored with, be fortunate enough to possess e.g. I am not rich but am blessed with good health.4.Had that been so, the Indians, for whom ….●―.. would have developed‖: subjunctive mood●had that been so…: if that had been so. If the favorable ratio betweenpopulation and resources had been the only factor…●―first settlers‖refers to the founders of Jamestown in 1607 and the 102passengers who sailed on the Mayflower in 1620 to plant the first colony atPlymouth (in what is today southeastern Massachusetts)5.What mattered equally was the spirit….●approach: to begin dealing with; to adopt a method for attaining a goal orpurpose●What can the challenges be?The challenges may include the diseases, hunger and harsh environment they faced after their landing in the New World, their relationship with the native Indians. (We have talked a lot about those challenges faced by frontiers in lesson2. what the first settlers had to deal with is quite the same with that those frontiersdid.)Para.36.One factor was the deep faith in education…..●Faith: complete, unquestioning acceptance of something●Why does the author say this belief existed from the earliest days ….?The first settlers were mainly puritans who had a tradition of respecting learning because they believed that reading the Bible is the only way to communicate with God. Therefore, after they settled down and solved the problem of feeding their family, the next thing they did was to build churches and schools in their settlement. For instance, The Harvard College was founded in 1636, the Yale College in 1701. A public school system was set up in Massachusetts in 1647.7.It arose originally from a philosophical rather than an economic commitment….●philosophical commitment: dedication to abstract thought-out principles. Here,it refers to dedication to the belief and values of democracy.●It arose originally from a philosophical rather than economic commitment…The thinking of Thomas Jefferson exemplifies the position that State-owned education for all citizens was seen as a basic requirement for democracy. He wrote in 1816,―If a nation expects to be ignora nt and free, in a state of civilization, it expects what never was and never will be.‖Education was seen as the means to enable the public to make ―right choices‖.( those consistent with democratic values) and maintain stability within the republic.The United State has a number of laws on education:The Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862The G.I. Bill of 1944National Defense Education Act of 1958The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965The Higher Education Act of 1965Now, the United States has the most advanced educational system in the world which offer unparalleled educational opportunity to its youth. For instance,between 1990 and 1995 over 8.5 million students enrolled every year in colleges and universities. Remember, the total population of the United States is about 2 billion.( how many enrolled in our country?)●But, at the same time, it also helped produce the conditions essential tosuccessful …In spite of the fact that economic commitment was not the major reason for respect for learning, wide literacy became a necessary condition for modernization. Just as the saying goes ―Knowledge is power‖. Max Weber points out that Protestant ethics paved the way for the development of capitalism.This statement also serves as a smooth transition to the next paragraph.Para.48.Modern industrial society must be above all a literate society.●This sentence echoes with the last sentence of the previous paragraph andforms a smooth transition. In writing your own essays, you should learn to use transitional sentences to ensure a smooth running of ideas.●Do you think the concept applicable to China, too?Does it remind you of Our national policy of ―科教兴国‖? It is based on this concept.9.J.K. Galbraith has rightly observed that….●intellectual improvement: increase in one‘s intellectual ability, referring toeducation智力提高●capital goods: materials used in production生产资料●report: to recount, to give an account of●Galbraith‘s observation is correct, but it takes decision-makers with long-termperspective to really grasp the significance of Galbraith‘s observation and to do accordingly. Why? Because money invested in construction may bring tangible results in a relatively short period of time while the result of investment in intellectual improvement may not be evident/ obvious for a long period of time.As soon as China decided to shits its priority to national construction, one of the first things done was to reintroduce national college entrance examination in 1977. For the same reason, we have made education, science and technology a major means in our social and economic development. However, in many places, education is still neglected by local officials. Actually, we are not unfamiliar with reports about improper usage of educational investment and postponed payment of school teachers. So, it is still a hard task to make decision-makers at all levels to really grasp Galbraith‘s observation.Para.510.Another factor in the process of American development has been the commitmentto ….●Self-government is the principle that the people are the ultimate source ofgoverning authority and that their general welfare is the only legitimate purpose of government. Do you know the address by Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg with the world famous saying ―…a government of the people, by the people and for the people‖? This saying represents the essence of self-government. I must say, this is a political ideal sought after by all nations including us. We have similar slogans such as ―nothing is trivial when itconcerns the interests of the people‖, ―to govern for the people‖and ―to represent the greatest interests of the largest number of people‖, etc.Three Represents:the CPC has always represented the development trend of advanced productive f orces,the orientation of advanced culture and the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the people in China.●Representative institutions: refer to a system of government institutions thatgive citizens the opportunity to vote for representatives who will work ontheir behalf. In the United States, every four years, the voters will vote formembers of the electoral college who will, in turn, elect the president. Everytwo years, the voters will elect members of the House of Representatives.and one third of the members of the Sen ate. It is anybody‘s guess whether these people, once elected, will work for the interests of the majority of the people.In the presidential election of 2000, about half of the qualified voters tookpart in the vote, of which, half voted for George W. Bush. So when Bush was elected, he represented only about a quarter of American voters.If you are interested, you can find more information on the American electoral systemafter class.11.We have found no better way than democracy to fulfilling man‘s talents and release his energies.●Fulfill: to develop to the full●We have found no better way than democracy…We have found democracy the best way to …12.A related factor has been the conviction of the importance of ….●The individual is the source of creativity: all creation and creative ideas comefrom each individual.●Unlike Chinese, Americans have a tradition of emphasizing individualism andrespecting individual freedom and independence. That might be because thefirst settlers and later frontier men had to meet all the challenges and solve allthe problems individually.13. Another has been the understanding of the role of cooperative activity….●Emphasis on personal freedom and person initiative does not precludecooperative activity because cooperation is also important to realize a big goal.●Cooperative activity takes two forms; one is public, that is to say, compulsory;the other is voluntary. Public cooperative activity presumably is organized bythe government. As we have learnt in Lesson One, ever since President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the government has played a more positive andimportant role in the life of American people. V oluntary activity is alsocommon and widespread in the U.S. such as community services. There arealso many voluntary organizations in the U.S.Para.614. But fundamental to all of these, and perhaps the single most important explanation…a)Key sentence of the paragraphb)… the national rejection of dogmatic preconceptions about….As a nation, America has refused to cling to certain rigid principles concerning social and economic development. America has been adaptable and flexible.Americans, in general, are not dogmatic. They do not cling to theories. Theybelieve experience and are not afraid of mistakes. Trials and errors are natural in experiments. This is similar to Chairman Mao‘s ―Practice is the ultimate test of truth‖.c)preconceptions: opinions and beliefs formed in advance without actualknowledge事先在头脑中形成的看法或观念d)dogmatic: of or based on Dogma (a belief or principle that people areexpected to accept without reasoning. In Chinese it is called 教条)e)dogmatic preconception: 教条式的偏见14.America has had the good fortune not to be an ideological society.a)It is lucky that Americans are not keen on following a body of rigid ideas ortheories in their social, economic or political activities.b)It is true to say that America is not an ideological society when dealing withdomestic affairs. In constructing their country, Americans have beengenerally pragmatic. But in dealing international affairs, it is not the case. Itseems to me that they are always trying to impose their ideology on otherpeople. The latest example can be the war against Iraq, by which they imposeso-called democracy on Iraq and try to rebuild the nation according to theirideological standard. Another example is their constant accusation of ourhumanitarian problem in China.c)The witch Hunt and McCarthyism are examples of aberration(偏差,越轨).However, this kind of aberration did not last long because it wasincompatible with American concept of pragmatism.d)McCarthyism is the politically motivated practice of making accusations ofdisloyalty, subversion, or treason without proper regard for evidence. Theterm specifically describes activities associated with the period in the UnitedStates known as the Second Red Scare, lasting roughly from the late 1940s tothe late 1950s and characterized by heightened fears of communist influenceon American institutions and espionage by Soviet by agents. Originallycoined to criticize the anti-communist pursuits of US senate Joseph McCarthe)―McCarthyism‖ soon took on a broader meaning, describing the excesses ofsimilar efforts. The term is also now used more generally to describe reckless, unsubstantiated(无事实支持的)accusations, as well as demagogic(煽动的蛊惑人心的) attacks on the character or patriotism of political adversaries.During the post–World War II era of McCarthyism, many thousands ofAmericans were accused of being Communists or communist sympathizersand became the subject of aggressive investigations and questioning beforegovernment or private-industry panels, committees and agencies. Theprimary targets of such suspicions were government employees, those in theentertainment industry, educators and union activists. Suspicions were oftengiven credence(belief) despite inconclusive(无结果的,无效的) orquestionable evidence, and the level of threat posed by a person‘s real orsupposed leftist associations or beliefs was often greatly exaggerated.f)Many people suffered loss of employment, destruction of their careers, andeven imprisonment. Most of these punishments came about through trialverdicts(裁决,裁定) later overturned, laws that would be declaredunconstitutional, dismissals for reasons later declared illegal or actionable可起诉的, or extra-legal procedures that would come into general disrepute.g)The most famous examples of McCarthyism include the speeches,investigations, and hearings of Senator McCarthy himself; the Hollywoodblackist（151 professionals) , associated with hearings conducted by theHouse Committee on Un-American Activities and the variousanti-communist activities of the FBI under Director J. Edgar Hoover.McCarthyism was a widespread social and cultural phenomenon that affectedall levels of society and was the source of a great deal of debate and conflictin the United States.Part III. (Paras.7-10)Para.715.By ideology I mean a body of systematic and rigid dogma by which people seekto understand the world--- and to preserve or transform it.a)By ideology I mean: this is a way of giving a definitionb)What are the elements in the definition of ideology?The definition includes tow elements: one is a group of doctrines (beliefs) which are precise and not flexible and which form a system; the other is the use of these doctrines to understand, preserve or transform the world.16.In the record of this conflict, ideology has attracted….a)In the record of this conflict, ideology has attracted some of the strongestintell igences mankind has produced…在意识形态体系与经验主义斗争的历史上，意识形态体系曾吸引了人类历史上一些聪明绝顶的人物……b)the strongest intelligences: refer to those bright, perceptive people in historyc)What is the one big thing the hedgehogs know?The one big thing is that when hedgehogs encounter danger, they will invariably curl themselves up into balls with the sharp spines sticking out as defense. This is the only way they know to protect themselves. The hedgehog is here being compared to the ideologist who only follows the dogma he believes in.d)What is the characteristic of the foxes?The foxes do not stick to one way of protecting themselves. They use many different ways to deceive their chasers.Sir Isaiah Berlin: (June 6,1909-Nov .5.1997) was a political philosopher and historian of ideas, regarded as one of the leading liberal thinkers of the 20th century.Para.817.Nor can one suggest that Americans have been consistently immune to …Explanation:No one can say that Americans have never been tempted by the approach of understanding, preserving or transforming the world according to rigid dogmas.…to define national goals in a n ordered, comprehensive and permanent way. …以一种有序，全面，永恒的方式来确定国家目标。

