国际商务chapter2
第二讲_国际商务的理论基础
（一）人力资本说——一种新的分工要素
Theory of human capital
人力资本(human capital) ：存在于人体
中的智能，表现为人的文化水平、生产技
巧、熟练程度、管理才能等。
27
发展中国家: 人力资本稀缺
Developing countries: lack of human capital
用生产要素禀赋的差异寻求解释国际贸易发生和 国际贸易商品结构的原因，以及国际贸易对要素 价格的影响。
不足(deficiencies) ：
缺乏现实基础，理论与现实差距很大。
23
（五）要素禀赋理论的扩展 Extension of factor endowment theory 里昂惕夫悖论（Leontief Paradox）：
3
国际贸易理论包括哪些？
What does the international trade theory include? 1.重商主义学说 Merchandise theory 2.绝对优势理论 The theory of absolute advantage 3.比较优势理论 The theory of comparative advantage 4.要素禀赋理论 The theory of factor endowment 5.新贸易理论 New trade theory
片面性很大，未能涉及国际贸易发生的原因等重
要问题
9
从一根针开始…
只要功夫深，铁杵磨成针
宋·祝穆《方舆胜 览·眉州·磨针溪》： 世传李白读书象耳山 中，学业未成，即弃 去，“过是溪，逢老 媪方磨铁杵，问之， 曰：‘欲作针。’太 白感其意，还卒业”。
10
亚当· 斯密观察到的钉子制作…
国际商务英文版
Legal System
The legal system of a country refers to the rules, or laws, that regulate behavior along with the processes by which the laws are enforced and through which redress for grievances is obtained. A country’s laws regulate business practice, define the manner in which business transactions are to be executed, and set down the rights and obligations of those involved in business transactions.
3
Legal System
—— Different Legal System
Common law: common law system is based on tradition, precedent, and custom. Tradition refers to a country’s legal history, precedent to cases that have come before the courts in the past, custom to the ways in which laws are applied in specific situations. Common law system has a degree of flexibility. Judges have the power to interpret the law. It is now found in most of Great Britain’s former colonies. 4fferences in Contract Law
国际商务英语函电(第二版)翻译
Fuzhou,China
H.GWilkinsonCompanyLimited
245LombartStreet,
Lagos,Nigeria
(Registered)
ChapterII
EstablishingBusinessRelations
LessonOne
Self-Introduction
5.WeareoneoftheleadingexportersofChineseindustrialproductsandaredesirousofenteringintobusinessrelationsyou.
6.Wewillletyouknowuponreceiptofnewsupplies.
这是一个定语从句，介词加关系代词,介词放前。
similar:throughwhomweunderstandthatyouarewellexperiencedintheexportofengineeringequipmentwithservice.
Wegettoknowyourcorp.fromyourCCPITwithwhichwehavebeeningood
二.商业英语书信的格式
1.缩行式（IndentedStyle）
缩行式信函的特点：
1）信头和封内地址每逢换行时，下一行要比上一行往右缩进2－3个字母的位置；
2）日期放在信纸的右上端，签名放在中间偏右下方；
3）每一段的第一行都从左边空白边缘往右缩进3－5个字母的位置；
4）段落之间要空1－2行。
2.齐头式或平头式（BlockStyle）
Welookforwardtoyourcompliance.希望得到你方的同意。
希尔 《国际商务》第11版 英文PPT Chapter 2
2-6 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
What Is Collectivism?
➢Collectivism stresses the primacy of collective goals over individual goals
➢ can be traced to the Greek philosopher, Plato (427-347 BC)
representative democracy where citizens periodically elect individuals to represent them
2-8 Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
What Is Totalitarianism?
➢ Totalitarianism - form of government in which one person or political party exercises absolute control over all spheres of human life and prohibits opposing political parties
国际商务英语Chapter 2-1
quasi-pubic 半公有公司
quasi a combining form meaning ―resembling,‖ ―having some, but not all of the features of,‖ used in the formation of compound words: quasi-definition; quasi-monopoly; quasi-official; quasi-scientific. 1. He was a quasi actor. 他有点象演员。 2. In some people's view, TV series is a kind of quasiart. 在某些人看来，电视连续剧是一种准艺术。
1. proprietorship — 所有权 2. stockholder — 股东，持股人 3. partnership — 合伙企业 4. entity — 实体 5. bankruptcy — 破产 6. joint-stock company — 合股公司 7. dividend —红利，股息 8. bylaw — 附则，细则 9. treasurer — 司库，财务长 10. comptroller —主计长，总会计师
tort: n. 侵权行为 a wrongful act, not including a breach of contract or trust, that results in injury to another's person, property, reputation, or the like, and for which the injured party is entitled to compensation.
国际商务(最新版)精品课件Chap002
2-6
Democracy versus totalitarianism
• Democracy and totalitarianism are at different ends of a continuum with many shades of gray in between
– Social democracy
• Marxist roots. State owned enterprises run
for public good rather than private profit
2-5
பைடு நூலகம்
Individualism
• Is the direct opposite of collectivism
2-2
Political Systems
• System of Government in Nations”
– Political systems have two dimensions
• Degree of collectivism vs. individualism • Degree of democracy vs. totalitarianism
2-9
Totalitarianism
• One person/party exercises absolute control over all spheres of human life (competing political parties are banned)
国际商务谈判 chapter 2
Chapter 2Choosing your teamBig guns, little gunsHow big should the team be?There are several reasons to keep your negotiation team (NT) as small as possible. The first few deal with the expense and difficulties that arise when your NT must operate overseas. Flights, ground transport, meals, hotels, communication, conference centers, taxes, and cargo can make trip for even a small team extremely expensive. Arranging for passports, visas, inoculations, and potential medical care for a large group can easily become unmanageable. Problems and additional expenses may also arise when attempting to deal with various family and business schedules. Finally, for NT’s operating overseas, keeping track of large groups in a foreign country is nightmarish at best-ask any tour guide.The rest of reasons for keeping the NT compact apply to both domestic and overseas assignments. Primarily, communication is a source of strength within any organization and never more so than within the NT. Premeetings, recaps and midmeeting breaks demand that communication be both precise, as major decisions are made in a matter of seconds. The CN must be able to seek the input of the team quickly, and large group are cumbersome.Secondly, as mentioned earlier, presenting a unified front is key. The CN must be able to redirect tactics as counterparts bring new issues to the table. Agreement on tactics become more difficult in direct proportion to group size, even when there’s agreement on strategy. Keeping the NT small enables the CN to make timely adjustments to the negotiating plan and to disseminate that information quickly. Additionally, small teams are more easily able to withstand the “wedges” that counterparts may attempt to drive between members of large teams.Thirdly, the members of the NT have other job duties unrelated to the negotiations. The fewer you pull away from their regular assignments the better. There’s no sense disrupting the company’s core business. As exciting as the international arena is, keep in mind that someone must oversee the old business while others look for new opportunities.Don’t use the assignment as a rewardA very common mistake that executives or CNs make is assigning membership to the NT as a reward for other success unrelated to the task at hand. This is especially true when the team is headed for exotic locales. Many employees see the trip as a minivacation and a way for them to broaden their personal horizons. Even when the NT will be receiving foreign counterparts at the company offices, being a member if the NT is perceived as adding to internal prestige. Some employees even see it as their right by seniority to be a part of the negotiations. Unfortunately, what (and who) succeeds in the domestic market doesn’t always play well internationally. Wise CNs must keep in mind that the blustering Vice President of sales and marketing isn’t going to impress the reserved Japanese; nor will the brilliant, but reticent, chief engineer be able to withstand the verbal onslaught of the impatient Americans.There can be a great deal of “fallout” when a staff member fails to be selected for the NT. The best way to avoid it is to make it clear that only talents very specific to the success of the NT are being considered. Technical, cultural, linguistic, social, and travel skills should be compiled in checklist form (not dissimilar to that for the CN) and circulated among potential team members. Inclusion on the NT should be based on this profile alone, and CNs will find they have much better grounds for defending their personnel choices when approached by determined, but unsuitable, staffmembers. This is especially true when other executives and managers assume they’re going to be part of the NT. As a way of preserving morale among those left off of the NT roster, some CNs make the deferrees part of the prenegotiation strategy planning process.A balance of skills and strengthsIt’s unlikely that any single team member will embody all of the talents necessary to achieve the company’s strategy. The CN must choose a cross-section of technical skills and personal attributes that will create a compact and efficient team. One team member’s weakness must be offset by another’s strength. Technical prowess must be a accompanied by the ability to communicate and apply that prowess. Putting a team together is similar to assembling a jigsaw puzzle: there’s no success unless all of the pieces fit.A common practice among experienced travelers when packing for trips is to never put anything in the suitcase that has “only one use”; the same applies to choosing NT members. A specialist candidate is eschewed in favor of the generalist unless the technical expertise is absolutely crucial to the effort. If the CN must include these “one trick ponies,” every attempt should be made to make them a part of the wider strategy and tactics discussions. If that’s unsuccessful, these specialist members should be cautioned to advise in private during negotiations and to avoid direct involvement.Painting the “big picture”Although many technical types will disagree, it’s much easier to impart technical knowledge to a good communicator than it is to do the reverse. Members of the NT must be chosen for their ability to effectively execute the company’s strategy and to quickly respond to the tactics of counterparts. This is accomplished only through good communications skills. Scientific and financial technical skills will take a back seat, especially during initial negotiations, as the “big picture” is discussed. Details will be left until much later in the process. Many business cultures prefer to have the details tended to after the contract is signed.Bringing massive technical data to the negotiating table may only slow down the deal-making process.NOTE: Much “expertise can be carried in file or laptop form, in case it should be needed during discussions.Tasks Both Large and smallMajor decisions are made every day during negotiations, but not all of the work is momentous. Some companies and consultant CNs make the mistake of including only “big guns” on the team. This causes problems, as no one relishes doing the necessary but tedious (and decidedly unglamorous ) work that keeps negotiations running smoothly—getting copies, typing policy changes, taking notes, arranging dinners, and so on .Including a few junior managers or administrators in the ranks of the NT for the sole purpose of controlling logistics is a wise move. This is particularly helpful if these members have experience working or traveling in the target market. Should the finances or domestic needs of the company preclude this option, these administrative duties should be assigned to specific members of the team, and it should be made clear that these duties are as important as any of the ,more “spot light”tasks. As is true in other areas of business, what happens behind the scenes determines success on the stage.Home Team Versus VisitorsThe respective sizes of the NT is usually determined by the group that’s visiting.This is particularly true if the visiting team is in the position of . “buying” from the home team or receiving group. The visiting group should forward a list of its members, stipulating the job title and responsibility of each. The receiving group should assemble their NT to correspond to the visiting team.It’s true that the receiving team has the psychological advantage of operating from their home turf, but they should resist the urge to overwhelm their visitors with an imposingly large NT. Since these resources can be called upon at any time, it’s best to see if they, re needed before arraying them. The ability to successfully exploit the discomfort of counterparts is very much related to one’s culture and requirements for a “success”. Some visitors may be in awe of your facilities and staff while others may consider it a visitors may be in awe of your is generally better when making initial contact.