British Literature Pope & Swift

Alexander Pope
When he was 15, he began to translate classic works from Latin. In 1704-1705 he paraphrased from Chaucer and in 1707 from the verses of Ovid. By this time he had been accepted into the literary society of London and hade made acquaintances with wellknown men of letters of the time, such as Wycherley, John Dryden, and Congreve. These friends handed Pope’s verses to well-known critics of the time, who saw the boy’s genius and contributed to their praises.
Lectures 12-13
British Literature
of the First Half of the 18th Century (Pope & Swift)
1. Chief Literary Achievements of the Period
The Age of Classicism/古典主义时期, or rather of Neoclassicism/新古典主义, in English literary History refers to the literary trend in the first half of the 18th century. The new literature reached its peak with strong concentration and vigour, of which Alexander Pope was its central figure. Besides Pope, Swift was also its outstanding representative. The two writers are great masters of satire and poetry in heroic couplet, which are the most prominent achievements of English Neoclassicism.

草率概括的谬误英语作文

草率概括的谬误英语作文Title: The Pitfalls of Hasty Generalization。

Hasty generalization, a common fallacy in reasoning, occurs when one draws a conclusion based on insufficient evidence or a limited sample size. This error in thinking can lead to misconceptions, stereotypes, and flawed judgments. In this essay, we will explore the implicationsof hasty generalization, its prevalence in various contexts, and strategies to mitigate its impact.First and foremost, hasty generalization undermines the credibility of arguments and decisions. By extrapolating from a small or unrepresentative sample, individuals risk overlooking important nuances and complexities within a given situation. For example, forming opinions about an entire demographic based on the actions of a fewindividuals perpetuates stereotypes and fosters discrimination.Moreover, hasty generalization distorts reality and impedes critical thinking. In the age of information overload, people are often inundated with anecdotes, opinions, and cherry-picked data points. Without careful scrutiny and analysis, these snippets of information can shape erroneous beliefs and misguided perceptions. Consequently, individuals may overlook contradictory evidence or alternative viewpoints, leading to a narrow-minded outlook on issues.The ramifications of hasty generalization extend beyond individual cognition to societal structures and public discourse. In politics, for instance, politicians may exploit this fallacy to sway public opinion and garner support for their agendas. By selectively highlighting isolated incidents or cherry-picking statistics, they manipulate emotions and perceptions to advance their narratives. As a result, constructive dialogue and evidence-based policymaking are sidelined in favor of polarizing rhetoric and partisan agendas.In addition, hasty generalization permeates the realmof media and popular culture. Sensationalized news headlines, clickbait articles, and viral social media posts often rely on exaggerated anecdotes or cherry-picked examples to attract attention and generate engagement. This sensationalism not only distorts reality but also perpetuates misinformation and reinforces existing biases among the audience.To counteract the pitfalls of hasty generalization, it is imperative to adopt a critical mindset and employ evidence-based reasoning. This entails questioning assumptions, seeking diverse perspectives, and rigorously evaluating the validity of sources. By cultivating a habit of skepticism and intellectual humility, individuals can guard against the allure of simplistic narratives and superficial conclusions.Furthermore, promoting media literacy and critical thinking skills is essential in combating the spread of hasty generalization. Educating individuals on logical fallacies, research methodologies, and fact-checking techniques empowers them to navigate the informationlandscape discerningly. By fostering a culture of intellectual rigor and skepticism, society can inoculate itself against the pernicious influence of hasty generalization.In conclusion, hasty generalization poses a significant threat to rational discourse, informed decision-making, and societal cohesion. By succumbing to this fallacy, individuals risk oversimplifying complex issues, perpetuating stereotypes, and undermining the pursuit of truth. Through introspection, education, and critical thinking, we can guard against the allure of hasty generalization and cultivate a more reasoned and equitable society.。