“Observer” TrainingCompanies that regularly pursue international trade and investment like to use negotiation as an ongoing training tool by purposely including less experienced members on the team. This allows them to gain experience that can be put to use in future international negotiations. It’s best to make it clear to these junior team members exactly why they’re being included in the NT so that they’re keen to gain as much experience as possible, get “bloodied” by their own mistakes, and learn from those of other team members .It’s also an ideal way for the company to see how their future CNs handle new and difficult situations. Many executives will attest to the fact that the “rising stars from the home office often become confused and ill-at-ease when put into the crucible of international negotiations and travel. Conversely, the mediocre manager may flourish in the new international environment.Those Who Can’“CUT IT”A common question in business when determining whether someone will be a success is , “Can they cut the muster?” (Sorry, folks, it isn’t mustard.) During the Middle Ages, the muster in question was the final pattern cut from cloth by journeymen to be used by the master tailor. Cut improperly, the pattern will never work, and valuable cloth will be ruined. International negotiations have a similar one-chance-is-all-you-get sense of finality. The NT acts as the journeymen and the CN is the master tailor preparing to stitch together a successful negotiation. Below are some types of people to avoid because they won’t be able “to cut it.”WHINERSEmployees who constantly complain, even under good conditions, are going to find travel and the stress of negotiations intolerable. These types love to bring up problems but never offer solutions. Every company has them, but successful negotiating teams don’t.CONNIVERSUnity is paramount for negotiations and people who like to work their own agenda or jockey for position will only undermine the team’s effort. These types are generally keen strategies and they may be useful in planning. However, under no circumstances should they ever take an active role in negotiations.HOTHOUSE FLOWERSMore competent than whiners, these “high maintenance”types can only excel under ideal circumstances. They never complain but are easily set back by the slightest deviation form the norm. Unfortunately, negotiations and overseas travel are rarely conducive to ideal anything. Sometimes, the NT must operate when materials and equipment are lost, or work in environmentsin which electricity is some trials reserved for special occasions. Technically astute or not, these “flowers” won’t travel well. If they must be used, do so only when negotiations are on home turf. An overseas team needs those that can adapt to any environment.BIGOTSNegotiations are a zero-sun game based on finding common ground amid very real and distinct differences. Adding racial, cultural, or class bigotry will only obscure an already complex state of affairs. Bigots (of any ilk) tend to communicate their prejudices more than they realize, and it’s not the kind of communication that leads to a successful deal.The frailRegardless of where the team originated, the world outside of the domestic market is filled with sights, sounds, smells, and tastes that pummel the visitor. Part of the success of the NT will be in its ability to assimilate as quickly as possible into the environment of their target market. The hygienic and culinary habits of counterparts and their culture may not meet the standards of the NT’s domestic scene. Members who can’t quickly and adequately adjust to new environments will only be a burden to the whole team, thus disrupting strategies and assignments. Like the CN, the team must be robust.Overseas? Domestic? One core team?Optimally, once a team is assembled, it should be used for both overseas and domestic negotiations related to international business. (Specialists may be added for individual negotiations.) This is especially true for smaller companies with limited resources. But large companies should not make the mistake of having two separate teams-one for overseas and one for domestic discussions-simply because they can afford the expense. Teams that have operated overseas will understand the stresses and strains being exerted on foreign teams when they come for business visits. This information, used sympathetically or otherwise, can be a key part of the overall strategy and daily tactics. Lastly, using the team for all negotiations will add to its ability to operate as a unit as team members become expert at all aspects of negotiating. They must be able to visit as well as host a negotiation and understand the responsibilities of being on either side of the table.。
国际商务谈判第二章总结 罗伊 列维奇
Summary of chapter 21The Distributive Bargaining SituationIn a distributive bargaining situation, the goals of one party are usually in fundamental and direct conflict with the goals of other party. Resources are fixed and limited, and parties want to maximize their share. Distributive Bargaining is basically a competition over who is going to get the most of a limited resource, which is often money.1.1DefinitionStarting point: the point in the opening statements each party makes (the seller’s listing price and the buyer’s first offer).Target point: the point at which a negotiator would like to conclude negotiations——his optimal goal. ——negotiator’s aspirationResistance point/reservation price: the point beyond which a person will not go and would rather break off negotiations, is not known to the other party and should be kept secret. ——the bottom line-the most the buyer will pay or the least the seller will settle for.Asking price: the initial price set by the sellerBoth parties to a negotiation should establish their starting, target, and resistance points before beginning a negotiation. The partier’s starting and resistance points are usually arranged in reverse order, with the resistance point being a high price for the buyer and a low price for the seller.Bargaining range/settlement range/zone of potential agreement: the spread between the resistance point.⚫Positive bargaining range: when the buyer’s resistance point is above the seller’s——the buyer is minimally willing to pay more than the seller isminimally willing to sell for.⚫Negative bargaining range: the seller’s resistance point is above the buyer’s ——the buyer won’t pay more than the seller will minimally accept.1.2Settlement Point:The objective of both parties is to reach an agreement as close to the other party’s resistant point as possible.⚫Within a positive bargaining range⚫Both parties must believe that the settlement is the best they can get.⚫Another factor will affect the satisfaction with the agreement is whether the parties will see each other again.1.3Bargaining MixThe package of issues for negotiation is bargaining mix. Each item in the mix has its own starting, target, and resistance point. Such as the price/ the closing date of the sale/ renovations to the condo/ the price of items that could remain in the condo Negotiators need to understand what is important to them and to the other party, and they need to take these priorities into account during the planning process.1.4Fundamental Strategies1.4.1Discovering the other party’s resistance pointThe more you can learn about the other party’s target, resistance point, motives, feelings of confidence, and so on, the more able you will be to strike a favorable agreement.To influence the other party’s perception, however, they must establish some points effectively and convincingly.1.4.2Influencing the other party’ s resistance pointFactors are important in attempting to influence the other party’s resistance point:(1) the value the other attaches to a particular outcome(2) the cost the other attaches to delay or difficulty in negotiations(3) the cost the other attaches to having the negotiation aborted.A significant factor in shaping the other person’s understanding of what is possible is the other’s understanding of your own situation.1.4.3Propositions:1. The higher the other party’s estimate of your cost of delay or impasse, the stronger the other party’s resistance point will be.2. The higher the other party’s estimate of his or her own cost of delay or impasse, the weaker the other party’s resistance point will be.3. The less the other values an issue, the lower their resistance point will be.4. The more the other believes that you value an issue, the lower their resistance point may be.Case:In the condo example, the buyer has four fundamental strategies available:(1) To push for a settlement close to the seller’s resistance point. $ 130,000(2) To convince the seller to change her resistance point.