行政管理理论英文

行政管理理论英文Public Administration TheoryIntroductionPublic administration is an important field of study that focuses on the implementation and management of government policies and programs. It encompasses various theories and approaches that aim to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public sector organizations. In this paper, we will explore several key theories in public administration, including classical, behavioral, systems, and contingency theories. We will also examine the evolution of public administration theory and its relevance in today's complex and rapidly changing world.Classical TheoryClassical theory is one of the earliest and most influential approaches to public administration. It is based on the idea that organizations should be structured and managed in a rational and hierarchical manner. This theory was developed during the late19th and early 20th centuries, when industrialization and urbanization led to the need for more efficient and effective forms of governance.One of the key figures in classical theory is Max Weber, who proposed the concept of bureaucracy as a way to organize and manage complex organizations. Weber identified several key principles of bureaucracy, including division of labor, hierarchy of authority, rules and regulations, impersonality, and career advancement based on merit. These principles are intended to create a rational and efficient organizational structure that caneffectively carry out the goals and objectives of the government. Behavioral TheoryBehavioral theory emerged as a reaction to the shortcomings of classical theory, particularly its emphasis on formal structure and rational decision-making. Behavioral theorists argued that human behavior is complex and often irrational, and that organizations should be designed and managed with this in mind. This approach focuses on the psychological and sociological aspects of organizational behavior, with an emphasis on employee motivation, leadership, and group dynamics.One of the key figures in behavioral theory is Chester Barnard, who proposed the concept of the "acceptance theory of authority." According to Barnard, authority is only effective if it is acceptedby the subordinates, and managers must take into account the needs and motivations of their employees in order to achieve organizational goals. This perspective led to a greater emphasis on human relations and employee participation in decision-making, as well as a recognition of the importance of informal networks and communication within organizations.Systems TheorySystems theory is based on the idea that organizations are complex and interdependent systems that must be understood as a whole, rather than as a collection of separate parts. This approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of different elements within an organization, as well as the interactions between the organization and its external environment. Systems theory also highlights the importance of feedback loops and the ability of organizations toadapt and evolve in response to changing conditions.One of the key figures in systems theory is Ludwig von Bertalanffy, who developed the concept of "general systems theory." According to von Bertalanffy, general systems theory provides a framework for understanding the common principles that underlie all complex systems, regardless of their specific nature or domain. This approach has been influential in shaping our understanding of organizations as open, dynamic, and adaptive systems that are constantly interacting with their environment. Contingency TheoryContingency theory is based on the idea that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to management, and that the best course of action depends on the specific context and circumstances facing an organization. This approach emphasizes the need for managers to be flexible and adaptable in their decision-making, and to take into account the unique challenges and opportunities presented by different situations.One of the key figures in contingency theory is Fred Fiedler, who developed the "contingency model of leadership." According to Fiedler, the effectiveness of a leader depends on the match between their leadership style and the situational context in which they are operating. This perspective has led to a greater recognition of the importance of situational awareness and the need for managers to be able to adjust their approach in response to changing conditions.Evolution of Public Administration TheoryOver the years, public administration theory has evolved in response to changes in the external environment, as well as advances in organizational and management scholarship. One important trend has been the shift from a focus on formal structure and rational decision-making to a greater emphasis on organizational behavior and the complex, dynamic nature of organizations. This has led to a greater recognition of the importance of human relations, employee motivation, and the need for organizations to be able to adapt and evolve in response to changing conditions.Another important trend has been the increasing recognition of the importance of the external environment in shaping the behavior and performance of organizations. This has led to a greater emphasis on the interconnectedness of organizations and the need for them to be able to respond to changes in their external environment in order to remain effective. This has also led to a greater recognition of the importance of collaboration and networked governance in addressing complex and interdependent public policy challenges.Relevance in Today's WorldPublic administration theory remains highly relevant in today's complex and rapidly changing world. Organizations are facing unprecedented challenges and opportunities as a result of globalization, technological innovation, and demographic change. In this context, the principles and insights provided by public administration theory can help organizations to navigate these challenges and to remain effective and responsive in the face of uncertainty and complexity.One important area of relevance is in the realm of public policy and governance. Public administration theory provides valuable insights into the management of public sector organizations, as well as the design and implementation of public policies and programs. This can help to ensure that public sector organizations are able to effectively carry out their mandates and to deliver high-quality services to the public in a cost-effective and accountable manner.Another important area of relevance is in the realm of organizational behavior and management. Public administration theory can help to illuminate the complex and dynamic nature of organizations, as well as the challenges and opportunities facing managers and leaders. This can help to ensure that organizations are able to adapt and evolve in response to changing conditions, as well as to foster a more inclusive, collaborative, and effective work environment.ConclusionIn conclusion, public administration theory encompasses a diverse range of perspectives and approaches that aim to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of public sector organizations. Classical, behavioral, systems, and contingency theories each provide valuable insights into the management and governance of organizations, as well as the challenges and opportunities facing them. The evolution of public administration theory has led to a greater emphasis on the dynamic and interconnected nature of organizations, as well as the importance of collaboration and adaptability in responding to changing conditions. In today'scomplex and rapidly changing world, public administration theory remains highly relevant and can provide valuable guidance for organizations and policymakers as they navigate the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century.。

武汉大学考博英语模拟试卷26(题后含答案及解析)

武汉大学考博英语模拟试卷26(题后含答案及解析)题型有：1. Reading Comprehension 2. English-Chinese Translation 3. Chinese-English Translation 4. WritingReading ComprehensionFriction between America’s military and its civilian overseers is nothing new. America’s 220-year experiment in civilian control of the military is a recipe for friction. The nation’s history has seen a series of shifts in decision-making power among the White House, the civilian secretaries and the uniformed elite(精英). However, what may seem on the outside an unstable and special system of power sharing has, without a doubt, been a key to two centuries of military success. In the infighting dates to the revolution, George Washington waged a continual struggle not just for money, but to control the actual battle plan. The framers of the Constitution sought to clarify things by making the president the “commander in chief.”Not since Washington wore his uniform and led the troops across the Alleghenies to quell(镇压)the Whiskey Rebellion has a sitting president taken command in the field. Yet the absolute authority of the president ensures his direct command. The president was boss, and everyone in uniform knew it. In the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln dealt directly with his generals, and Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton handled administrative details. Lincoln, inexperienced in military matters, initially deferred(顺从)to his generals. But when their caution proved disastrous, he issued his General War Order No. 1—explicitly commanding a general advance of all Union forces. Some generals, George B. McClellan in particular, bridled at his hands-on direction. But in constitutional terms, Lincoln was in the right. His most important decision was to put Ulysses S. Grant in charge of the Union Army in 1864. Left to its own timetable, the military establishment would never have touched Grant. The relationship between the president and his general provides a textbook lesson in civilian control and power sharing. Grant was a general who would take the fight to the enemy, and not second-guess the president’s political decisions. Unlike McClellan, for example, Grant cooperated wholeheartedly in recruiting black soldiers. For his part, Lincoln did not meddle in operations and did not visit the headquarters in the field unless invited. The balance set up by Grant and Lincoln stayed more or less in place through World War I. Not until World War II did the pendulum finally swing back toward the White House. Franklin Roosevelt, who had been assistant Navy secretary during World War I, was as well prepared to be commander in chief as any wartime president since George Washington.1．According to the author, the system of power sharing between the White House and the generals _____.A．is unstable and strangeB．is a guarantee for American military successC．has caused a series of quarrelsD．undermines the bases Of American military power正确答案：B解析：文章开头就指出，美国军界及其文职上司的矛盾由来已久，但是这个貌似脆弱的分享权力的体系，却是二百多年来美国军事胜利的保障。

公共管理学完整版英文翻译XN

Chapter 2课本第一章An Era of Change改变的年代、时代Introduction引言There has been a transformation（转化、变革) in the management of the public sectors of advanced countries.在发达国家的公共部门的管理已经有了一个变革.This new paradigm poses（形成，造成) a direct challenge to several of what had previously been regarded as fundamental principles of traditional public administration。

这个新的范例对几个原先被认为是传统公共行政的基础规则提出了直接挑战。

These seven seeming verities(真理）have been challenged。

这几个真理被挑战。

Economic problems in the 1980s meant governments reassessed（重新评估）their bureaucracies and demanded changes。

1980s的经济问题意味着政府重新评估他们的官僚制并且需要改变.All these points will be discussed at greater length（长度）later, but the main point is there has been total change in a profession that saw little change for around a hundred years.这些观点会在以后做更大范围的讨论,但是这里强调的主要是一点:一百年来很少发生变革的公共职业领域发生了全面变革.A new paradigm一个新的范例There is some debate over whether or not public managemnet，particularly the new public management, is a new paradigm for public sector management.有个争论，关于公共管理尤其是新的公共管理是不是公共部门管理的一个新的范例。

英汉翻译之转换法

The Master of Arts degree occasionally may be obtained after one year of additional specialized study.
It is stipulated that foreign investment in a joint venture shall not be, in general, less than 25% of the authorized capitals.
The board decides how school funds are to be allocated, and has some voice in establishing the curriculum.
While some subjects are required of everyone, some high school students, in addition, take vocational classes.
Psychologically there are two dangers to be guarded against in old age. One of these is undue absorption in the past. The other thing to be avoided is clinging to youth in the hope of sucking vigor from its vitality.
To whom nothing is given, of him can nothing be required.
The best work is done the way ants do things--by tiny, tireless and regular additions.

英美国家概况填空题

英美国家概况填空题Chapter 11. The two main island of the Britain Isles are Great Britain and Ireland.2.Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland.3. Among the four parts of the United Kingdom , Northern Ireland is the smallest.4.English belong to the Germanic group of the Indo-European family of languages.5.The introduction of Christianity to Britain added the first element of Latin and Greek.6.The evolution of Middle English was reinforced by the Norman influence.7.Samuel Johnson ’ s dictionary was influential in establishing a stan d arform of spelling.8. At present ,nearly one-third of the world’ s population communicate in English. Chapter 21.The Germanic attack on Rome ended the Roman occupation in Britain in 410.2.By the late 7 th century , Roman Christianity became the dominant religion in England.3.The Norman Conquest marked the establish of feudalism in England.4.The end of the Wars of the Roses led to the rule of the House of Tudor.5.The direct cause for the Reformation was King Henry VIII divorce ’hiss wifeefort. to6.The English Civil War broke out in 1642 between the Royalists and the Parliamentarians .7.The Bill of Rights was passed after the Glorious Revolution.th8. The Industrial Revolution was accomplish in Britain by the middle of the 19 century. Chapter 3 1.The British government is characterized by a division of powers between three of the following branches EXCEPT the monarchy.2. The importance of the British monarchy can be seen in its effect on public attitude.3.As a revising chamber ,the House of Lords is expected to complement the House of Commons.4.The Cabinet is at the center of the British political system.5. The main duty of the British Privy Council is to give advice.6.Generally speaking ,the British Parliament operates on a two-party system.7.The policies of the Conservative Party are characterized by pragmatism and a belief in individualism.8.In Britain ,the parliamentary general election is held every five years.1.The oil crisis in the early 1970s worsened an already stagnant economy in Britain.2.Of the following practices , reducing unemployment did not belong to Thatcher ’social welfare reform.3.The Blair government was successful in all the following aspects EXCEPT reducing inequality .4. Britain has devoted about 70% of its land area to agriculture.5.Britain's important fishing areas include all the following EXCEPTthe sea area between6. Coal mining industry in Britain provides one-third of the energy consumed in the country.7.The car industry in Britain is mostly foreign-owned .8.Of the following sectors in Britain, the service sector has experienced spectacular growth sincethe end of World War II.Chapter 51.In Britain, the division between grammar schools and vocational schools was ended by the introduction of comprehensive schools in the1960s.2. Over7%of British children receive primary and secondary education through theindependent system.3.Partially funded by central government grants, most of the British universities receive their remaining funds from all the following sources EXCEPT loans4.To be admitted to the Open University, one needs no educational qualifications.5.Among Britain's quality press, the following newspapers are regarded as the 'Big Three" EXCEPT The Observer.6.Life on Earth is a kind of documentary program produced by the BBC and is popular worldwide.7.BSkyB is Britain's top pay-television provider.8.The following Christmas traditions are particularly British EXCEPT Trooping the Color. Chapter 6l. The most significant achievement of the English Renaissance is drama.2.The Preface to Lyrical Ballads is viewed as Romantic Poetry's "Declaration of Independence".3. Of Dickens' novels,David Copperfield is considered most autobiographical.4. Thomas Hardy is a representative of English Critical Realism at the turn of the 19th century.5.Of the following books,Adam Bede is NOT written by Thomas Hardy.6. Oscar Wilde is NOT included in the modernist group.7.Of the following writers,James Joyceis NOT a Nobel Prize winner.8.Waiting for Godot is written by Samuel Beckett .1.The U.S. lies in central North America, with Canada to the north, Mexico to the south, the Atlantic to its east and the Pacific to its west.2.The continental United States has 48 states.3.The states of Alaska is the largest in area of all the U.S. states.4.The longest river in the U.S. is the Mississippi River.5. Some of the world-famous universities like Harvard, Yale and MIT are located in New England .6.San Francisco, Los Angeles and San Diego all belong toCalifornia7.The Immigration Act of 1924 restricted further immigration into the United States, particularly from Europe.8. The characteristics of the dominant American culture are English-speaking, Western European, Protestant and middle-class .Chapter 91.The first successful English colony in North America was founded at Jamestown in Virginia .2.The Seven Years' War occurred between the French and the British .3."No taxation without representation" was the rallying slogan of the people of the 13 colonies .4.In May 1775, the Second Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia and began to assume the functions of a provisional government.5.Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to grant freedom to all slaves.6.The policy of the United States was neutrality at the beginning of the two World Wars.7.President Roosevelt introduced the New Deal to deal with the problems of the Great Depression.8.The Vietnam War was a long-time suffering for Americans, and it continued throughout theterms of Presidents Eisenhower, KennedY and Johnson.Chapter 101.The U.S. Constitution came into effect in 1789 .2.The Constitution of the United States tries to give each branch enough power to balance the others .3.The Bill of Rights guarantees citizens of the United States specific individual rights and freedom .4. The terms for a Senator and Representative are six and two years respectively.5.All the following can make legislative proposals EXCEPT the Secretary of State .6.The following are all powers of the President EXCEPT making laws .7.The Supreme Court is composed of nine justices.8. The President is directly voted into office by electors elected by the voters .1.America produces a major portion of the world's products in the following fields EXCEPT ore .2.The modern American economy progressed from a colonial economy to a farming economy and than to an industrial economy .3.Chartered companies were NOT granted the diplomatic authority by the British King or Queen.4. Alexander Hamilton urged the federal government to establish a national bank.5.The following inventions took place during the "second industrial revolution"EXCEPTrefrigerator .6.President Johnson tried to build a "Great Society" by introducing various programs like the following EXCEPTUnemployment Pension .7.The following statements are all true EXCEPT Agribusinesses maintain a balanced trade pattern between agricultural imports and exports.8. Employment in the service sector has been increasing in the U.S. since the 1970s.Chapter 121.Formal education in the United States consists of elementary , secondary and higher education.2.Of the following subjects, politics and business education are NOT offered to elementary school students.3. Higher education in the United States began with the founding of Harvard College.4.Of the following, research institutions are NOT among the categories of American higher education.5.To get a bachelor's degree, all undergraduate students are required to do the following EXCEPT working for communities .6.The New York Times is sold especially to the upper or upper-middle class and has a reputationfor its serious attitude and great bulk.7.Of the following, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is NOT among the three major radio and TV networks in America.8.The National Day of the United States falls on July 4th each year.Chapter 131. Of the following writers, Benjamin Franklin and Jonathan Edwards are from the Colonial and Revolutionary Periods.2.Washington Irving is regarded as the "father of American literature".3.Of the following, Moby Dick is considered Herman Melville's masterpiece.4.Of the following, an idealistic view is NOT characteristic of Mark Twain's works.5. Of the following writers, Herman Melville is NOT included in the group of naturalists.6.F. Scott Fitzgerald's finest novel is The Great Gatsby, and its theme is about the American Dream.7. Of the following writers, Alice Walker is NOT a Nobel Prize winner.8. Toni Morrison is the first African-American winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature.。