(3) If a negative settlement range exists, to convince the seller to reduce her resistance point.(4) To convince the seller to believe that this settlement is the best that is possible.2Tactical TasksThere are four important tactical tasks for a negotiator in a distributive bargaining situation to consider:2.1Assess the other party’s target, resistance point, and cost of terminating negotiation.The negotiator can pursue two general routes to achieve this task:⚫Obtain information indirectly about the background factors behind an issue (indirect assessment).⚫Obtain information directly from the other party about their target andresistance point (direct assessment) .2.2Manage the other party’s impressions of a negotiator’s target, resistance point, and cost of terminating negotiation.An important tactical task for negotiators is to control the information sent to the other party about your target and resistance points, while simultaneously guiding him or her to form a preferred impression of them.Negotiators need to screen information about their positions and to represent them as they would like the other to believe them.⚫Screening Activities.The simplest way to screen a position is to say and do as little as possible. “Silence is gold.”Another approach, available when group negotiations are conducted through a representative is calculated incompetence.Reduce the number of people who can actively reveal information.Present a great many items for negotiations only a few of which are truly important to the presenter.⚫Direct Action to Alter Impressions.Many actions can be taken to present facts that will that will enhance their position or make it appear stronger to the other party.Negotiators should justify their positions and desired outcomes in order to influence the other party’s impressions.Displaying emotional reaction to facts, proposals, and possible outcomes is another form of direct action.Taking direct action to alter another’s impression raises several potential hazards.2.3Modify the other party’s perceptions of his own target, resistance point, and cost of terminating negotiation.⚫Interpret for the other party what the outcomes of his or her proposal will be.⚫Conceal information.2.4Manipulate the other party’s actual cost of delaying or terminating negotiation.(1) Disruptive Action. Increase the cost of not reaching a negotiated agreement.(2) Alliance with Outsiders. Involve the other parties who can somehow influence the outcomes in the process.(3) Schedule Manipulation. The negotiation scheduling process can often put one party at a considerable disadvantage. The opportunities to increase or alter the timing of negotiation vary widely across negotiation domain.3Position Taken during NegotiationEffective distributive bargainers need to understand the process of makingpositions during bargaining, including the importance of opening offer, opening stance, and the role of making concessions throughout the negotiation process.3.1Opening OffersThe fundamental question is whether the opening offer should be exaggerated or modest.There are at least two reasons that an exaggerated opening offer is advantageous.Two disadvantageous of exaggerated opening offer are:(1) It maybe summarily rejected by the other party(2) it communicates an attitude of toughness that maybe harmful to long-term relationships.3.2Opening StanceWill you be competitive or moderate? It is important for negotiators to think carefully about the messages that the wish to signal with their opening stance and subsequent concessions. To communicate effectively, a negotiator should try to senda consistent messages through both opening offer and stance.3.3Initial ConcessionsFirst concession conveys a message, frequently a symbolic one to the other party that how you will proceed.Firmness may actually shorten negotiations, there is also the very real possibility, however, it will be reciprocated by the other.There are good reasons for adopting a flexible position.3.4Role of ConcessionsConcessions are central to negotiation. Negotiators also generally resent a take-it-or-leave-it approach. Parties feel better about a settlement when the negotiation involved a progression of concession. A reciprocal concession cannot be haphazard.To encourage further concession from the other party, negotiators sometimes link their concessions to a prior concession made by the other party.3.5Final OffersA negotiator might simply let the absence of any further concessions that convey the message in spite of urging the other party.One way negotiators may convey the message that an offer is the one is to make the last concession more substantial.4Commitment4.1Establishing a CommitmentA commitment statement has three properties: a high degree of finality, ahigh degree of specificity, and a clear statement of consequences.Several ways to create a commitment:⚫public pronouncement⚫linking with an outside base⚫increase the prominence of demands⚫reinforce the threat or promise4.2Preventing the other party from committing prematurelyOne way to prevent the other party from establishing a committed position is to deny his or her the necessary time.Another approach is to ignore or downplay a threat by not acknowledging the other party’s commitment, or even by making a joke about it.There are times, however, when itis to a negotiator’s advantageous for the other party become committed.4.3Finding ways to abandon a committed positionFour avenues for escaping commitment:⚫Play a way out⚫Let it die silently⚫Restate the commitment⚫Minimize the damageA commitment position is a powerful tool in negotiation, it is also a rigid tool and must therefore be used with care.5Closing the dealSeveral tactics are available to negotiators for closing a deal:⚫Provide alternatives⚫Assume the close⚫Split the differences⚫Exploding the offers⚫Sweeteners6Hardball TacticsSuch tactics are designed to pressure negotiators to do things they would not, otherwise do, and their presence usually disguises the user’s adherence to a decidedly distributive bargaining approach.6.1Tactics 1How best to respond to a tactic depends on your goals and the broader context of the negotiation.Four main options that negotiators have for responding to typical hardball tactics:⚫lgnore them⚫Discuss them⚫Respond in kind⚫Co-opt the other party6.2Tactics 2BogeyNegotiators using the bogey tactic pretend that an issue of little or no importance to them is quite important. This tactic is fundamentally deceptive, and it can be a difficult to enact. Bogeys occurs more often by omission than commission.The NibbleNegotiators using the bogey tactic ask for a proportionally small concession on a item that hasn’t been discussed previously in order to close the deal.6.3Tactics 3ChickenNegotiators using this tactic combine a large bluff with a threatened action to force the other party to “chicken out” and give them what they want.Weakness: It turns negotiation into a serious game in which one or both parties find it difficult to distinguish reality from postured negotiation positions.It is very difficult for negotiators to defend against.6.4Tactics 4IntimidationThey all attempt to force the other party to agree by means of an emotional poly, usually anger or fear. Another form of intimidation includes increasing the appearance of legitimacy.Guilt can also be used as a form of intimidation.Two effective strategies for dealing with intimidation: discuss the negotiation process with the other party; use a team to negotiate with the other party.6.5Tactics 5Aggressive BehaviorNegotiators using this tactic is signaling a hard-nosed intransigent position and trying to force the other side to make many concessions to reach an agreement.Ways to deal with: halt the negotiations in order to discuss the negotiation process itself.Snow JobIt occurs when the negotiator overwhelm the other party with so much information that he has trouble in determining which facts are real.7Several available responses to counter this tactic.Distributive Bargaining Skills Applicable to Integrative NegotiationMany of the skills are also applicable to the latter stages of integrative negotiation when negotiators need to claim value, that is decide how to divide their joint gains.Care needs to be taken, however, not to seriously change the tone of those negotiations by adopting an overtly aggressive stance at this stage.。
国际商务谈判 Chapter 2
a. First hand information.
(money spending and time-consuming)
b.Second hand information.
1. International organizations a. United Nation’s Statistical Yearbook b. The World Atlas public by the World Bank c. The International Monetary Fund and The World Bank public summary economic data and occasional staff papers that evaluate issues in depth. Etc.