英美文学期末复习资料+所有作家作品流派总结442

一、文学术语*41.Epic叙事诗，史诗A long narrative poem telling about the deeds of a great hero and reflecting the values of the society fromwhich it originated.Many epics were drawn from an oral tradition and were transmitted by song and recitation before they were written down.Twoof the most famous epics of Western civilization are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.The great epic of the Middle Ages is The DivineComedy（神曲）by the Italian poet Dante.The two most famous English epics are the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf and John Milton'sParadise Lost,which employ some of the conventions of the classical epic.2.Naturalism自然主义（文学、艺术以反映现实为宗旨）Naturalism is a term of literary history,primarily a French movement in prose fiction and the dramaduring the final thirdof the19th century,although it is also applied to similar movements or groups of writers in other countries in the later decades ofthe19th and early years of the20th cents.In France Emile Zola(1840-1902)was the dominant practitioner(习艺者，专业人员)of Naturalism in prose fiction and the chief exponent（鼓吹者，倡导者，拥护者；能手，大师）of its doctrines.The emergence of Naturalism does not mark a radical（彻底的）break with Realism,rather the new style is a logicalextension of it.Broadly speaking,Naturalism is characterized by a refusal to idealize experience and by the persuasion thathuman life is strictly subjected to natural laws.The Naturalists shared with the earlier Realists the conviction that the everydaylife of the middle and lower classes of their own day provided subjects worthy of serious literary treatment. Emphasis was laid onthe influence of the material and economic environment on behavior,and on the determining effects of physical and hereditaryfactors in forming the individual temperament.Famous American Naturalistic writers would include Jack London,Stephen Craneand Frank Norris,who were deeply influenced by Charles Darwin's evolution theory which believe that one's heredity and socialsituation limit one's character.3.Modernism现代派（盛行于20世纪的文学风格）Modernism was a complex and diverse international movement in all the creative arts,originating about the end of the19thcentury and prosperity in the20th century.The major themes of the modernist literature are the distorted, alienated and illrelationships between man and nature,man and society,man and man,and man and himself.The modernist writers concentratemore on the private than on the public,more on the subjective than on the objective.They are mainly concerned with the innerbeing of an individual.In their writings,the past,the present and the future are mingled（混合）together and exist at the sametime in the consciousness of an individual.4.Transcendentalism超验主义It was a reaction to the18th century Newtonian concept of the universe.The major features of New EnglandTranscendentalism can be summarized as follows:1.The Transcendentalists placed emphasis on spirit,or the Oversoul,as themost important thing in the universe.2.The Transcendentalists stressed the importance of the individual.To them the individualwas the most important element of society.3.The Transcendentalists offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spiritor God.Nature was,to them,not purely matter.It was alive,filled with God's overwhelming presence.I.Major Literary Terms in The Anglo-Norman Period1.Romance:Any imaginative literature that is set in an idealized world and that deals with heroic adventures and battles betweengood characters and villains or monsters.Originally,the term referred to a medieval tale dealing with the loves and adventures ofkings and queens,knights and ladies,and including unlikely or supernatural happenings.Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is thebest of the medieval romances.John Keats's The Eve of St.Agnes is one of the greatest metrical（格律）romances ever written.2.Ballad（民谣，叙事歌谣）:A story told in verse and usually meant to be sung.In many centuries,the folk ballad was one of theearliest forms of literature.Folk ballads have no known authors.They were transmitted orally from generation to generation andwere not set down in writing until centuries after they were first sung.The subject matter of folk ballads stems from the everydaylife of the common people.The most popular subjects,often tragic,are disappointed love,jealousy,revenge, sudden disaster anddeeds of adventure and daring.Devices commonly used in ballads are the the refrain（叠词）,incremental repetition（叠句）and code language（特定语言）.A later form of ballad is the literary ballad which imitates the style of the folk ballad.The mostfamous English literary ballad is Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner（老水手之歌）.二、选择&填空The Anglo-Norman PeriodThe literature which Normans brought to England is remarkable for its____tales of___and___,in marked contrast of____and____of Anglo-Saxon poetry.romantic,love,adventure,strength,somberness（昏暗；冷静）Geoffrey Chaucer1.The Canterbury Tales contains in fact a General Prologue and only_____tales,of which two are left unfinished.242.The____provides a framework for the tales in The Canterbury Tales and it comprises a group of vivid pictures of variousmedieval figures.Prologue序言3.The Canterbury Tales is Chaucer's greatest work and the greater part of it was written in____Couplets.Heroic（英雄双韵体）4.The pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales are on their way to the shrine of St.Thomas a Becket at the place named____.Canterbury5.In The Canterbury Tales,from the character of_____,we may see a very vivid sketch of a woman of the middle class,and acolorful picture of the domestic life of that class in Chaucer's own day.the Wife of Bath（巴斯夫人：齐叟笔下一个结过5次婚等待第六位丈夫的女人）Renaissance1.Hamlet,Othello,King Lear,and____are generally regarded as Shakespeare's four great tragedies.Macbeth2.Absolute monarchy in England reached its summit during the reign of_____.Queen Elizabeth3._____wrote his_____in which he gave a profound and truthful picture of people's sufferings and put forward his ideal of afuture happy society.Thomas More，UtopiaThe literature of the17th century1.After____'s death,monarchy was again restored in1660.It was called the period of_____.Oliver Cromwell;Restoration2.The Glorious Revolution took place in the year of_____1688.3.Paradise Lost tells how____rebelled against God and how___and___were driven out of Eden.Satan;Adam,Eve.4.Bunyan's most important work is____,written in the form old-fashioned medieval form of_____and dream.The Pilgrim's Progress;allegory寓言the18th century literature1.The image of an enterprising Englishman of the18th century was created by Daniel Defoe in his famous novel______.Robinson Crusoe2.The18th century in English literature is an age of___.prose3.Jonathan Swift's masterpiece is___..Gulliver's Travels4.William Blake's work___(1794)are in marked contrast with the Songs of Innocence天真之歌.The Songs of Experience经验之歌5.The greatest of___poets in the18th century is Robert Burns.Scottishthe19th century literature1.With the publication of William Wordworth's______with S.T.Coleridge,______began to bloom and founda firm place inthe history of English literature.Lyrical Ballads抒情歌谣集,Romanticism2.The Romantic Age came to an end in1832when the last Romantic writer_____died.Walter Scott3.The greatest historical novelist_____was produced in the Romantic Age.Walter Scott4.The glory of the Romantic age is in the poetry of___,___,___,___,___,and___.Scott,Wordsworth,Coleridge科尔里奇,Byron,Shelley,Keats,Moore,Southey索西.5.The English Romantic Period produced two major novelists.They are______.Scott and Austen6.In his poems Wordsworth aimed at the_____and_____of the language.simplicity,purity7.Byron is chiefly known for his two long poems,one is Childe Harold's Pilgrimage,and the other is_____.Don Juan8.“Ode to a Nightingale”was written by_____.John Keats9.Jane Austen's literary concern is about human beings in their_____relationships.personal.Victorian Age1.In the19th century English literature,a new literary trend_____appeared after the romantic poetry,and flourished in the time of______.Critical realism,1840s and1850s.2.Critical realism reveals the corrupting influence of the rule of cash upon human nature.Here lies in the essentially_____and_____character of critical realism.Democratic,humanitarian3.In A tale of Two Cities,the two cities are_____and_____in the time of revolution.London,Paris4.In1847,Thackeray published his masterpiece_____,which marks the peak of his literary career.Vanity Fair5.It is Robert Browning who developed the literary form_____..Dramatic monologue戏剧独白20th century British Literature1.____had its outstanding advocate in Kipling,who with drum and trumpet,called upon England to“take up the Whiteman'sburden”by dominating all“lesser breeds without the law.”lmperialism2.Those“novels of character and environment”by Thomas Hardy are the lost representative of him as botha and acritical realist writer.Naturalistic3.It took Galsworthy twenty-two years to accomplish the monumental work,his masterpiece____The Forsyte Saga福尔赛世家wrence finished____,the autobiographical novel at which he had been working off and on for years, which was positivelytaken as a typical example and lively manifestation of the“Oedipus Complex”in fiction.Sons and Lovers5.___and___are the most outstanding stream of consciousness novelist.James Joyce，Virginia Woolf.6.____is generally regarded as Virginia Woolf's most remarkable work.To the LighthouseExercises on American Literature1.In the17th century,the English settlements in____and____began the main stream of what we recognize as the Americannational history.Virginia,Massachusetts2.Washington Irving's____became the first work by an American writer to win financial success on both sides of the Atlantic.Sketch Book3.Cooper's enduring fame rests on his frontier stories,especially the five novels that comprise the____.Leatherstocking Tales4.____was responsible for bringing Transcendentalism to New land.Ralph Waldo Emerson5.A superb book entitled____came out of Henry David Thoreau's two-year experiment at Walden Pond.Walden6.The book____is a tremendous chronicle of a whaling voyage in pursuit of a seemingly supernatural white whale.Moby DickBook two chapter one1.In his cluster of poems called Leaves of Grass,__gave America its first genuine epic poem.Walt Whitman2.As the founder of American Critical Realism,____enjoys the fame as“Lincoln of American literature”.Mark Twain3.____was considered the founder of psychological realism in America.Henry James4.The identification of potency（影响）with money is at the heart of Dreiser's greatest and most successful novel,____.An American TragedyThe20th century1.Pound was the leader of a new movement in poetry which he called the“_____Movement”.Imagist2.The most significant American poem of the20th century was_____.The Waste Land3.____of the1920s characterized by frivolity and carelessness is brought vividly to life in The Great Gatsby.The Jazz Age4.Hemingway's novel___painted the image of a whole generation,the Lost Generation.The Sun Also Rises5.____wrote about the disintegration（瓦解）of the old social system in the American southern states,and the lives of modempeople,both black and white.William Faulkner三、True or False1.In1066,Alexander the Great led the Norman army to invade England.It was called the Norman Conquest.F(William the Conqueror）2.The Story of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is the culmination（顶点）of the romances about Charles the Great.F(King Arthur and his knights)3.Robinson named Saturday to the saved victim.F(Friday)4.“A Modest Proposal”is made to Irish government to relieve the poverty of English people.F(Irish)5.It was Henry Fielding and Tobias Gorge Smollet who became the real founders of the genre of the bourgeois realistic novel inEngland and Europe.T6.Of all the romantic poets of the18th century,Blake is the most in-dependent and the most original.T7.George Eliot produced the remarkable novels including Adam Bede,The Mill on the Floss and Silas Marner. (true)8.The Bronte sisters are Charlotte Bronte,Emily Bronte and Anne Bronte.(true)9.The Victorian Age was largely an age of prose,especially of the novel.(true)10.David Copperfield is Thackeray's masterpiece.F(Dickens)11.The title of the novel Vanity Fair is taken from Bunyan's Pilgrim's progress.(true)12.In1907,John Galsworthy received the Nobel Prize for“idealism”in literature.Kim is his long novel.F(Kipling)13.George Bernard Shaw was strongly against the credo of“art for art's sake”.T14.The Importance of Being Earnest is written by Oscar Wilde.T15.Hester Prynne is the heroine in Nathaniel Hawthorne's novel The Scarlet Letter.T16.In1828,Noah Webster published his An American Dictionary of the English Language.T17.Stirred by the teachings of transcendentalism,writers of Boston and nearby towns produced a New England literaryrenaissance.T18.The Fall of the House of Usher is one of Edgar Allan Poe's poems.F(novels)19.Most of the poems in Leaves of Grass are about man and nature.T20.Emily Dickinson is a democratic poet.F(modernist)21.