Preparation
Target decision Collecting information Staffing negotiation teams Choice of negotiation venues
Target decision
in addition to interest preference decision, negotiations, in view of negotiation strategy, will set at least three objective levels.
Collecting information
What is information? Information is generally esteemed as a valuable commodity in a sense that it has the power to reduce uncertainty. “the tip of be successful in negotiation is to know everyth. And to answer everyth. ”----Kissinger ( famous negotiator ) Eg. 60’s 日本竞标大庆油田设备
希尔国际商务Chapter 2
Chapter 2 National Differences in Political Economy一、Political SystemsThe political economy of a nation refers to how the political, economic, and legal systems of a country are interdependent; they interact and influence each other, and in doing so they affect the level of economic well-being. Political system refers to the system of government in a nation.Political systems can be assessed according to two dimensions:1. the degree to which they emphasize collectivism as opposed to individualism2. the degree to which they are democratic or totalitarian（一）Collectivism And Individualism1.Collectivism refers to a political system that stresses the primacy of collective goals over individual goals.Collectivism can be traced back to the Greek philosopher, Plato (427-347 BC), but in modern times, collectivism is equated with socialists.Socialists advocate state ownership of the basic means of production, distribution, and exchange.State-owned enterprises are managed to benefit society as a whole, rather than individual capitalists.In the early 20th century, socialism split into:①Communism –socialism can only be achieved through violent revolution and totalitarian dictatorship②Social democrats – socialism is achieved through democratic meansBy the mid-1990s, communism was in retreat worldwide.Social democracy is also retreating as many countries move toward free market economies.State-owned enterprises have been privatized2.Individualism refers to philosophy that an individual should have freedom in his own economic and political pursuits.Individualism can be traced to Greek philosopher, Aristotle (384-322 BC), who argued that individual diversity and private ownership are desirable.Under individualism, individual economic and political freedoms are the ground rules on which a society should be based.More practically, individualism means democratic political systems and free market economies（二）Democracy And Totalitarianism1. Democracy refers to a political system in which government is by the people, exercised either directly or through elected representatives.Democracy is usually associated with individualism .Pure democracy is based on the belief that citizens should be directly involved indecision making.Most modern democratic states practice representative democracy where citizens periodically elect individuals to represent them.2. Totalitarianism is a form of government in which one person or political party exercises absolute control over all spheres of human life and prohibits opposing political parties. Communism is usually associated with collectivism and totalitarianism.There are four major forms of totalitarianism:①Communist totalitarianism –found in states where the communist partymonopolizes power②Theocratic totalitarianism - found in states where political power ismonopolized by a party, group, or individual that governs according to religious principles③Tribal totalitarianism - found in states where a political party that represents theinterests of a particular tribe monopolizes power④Right-wing totalitarianism - permits some individual economic freedom, butrestricts individual political freedom二、Economic SystemsPolitical ideology and economic systems are connected. In countries where individual goals are emphasized free market economies are likely.There are three types of economic systems:（一）Market EconomyIn a market economy all productive activities are privately owned and production is determined by the interaction of supply and demand.The role of government is to encourage free and fair competition between private producers（二）Command EconomyIn a command economy, the government plans the goods and services that a country produces, the quantity that is produced, and the prices as which they are sold.All businesses are state-owned, and governments allocate resources for “the good of society”. However, because there is little incentive to control costs and be efficient, command economies tend to stagnate.（三）Mixed EconomyIn a mixed economy, certain sectors of the economy are left to private ownership and free market mechanisms while other sectors have significant state ownership and government planningGovernments tend to own firms that are considered important to national security.三、Legal SystemsThe legal system of a country refers to the rules that regulate behavior along with the processes by which the laws are enforced and through which redress for grievances is obtained（一）Different Legal Systems.There are three types of legal systems:1. Common law - based on tradition, precedent, and custom2. Civil law - based on detailed set of laws organized into codes3. Theocratic law - law is based on religious teachings（二）Differences In Contract LawDepending on the legal system, contracts are approached in different waysA contract is a document that specifies the conditions under which an exchange is to occur and details the rights and obligations of the parties involvedContract law is the body of law that governs contract enforcementUnder a common law system, contracts tend to be very detailed with all contingencies spelled out.Under a civil law system, contracts tend to be much shorter and less specific because many issues are already covered in the civil code.Many countries have ratified the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) which establishes a uniform set of rules governing certain aspects of the making and performance of everyday commercial contracts between buyers and sellers who have their places of business in different nations. （三）Property Rights And CorruptionProperty rights refer to the legal rights over the use to which a resource is put and over the use made of any income that may be derived from that resource.Countries differ in terms of how their legal systems define and protect property rights. Property rights can be violated through:1. Private action refers to theft, piracy, blackmail, and the like by private individuals or groups.2. Public action to violate property rights occurs when public officials, such as politicians and government bureaucrats, extort income, resources, or the property itself from property holders.This can be done legally through mechanisms like excessive taxation or illegally through corrupt mechanisms like demanding bribes or blackmailing. Public action is usually associated with corruption. No society is immune to corruption. High levels of corruption reduce foreign direct investment, the level of international trade, and the economic growth rate in a countryFigure 2.1: Rankings of Corruption by Country 2006The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act makes it illegal for U.S. companies to bribe foreign government officials to obtain or maintain business over which that foreign official has authority.The OECD has also adopted a convention that obliges member states to make the bribery of foreign public officials a criminal offense.（四）The Protection Of Intellectual Property RightsIntellectual property refers to property that is the product of intellectual activity. Intellectual property can be protected using:1. Patents– exclusive rights for a defined period to the manufacture, use, or sale of that invention2. Copyrights– the exclusive legal rights of authors, composers, playwrights, artists, and publishers to publish and disperse their work as they see fit3. Trademarks– designs and names by which merchants or manufacturers designate and differentiate their productsProtection of intellectual property rights differs from country to country—when intellectual property protection is lax, piracy is common.Many countries are members of the World Intellectual Property Organization and have signed international treaties to protect intellectual property including the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial PropertyTo avoid piracy, firms can stay away from countries where intellectual property laws are lax, file lawsuits, and lobby governments for international property rights agreements and enforcement（五）Product Safety And Product LiabilityProduct safety laws set certain standards to which a product must adhere.Product liability involves holding a firm and its officers responsible when a product causes injury, death, or damage.When product safety laws are stricter in a firm’s home country than in a foreign country, or when liability laws are more lax in host country, the firm has to decide whether to adhere to home country or host country standards.