“The Cop and the Anthem”was written by Jack London.F(O Henry)22.While embracing the socialism of Marx,Jack London also believed in the triumph of the strongest individuals.Thiscontradiction is most vividly projected in the patently autobiographical novel The Call of the Wild F (Martin Eden)23.Between the mid-19th and the first decade of the20th century,there had been a big flush of new theories and new ideas inboth social id natural sciences,as well in the field of art in Europe,which played an indispensable role in bringing aboutmodernism and the modernistic writings in the United States.T24.The decade of the1910s,American literature achieved a new diversity and reached its greatest heights.F(1920s)25.John Steinbeck is a representative of the1930s,when“novels of social protest”became dominant on the American literaryscene.T26.John Updike is considered to be a spokesman for the alienated youth in the post-war era and his The Catcher in the Rye isregarded as students'classic.F（Jerome David Salinger）(J.D.Salinger）四、连线题作家流派/文体作品Literature Stylechiefly under theinfluenceRomance of the Roses of French poetryof theMiddle AgesChaucer heroic couplet英雄双韵体The House of Fame--《名誉堂》Troylus and Criseyde《特罗伊勒斯和克莱西德》The Legend of Good women--《良妇传说》The Parliament of Fowls--《百鸟堂》u nder the spell of thegreatliterary geniuses ofearlyRenaissance Italy:Danteand Petrarch andBoccaccioProduced hisworks ofThe Canterbury Tales《坎特伯雷故事集》maturity free fromanyforeign influence.William Langland Piers the Plowman《农夫皮尔斯》Alliteration(头韵)Thomas More托马斯.莫尔Utopia乌托邦Francis Bacon 弗朗西斯.培根T he Advancement of Learning《学术的推进》Of Studies《论读书》;Of wisdom《论智慧》EssayJohn Lyly Eupheus w ritten in a peculiar styleknown as EuphuismThomas Wyatt first introduced the sonnet托马斯.怀亚特into English literatureEarl of Surrey萨利伯爵Edmund Spenser 埃德蒙.斯宾塞Humanism人文主义created blankverseThe Fairy Queen《仙后》Lyrical poetryBen Jonson琼生Christopher E very Man in His Humour;Volpone,or the Fox; TheAlchemist;Bartholomew Fair.Marlowe克里Doctor Faustus;The Jew of Malta;Tamburlaine Play 斯托弗.马洛Robert Greene George Green;the Pinner of WakefieldWilliam Shakespeare威廉姆.莎士比亚Hamlet(哈姆雷特)，Othello(奥赛罗)，King Lear(李尔王)，The Tragedy of Macbeth(麦克白)37plays;blankverse1.Extraordinaryfrankness,John Donne 约翰.多恩“metaphysical”poets(玄学派诗人)《Death be not proud》《死神莫骄妄》Songs and Sonnets《歌谣与十四行诗》The RelicA Valediction:Forbidding Mourning《离别辞：莫忧伤》p enetrating realism,cynicism.2.Novelty of subjectmatter and point ofview.3.Novelty of form.John Milton 约翰.弥尔顿三个John都是the Puritans清教徒派《Defense for the English People》为英国人辩护《Paradise Lost》失乐园Samson Agoniste《s力士参孙》《Paradise Regained》复乐园Sonnet-On His Blindness1.The use of blankverse.2.Grand style.3.Inheritance fromtraditional works suchas《失明述怀》Sonnet-On His Deceased Wife《梦之妻》Bible.1.Written in theJohn Bunyan 约翰.拜扬Pilgrim’s ProgressThe Holy War《圣战》The Life and Death of Mr.BadmanGrace Abounding《丰盛恩惠》o ld-fashioned,medievalform of allegory anddream.2.His language ischieflyplain,colloquial,andquitemodern.Daniel Defoe realistic novel《Robinson Crusoe》鲁宾逊漂流记《Jonathan Wild》丹尼尔.笛福现实主义小说乔纳森.威尔德《Moll Flanders》摩尔.弗兰德斯《Joseph Andrews》约瑟夫.安德鲁斯Henry Fielding 亨利.菲尔丁Father of modernfiction《The History of Tom Jones,a foundling》弃婴汤姆.琼斯的故事The History of Jonathan Wild the Great《伟大的乔纳森·王尔德》Humor&satirist 《Gulliver’s Travels》格列佛游记Jonathan Swift 乔纳森.斯威夫特satirist反讽prose poetry《A Modest Proposal》一个温和的建议A Tale of a Tub1697《一只桶的故事》The Battle of the Books1698《书籍之战》The Drapier’s Letters1724《布商来信》Joseph Addison＆RichardSteele；their life-longJoseph Addlson The Tatler闲谈者The Spectator旁观者friendship and thepartnership inliterarycareer.the Pastorals(1709)（田园诗歌）the Essay on CriticismAlexander pope (1711)（论批评）The Rape of the Lock(1714)（卷发遇劫记）“Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady”;“Eloise to Abelard,Samuel 缪尔.理查森epistolarynovel(书信体小说），Englishdomestic novel(英国家庭小说）《Pamela》帕美勒Clarissa Harlowe克拉丽莎Sir Charles Grandison查尔斯•格兰迪森的历史Richardson塞psychological analysisRichard B.Sheridan理查德.B.谢尔丹comedy《School for Scandal》造谣学校the Rivals(情敌)t he only importantEnglishdramatist of the18thcentury《The Vicar of Wakefield》威克菲尔德的牧师，小说novelOliverGoldsmith’s奥利佛.哥尔德斯密斯《She Stoops to Conquer》委曲求全，欢乐喜剧rollicking comedy《The Deserted Village》荒村，诗歌The Traveller旅行者poems,诗歌The Citizen of the World世界公民essay以上6位都是18世纪Classicism(古典主义)、revival of romantic poetry(新兴的浪漫主义诗歌)、beginnings of the modern novel(刚启萌的现代派小说)的代表人物Thomas Gray 托马斯.格雷S entimentalism感伤主义no belief《Elegy,Written in aCountryChurchyard》墓园挽歌William Blake 威廉.布莱克Pre-romanticismS ongs of Innocence天真之歌SongsofExperience经验之歌PoeticalSketches素描诗集The Tiger老虎My Heart’s in the Highlands我的心呀Robert Burns 罗伯特.彭斯在高原John Anderson,My Jo约翰·安徒生，我爱A Red,Red Rose一朵红红的玫瑰To a Mouse致小鼠Auld Lang Syne友谊地久天长William Wordsworth 威廉.华兹华斯Lake Poets（湖畔派）Lyrical Ballads抒情歌谣《The Prelude》序曲1.Leading figure of Englishromanticpoetry2.See this world freshly andnaturally.3.Changed the course of EnglishpoetryLord Byron拜伦Romanticism《Childe Harold Pilgrimage》查尔德哈罗德游记Don Juan（唐璜）《Hours of Idleness》闲散时刻1.Renowned as the“gloomyegoist”2.“Byronic Hero”（拜伦式英雄）3.Devote himself into therevolutionPercy Bysshe Idealism Shelley雪莱（理想主义）《Prometheus Unbound》解放的普罗米修斯《Ode to the West Wind》西风颂The Cloud云1.Intense and original2.Reflect radical ideas andrevolutionaryoptimism3.Rebel against English politicsandconservative values《The Eve of St.Agnes》 1.Epitaph:Here lies one whose name was圣阿格良斯之夜written in water（此地长眠者，声名水John Keats济Romanticism《On a Greeian Urn》希腊古瓮颂上书）慈（浪漫主义）《To a Nightingale》致夜莺 2.Early death fromtuberculosis at theOde on Melancholy（忧郁颂）age of25Isabella（伊莎贝拉） 3.He is characterized bysensual imageryWalter Scott沃Famous Historical特.斯科特Novelist Ivanhoe（艾凡赫）The lady of the Lake（湖中夫人）Waverley（威佛利）1.Historical novelist as well asplaywrightand poet.2.He was an advocate,judge andlegaladministrator by professionJane Austen简.Female Novelist奥斯丁《Pride and Prejudice》傲慢与偏见《Sense and Sensibility》理智与情感《Emma》爱玛1.Modern character through thetreatmentof everyday life2.Virginia Woolf called Austen"themostperfect artist among women."Charles Lamb Essayist 查尔斯.兰伯（随笔作家）Tales from Shakespeare（莎士比亚故事集）Essays of Elia（伊利亚随笔）The Last Essays of Elia（伊利亚续笔）1.Indulged in his own contemplationandimagination2.To him,literature was a means toexpress his own subjective world andtoescape from the sordidness（肮脏、卑鄙）1.expose and criticize the poverty,Charles Dickens 狄更斯Critical Realism批判现实主义《Hard Times》艰难时刻《PickwickPapers》匹克威克外传《OliverTwist》雾都孤儿《A Tale of Two Cities》双城injustice,hypocrisy andcorruptness2.show a highly consciousemodernartist记 3.humor and wit seeminexhaustibleCharlotte Bronte 夏洛特.勃郎特Victorian Period维多利亚时期《Shirley》雪利《Jane Eyre》简.爱4.Picaresque novel(流浪汉小说）1.great work of genius inEnglishfictionEmily Bronte艾米丽.勃郎特Mrs.Gaskell humanism人文主义《Wuthering Heights》呼啸山庄《Mary Barton,North and South》玛丽.巴顿，北方和南方2.focus on the femaletopic3.lyric writing style4.simple realism1.rich knowledge of social life andWilliam Makepeace Thackeray 《Vanity Fair》名利场—this titlewasborrowed from The Pilgrim’s Progressby Bunyan.没有大人物的小说heart,the picture in the novelsareaccurate and true life2.Thackeray’s satire is causticand hishumor subtle3.Pay attention to morility1.show superb conceptionandexecution and include muchfavoral《Adam Bede》亚当贝德feminist criticismGeorge Eliot 乔治.艾略特T he Mill on the Floss《弗洛斯河上的磨坊》Silas Marner《织工马南传》2.describe various inner worldanddepict people’s live withcinematicprecisionMiddlemarch《米德尔马契》 3.moral teaching andpsychologicalrealism.精神说教和心理现实主义。