四、Political Economy And Economic Development（一）Differences In Economic DevelopmentThe Determinants Of Economic Development：Countries have different levels of economic development. Gross national income (GNI) per person is a common measure of economic development. Purchasing power parity (PPP) involves adjusting GNI by purchasing power.Table 3.1: Economic Data for Select CountriesBroader Conceptions Of Development: Amartya SenNobel Prize winning economist Amartya Sen argues that development should be seen as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people experience.So, development requires the removal of major impediments to freedom like poverty, tyranny, and neglect of public facilities.Sen emphasizes basic health care and basic education.The United Nations used Sen’s ideas to develop the Human Development Index (HDI)which is based on three measures: life expectancy at birth, educational attainment, and whether average incomes are sufficient to meet the basic needs of life in a country. （二）Political Economy And Economic ProgressThe relationship between political economy and economic progress：1. Innovation and entrepreneurship are the engines of long-run economic growth2. Innovation and entrepreneurship require a market economy3. Innovation and entrepreneurship require strong property rights4. The required political system.5. Economic progress begets democracy. It seems likely that democratic regimes are more conducive to long-term economic growth. Subsequent economic growth leads to establishment of democratic regimes6. Geography, Education, And Economic DevelopmentIn addition to political and economic systems, geography and education are also important determinants of economic development.①Countries with favorable geography are more likely to engage in trade, and so, be more open to market-based economic systems, and the economic growth they promote.②Countries that invest in education have higher growth rates because the workforce is more productive.（三）States In TransitionSince the late 1980s, two trends have emerged in the political economy:I A wave of democratic revolutions swept the world in the late 1980s and early 1990s. II There has been a move away from centrally planned and mixed economies and toward a more free market economic model.1. The Spread Of DemocracyThere are three main reasons for the spread of democracy:①Many totalitarian regimes failed to deliver economic progress to the vast bulk of their populations.②New information and communication technologies, have broken down the ability of the state to control access to uncensored information.③The economic advances of the past quarter century have led to the emergence of increasingly prosperous middle and working classes who have pushed for democratic reforms.2. The New World Order And Global TerrorismMany countries may be increasingly difficult places in which to do business, either because of their inherent violent conflict, or because they are part of a civilization that is in conflict with an enterprise’s home country.Terrorism represents one of the major threats to world peace and economic progress in the 21st century.3. The Spread Of Market- Based SystemsCommand and mixed-economies failed to deliver the kind of sustained economic performance that was achieved by countries adopting market-based systems.As a result, more countries have shifted toward the market-based model.Map 2.6: Distribution of Economic Freedom in 2007（四）The Nature Of Economic TransformationThe shift toward a market-based system involves:1. Deregulation–removing legal restrictions to the free play of markets, the establishment of private enterprises, and the manner in which private enterprises operate2. Privatization -transfers the ownership of state property into the hands of private investors3. The creation of a legal system to safeguard property rights（五）Implications Of Changing Political EconomyMarkets that were formerly off-limits to Western business are now open. China with its 1.2 billion people and India with its population of almost 1 billion are especially important.However, just as the potential gains are large, so are the risks.Democracy may not thrive in some countries.Implications For ManagersThere are two broad implications for managers:1. the political, economic, and legal systems of a country raise important ethical issues that have implications for the practice of international business2. the political, economic, and legal environment of a country clearly influences the attractiveness of that country as a market and/or investment site①BenefitsThe long-run benefits of doing business in a country are a function of the size of the market, the present wealth of consumers in that market, and the likely future wealth of consumers.By identifying and investing early in a potential future economic stars, firms may be able to gain first mover advantages (advantages that accrue to early entrants into a market) and establish loyalty and experience in a country.②CostsThe costs of doing business in a country are influenced by political, economic, and legal factors:⑴Political costs include the cost of paying bribes or lobbying for favorable or fair treatment.⑵Economic costs relate primarily to the sophistication of the economic system, including the infrastructure and supporting businesses⑶It can be more costly to do business in countries with strict standards with regard to product safety, safety in the workplace, environmental pollution, and the like.③RisksThe risks of doing business are determined by a number of political, economic, and legal factors:⑴Political risk is the likelihood that political forces will cause drastic changes in a country's business environment that adversely affects the profit and other goals of a business enterprise⑵Economic risk is the likelihood that economic mismanagement will cause drastic changes in a country's business environment that adversely affects the profit and other goals of a business enterprise⑶Legal risk is the likelihood that a trading partner will opportunistically break a contract or expropriate property rights④Overall AttractivenessThe overall attractiveness of a country as a potential market and/or investment site for an international business depends on balancing the benefits, costs, and risks associated with doing business in that country.Other things being equal, the benefit-cost-risk trade-off is likely to be most favorable in politically stable developed and developing nations that have free market systems and no dramatic upsurge in either inflation rates or private sector debt。
国际商务英语Chapter 2 Business Negotiation
General Procedure in Business Negotiation
Generally, the business negotiation will usually go through five steps, namely, enquiry, offer, counter-offer, acceptance and conclusion of a contract.
Chapter 2
Business Negotiation
Overview of Negotiation
What is negotiation? A negotiation is a process of communication between parties to manage conflicts in order for them to come to an agreement, solve a problem or make arrangements.
reaches the offeree before or at the same time as the offer. Until a contract is concluded an offer may be revoked if the revocation
reaches the offeree before he has dispatched an acceptance. However, an offer cannot be revoked: (a) if it indicates, whether by stating a fixed time for acceptance or
new offer
A reply to an offer which purports to be an acceptance but contains additions, limitations or other modifications is a rejection of the offer and constitutes a counter-offer.
国际商务环境(英文)Chapter 2 The External Environment of Bu
• In analyzing a firm’s external environment attention needs to be paid t o the interaction between the different environmental variables, environ mental complexity, volatility and change and to the spatial influences.
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2. What does the general environment and the immedi
ate environment of business organizations comprise re
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱspectively?
• The general environment
➢ economic environment
• This environment comprises influences which are both operational and general.
• The operational environment of business is concerned with such factors as customers, suppliers, creditors and competitors.
系
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Summary of key points
• Business activity is essentially concerned with transforming inputs into o utputs for consumption purposes.
国际商务》 查尔斯 英文第九版 期末复习重点
Chapter 1 globalizationWhat is globalization?The globalization of markets.It refers to the merging of historically distinct and separate national markets into one huge global marketplace.The globalization of productionIt refers to the sourcing of goods and services from locations around the globe to take advantage of national differences in the cost and quality of factors of production.Factors of production: (1) land, (2) capital, (3) labor, (4) energyWhy china losing their position of global factory?(1)A ging population.The population of the china is aging, which leads china to losing their advantage of cheaper labors that resulting the cost of production in china is going higher.(2)E xpensive land.The higher cost of land is another reason that leads to China losingits position of global factory. In the early time, it is free for foreign company to use land in China to build up a factory. But it is not free for them anymore. Because of the increasing price of land, many company are moving their factories to other countries.The differences between the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank （WB）.The IMF was established to maintain order in the international monetary system; the WB was set up to promote economic development.In a short word, the IMF always gives a hand to the countries in crisis, and it often offers the short-term loan.The WB always loan money to country build their infrastructure with long-term loan.Drivers of globalizationDeclining trade and investment barriersInternational trade occurs when a firm exports goods & services to consumers in another country.Foreign direct investment (FDI) occurs when a firm invests resources in business activities outside its home country.The role of technological changeMicroprocessors and telecommunicationsMoore’s law, which predicts that the power of microprocessor technology doubles and its cost of production falls in half every 18 months.The internet and world wide webTransportation technologyImplications for the globalization of productionImplications for the globalization of marketsThe changing demographics of the global economyThe changing world output and world trade pictureThe changing foreign direct investment pictureThe changing nature of the multinational enterpriseThe changing world orderTotalitarianism ———democracyPlan market —— free marketFactors prevent globalizationProtectionismDistanceLanguage barriersControl by government(1)Job losses in industries under attack from foreign competitors;(2)Downward pressure on the wage rates of unskilled workers;(3)Environmental degradation;(4)The cultural imperialism (帝国主义) of global media andmultinational enterprise, which was called “culturally impoverished”The differences between managing an international business and managing a purely domestic business(1)C ountries are different(2)T he range of problems confronted by managers in aninternational business is wider and the problems themselves (3)A n international business must find ways to work within thelimits imposed by government intervention in the international trade and invest system;(4)International transactions involve converting money intodifferent currenciesChapter 2national differences in political economy political economy to stress that the political, economic, and legalsystems of a country are interdependent.Political system: mean the system of government in a nation. It can be assessed according to two dimensionsThe first is the degree to which they emphasize collectivism as opposed to individualism.Collectivism: refers to a political system that stresses the primacy of collective goals over individual goals.Individualism: refers to a philosophy that an individual should have freedom in his or her economic and political pursuit.The second is the degree to which they are democratic or totalitarian.Democracy: refers to a political system in which government is by the people, exercised either directly or through elected representatives.Totalitarianism: is a form of government in which one person or political party exercise absolute control over all sphere of human life and prohibits opposing political parties.Pure market economy: all productive are privately owned, as opposed to being owned by the state.Pure command economy: the government plans the goods and services that country produces, the quantity in which they are produced, and the prices at which they are sold.Legal systemCommon law: based on tradition, precedent (先例)Civil law: based on a detailed set of laws organized into codes. Theocratic law: the law is based on religious teachings Property rights and corruptionProperty rights: refers to the legal rights over the use to which a resource is put and over the use made of any income that may be derived from that resource.Property rights can be violated in two ways—— through private action and through public action.Private action: refers to theft, piracy（非法翻印），blackmail）（勒索）, and the like by private individuals or groups.Public action and corruption: it occurs when public officials, such as politicians and government bureaucrats, extort （敲诈）income, resources, or the property itself from property holders.Chapter 3political economy and economic development GNI: is regarded as a yardstick for the economic activity of a country; it measures the total annual income received by residents of a nation.The disadvantage of GNI:GNI per person figures can be misleading because they don’t consider difference in the cost of living.To account for the difference in the cost of living, the purchasing power parity(PPP) is referred. It for different countries is then adjusted (up or down) depending upon whether the cost of living is lower or