英美文化-填空题

英美⽂化-填空题三、填空题UNIT3 Government of UK1.________,the ancestor of the present Queen,Elizabeth 2,untied England under his rule in 829.埃格伯特国王的祖先现在的⼥王，伊丽莎⽩⼆世，英格兰829年在他的统治下。

2.The doctrine of the"divine right of kings"held tha t the sovereign derived his authority from -________,not from ________.“君权神授”的教义认为,主权派⽣的职权从神来的,不是从他的⾂民。

3.During the civil war in the 17th century,those wh o represented the interests of Parliament are called ________ ,and those who supported the King were c alled ________.在内战期间在17世纪,那些议会者被成为“圆颅派”代表着利益,和那些⽀持国王被称为⽀持者。

4.In 1215,some feudal barons and the Church forced King John to sign the ________ to palce some limit s on the King’s power.1215年,⼀些封建贵族和教会英王约翰被迫签署马江的法令来取代⼀些限制国王的权⼒。

5、In medieval times, Kings would summon a group of wealthy barons and representatives of counties,towns and cities called ________ to raise money. 在中世纪,国王会召唤⼀群富有的贵族代表县、乡镇和城市称为⼤议会来筹集资⾦。

礼仪用词-刺杀肯尼迪中英文对照台词精品

刺杀肯尼迪中英文对照台词The assassination reduced the President to a transient official.暗杀总统是最快达到目的的方法His job is to speak as often as possible of the nations desire for peace while he acts as a business agent in the Congress for the military and their contractors.他的任务就是每当他在国会扮演厂商、军事或承包人代理时尽可能讲出国家渴望和平Some people say Im crazy.有人说我疯了Southern caricature seeking higher office.南方小丑寻求高官位Theres a simple way to determine if I am paranoid.有个简单的方法评估我是否有偏执狂Ask the two men who profited most from the assassination former President Johnson and your new President, Nixon...问两位从暗杀得利最多的前总统詹森和新总统尼克森...to release the 51 CIA documents pertaining to Lee Oswald and Jack Ruby.公布51份中情局档案包括李．奥斯华和杰克．鲁比Or the secret CIA memo on Oswalds activities in Russia that was destroyed while being Photo copied.或中情局秘密备忘有关奥斯华在俄活动翻照时毁损These documents are yours.这些资料是你们的The peoples property. You pay for it.是人民的财产，你们有缴税But as the government sees you as children...但官方视你们为小孩子...who might be too disturbed to face this reality...面对真相会受困扰...or because you might lynch those involved...或因为你们会制裁那些牵涉...you cannot see these documents for another 75 years.你们不会再有另一个75年看到这些资料Im in my 40s...我已四十so Ill have "shuffled off this mortal coil" by then.那时候我会死But Im telling my eight-year-old son to keep himself physically fit...但我告诉八岁儿子要保持健康...so that one glorious September morning, in 2038...那样在2038年9月一个灿烂的早上...he can go to the National Archives and learn what the CIA and FBI knew.走进国家档案库找出中情局和调查局所知道的They may push it back then.他们或许延后It may bee a generational affair. Questions passed from parent to child.变成两代间的事疑问由父母传子女But someday, somewhere, someone may find out the damn truth.但某日某地某人或许找出狗屎真相We better.最好这样Or we might just as well build ourselves another government...不然我们或许只好自己建立另一个政府...like the Declaration of Independence says to, when the old one dont work.像独立宣言所说当老的无能Just a bit farther out West.就再往西部开拓一点An American naturalist wrote:一位美国自然主义者写过"A patriot must always be ready to defend his country...爱国者要经常准备为保卫国家...against its government."而不惜抵抗政府Id hate to be in your shoes today.我讨厌面对你们今天就要下决定You have a lot to think about. Youve seen evidence the public hasnt seen.你们要多想看大众看不到的证据Going back to when we were children...回到童年...I think most of us in this courtroom thought justice came automatically.我想本庭我们多数人认为正义会自动送过来That virtue was its own reward. That good triumphs over evil.要以道治道战胜邪恶But as we get older we know this isnt true.但等我们年长我们知道这不是真的Individual human beings have to create justice, and this is not easy...每个人要建立正义，而这不容易...because the truth often poses a threat to power...因为真实常常受权势威胁封住口...and one often has to fight power at great risk to themselves.我们经常要冒很大风险战斗权势People like S.M. Holland...人们像荷兰..Lee Bowers...李．包尔...Jean Hill, Willie OKeefe...珍．希尔，威里．欧奇夫...have all taken that risk and theyve all e forward.都是要冒那样的风险前来作证I have here some $8,000 in these letters...我这里的信封内大约有八千美元...sent from all over the country.是从全国各地寄来的Quarters, dimes, dollars from housewives...有两毛五，一毛，一元来自家庭主妇...plumbers, car salesmen, teachers, invalids.水管工，汽车销售员，老师，病弱者These are people who cannot afford to send money but do.有些不能送钱却出力者People who drive cabs...有人是开车的...who nurse in hospitals...有在医院当护士的...who see their kids go to Vietnam.有的送儿子去越南Why?为什么？Because they care.因为他们关心Because they want to know the truth.因为他们要知道事实Because they want their country back.因为他们想要找回他们的国家Because it still belongs to us...因为国家仍然属于我们as long as the people have the guts to fight for what they believe in.只要人们为其信仰战斗The truth is the most important value we have, because if it doesnt endure...事实是我们拥有最重要的价值，因为如果不持续if the government murders truth...如果政府谋杀事实...if we cannot respect these people...如果我们不能尊敬这些人...then this is not the country I was born in, or the country I want to die in.那么这不是我生于斯死于斯的世界Tennyson wrote:"Authority forgets a dying king."丹尼逊写道：执政当局遗忘了垂死的国王This was never more true than for John F. Kennedy whose murder was probably one of the most terrible moments...再真实不过的是肯尼迪的谋杀是其中最恐怖的一刻...in the history of our country.存在我们国家的历史中We, the people, the jury system sitting in judgment on Clay Show...我们人民陪审团，做着审判克莱．萧...represent the hope...代表人性的希望...of humanity against government power.对抗政府权势In discharging your duty...尽我们的义务...to bring a first conviction in this house of cards...对这个不实的政府作第一次判罪...against Clay Shaw...来对抗克莱．萧"...ask not what your country can do for you...不要问国家能为你做什么...but what you can do for your country."要问你能为你的国家做什么Do not forget...不要忘记...your dying king.你们垂死的国王Show this world...显示给全世界知道...this is still a government "of the people, for the people and by the people." Nothing as long as you live will ever be more important.Its up to you这里仍然是民有民治民享的国家,没有比真相的存在更重要,全靠你们Weve all bee Hamlets in our country, children of a slain father-leader...我们都变成国家中的哈姆雷特残杀父王的子女...whose killers still possess the throne.杀手仍然掌权The ghost of John F .Kennedy confronts us with the secret murder at the heart of the American Dream.肯尼迪的鬼魂在美国内心深处被暗杀后看着我们He forces on us the appalling questions: Of what is our Constitution made?他逼我们悚然质问我们的宪法奠定了什么？What are our lives worth?生命的价值是什么？What is the future of a democracy...民主的未来是什么？...where a President can be assassinated under suspicious circumstances...凡是总统被暗杀有了怀疑气氛之处...while the machinery of legal action scarcely trembles?是在合法执行机构无动于衷之时？How many more political murders disguised as heart attacks...多少更多的政治谋杀被掩饰成心脏病..suicides, cancers, drug overdoses?自杀、癌症、药物过量？How many plane and car crashes will occur before they are exposed for what they are?多少飞机汽车相撞发生于他们所能透露之前？“Treason doth never prosper. "wrote an English poet.一首英国诗写着："叛逆不会兴盛。