higher than the USA.Human Development Index(HDI): a tool to measure the quality of human life in different countries, which is based on three measures:(1). Life expectancy at birth (a function of health care);(2). Educational attainment (measured by a combination of the adult literacy rate and enrollment in primary, secondary, and tertiary education);(3). Whether the average income, based on PPP estimates, are sufficient to meet the basic needs of life in a country (adequate food, shelter, and health care).Innovation and entrepreneurship are the engines of growth Innovation: new products, new processes, new organization, new management practices, and new strategies.Furthermore, innovations in production and business processes lead to an increase in the productivity of labor and capital, which further boosts economic growth rates.Entrepreneurs first commercialize innovative new products and processes, and entrepreneurial activity provides much of the dynamism(活力) in an economy.The factors that innovations and entrepreneurship need:1.Market economy;2.Strong property rights;3.Democratic political system;4.Geography(地理), education, and economic development. States in transitionThe political economy of many of the world’s nation-states has changed radically since the late 1980s. two trend have been evident:First, a wave of democratic revolutions swept the world;Second, there has been a strong move away from centrally planned and mixed economies and toward a more free market economic model.The spread of democracyThree main reasons account for the spread of democracy:First, many totalitarian regimes failed to deliver economic progress to the vast bulk of their populations.Second,new information and communication technologies,including satellite television, internet have reduced a state’s ability to control access to uncensored(未经审查的) information.Third, in many countries the economic advances of the past quarter century have led to the emergence of increasingly prosperous middle and working classes who have pushed for democratic reforms.The nature of economic transformationThe shift toward a market-based economic system often entails a number of steps:1.Deregulation;2.Privatization;3.Creation of a legal system to safeguard property rights. Implications of changing political economy (for managers) Benefits1.Size of economy;2.Likely economic growth；3.First-mover advantages: advantages that accrue to early entrantsinto a market;te-mover disadvantages are the handicaps that late entrantsmight suffer.costs1.Corruption(贪污、腐败)；ck of infrastructure;3.Legal costs.risks1.Political risks: social unrest/ anti-business trends;2.Economic risks: economic mismanagement;3.Legal risks: failure to safeguard Property Rights.Chapter 4 difference in cultureWhat is culture?Complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society.Values:Abstract ideas about what a group believes to be good, right, and desirable.Norms:The social rules and guidelines that prescribe appropriate behavior in particular situations.Norms can be subdivided further into two major categories: folkways and mores.Folkways are the routine conventions of everyday life, which includes rituals(礼仪) and symbolic behavior.More are norms that are seen as central to the functioning of a society and to its social life.Society:A group of people who share a common set of values and norms. The cultural norms and value system includes:1.Religion;2.Political philosophy;3.Economic philosophy;cation;nguage;6.Social structureSocial structureSocial structure refers to its basic organization, which can expend into two dimensions:First, the degree to which the basic unit of social organization is the individual, as opposed to the group.Second, the degree to which a society is stratified into classes or castes(等级)。
国际商务第2章-PPT精选文档
国际分工、世界市场与国际价值
第一节 国际分工
【引导案例】
目前，在世界商用客机的生产上有
势均力敌的两大竞争对手。一个是美国 的“波音”，另一个是欧洲的“空中客 车”，两大飞机制造公司相互竞争激烈， 甚至达到了“白热化”程度。
抛开其竞争、销售、市场争夺手 段，我们应该注意到这样一个事实， 即“波音”虽然来自美国的西雅图， “空中客车”来自于法国的图卢兹， 但并不意味着它们分别是美国和法国 生产，或者说是独立生产的。
19世纪末，美国和德国在经济上发展迅速，而英 国发展速度比较慢，英国原来所处的“世界工厂” 的地位日益受到美国和德国的挑战。分工的中心从 英国变为一组国家，这些工业国家的工业生产各有 侧重，形成了以经济部门为主的国际分工。例如， 美国在这一时期成为世界谷物生产大国，荷兰和丹 麦专门生产农产品（以肉类和乳品为主），芬兰以 生产木材和木材加工业为主，比利时以生产钢铁为 主，挪威则专门生产铝等等。
2、亚非拉变为畸形地片面地发展单一作 物的国家
这些国家的主要作物和出口货物仅限于一种 或两三种产品，而这些产品又大部分销售到 工业发达国家的市场上去。因此造成了这些 国家的两种依赖性：一是经济生活对少数几 种产品的依赖性；二是对世界市场，特别是 对工业发达国家市场的高度依赖性。
3、分工的中心从英国变为一组国家， 它们之间也形成了互为市场的在经济部 门之间的国际分工关系
所谓产业革命，又称“工业革命”，是 以大机器工业代替工场手工业的革命，首 先发生在英国，其特征表现为生产的机械 化。
该时期建立的国际分工体系是一种垂直 型的国际分工体系。其表现为以先进技术 为基础的工业国与以自然条件为基础的农 业国之间的分工。
这一时期的国际分工有以下特点：
国际商务赵有广高教出版社第二章 国际商务理论基础讲解
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（二）比较优势理论 ? 李嘉图认为，即使一个国家在所有产品的生产上都
处于绝对劣势，也可以通过参与国际贸易来实现更 多的利益。 ? 贸易得以产生的原因在于，各国劳动生产率之间的 绝对差距并不是在任何产品的生产上都一样。 ? 生产技术上的相对差异导致了相对劳动生产率的不 同，进而导致相对生产成本和相对价格的不同，两 国劳动生产率的相对差异构成了贸易的基础。
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第二章 国际商务基础理论
第一节 国际贸易理论 第二节 国际直接投资理论 第三节 政府对贸易和投资的干预
第一节 国际贸易理论
一、国际贸易理论的先驱：重商主义 二、绝对优势理论与比较优势理论 三、要素禀赋理论 四、新贸易理论 五、国家竞争优势理论
一、国际贸易理论的先驱：重商主义
（一）重商主义的产生背景 （二）重商主义的主要观点 ? 货币是衡量一国财富的唯一标准，增加财富的唯一
（三）相关与支持性产业
? 波特认为，一群地理上互相靠近、技术和人才上互相支持并 具有国际竞争力的相关产业和支持产业所形成的产业集群， 是国家竞争优势的又一重要来源。
（四）企业战略、企业结构和竞争程度
? 企业在一个国家的基础、组织和管理形态，以及国内市场竞 争对手的表现，是竞争优势的又一重要来源。
（五）辅助因素：政府与机遇
? 干预出口的贸易政策 ⊙ 出口补贴 ⊙ 商品倾销 ⊙ 外汇倾销 ⊙ 出口信贷 ⊙ 出口信贷国家担保制
二、政府对国际直接投资的政策
（一）政府有关国际直接投资政策的概述
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国际商务2理论.ppt
本章主要内容
国际贸易理论 国际直接投资理论 国际竞争力理论 企业国际化阶段理论 企业国际化网络理论 企业国际化四要素理论
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到目前为止，国际商务本身还没有形成一个独立、完整 的理论体系，但是有关国际商务的一些主要形式——国 际贸易、国际直接投资以及国际竞争力等领域，均有一 些较成熟的理论。
1.人力资本学说
美国经济学家舒尔茨（T.W.Schultz）运用人力资本差 异揭示国际贸易发生的原因和贸易模式。
该理论认为，由于不同产品在生产中所需要的人力智能 的类型和程度不同，人力资本在产品比较优势的决定中 起着重要作用。
各国拥有的人力资本的多少与程度，决定着国际分工与 国际贸易：发展中国家人力资本稀缺，在初级产品上具 有比较优势；发达国家人力资本丰富，在高技术产业上 具有比较优势。
所谓内部化，是指把市场建立在公司内部的过程，以内 部市场交易取代原有的外部市场交易。
1976年英国学者巴克利（Peter.J.Buckley）和卡森 （Mark C. Casson）在合著的《跨国公司的未来》一 书中首次提出内部化理论，用以解释企业的对外直接投 资现象以及跨国公司的出现。
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内部化理论
加拿大学者鲁格曼（Alan. M. Rugman）在1981年出版 的《跨国公司内幕》一书中，深入分析了内部化与企业 对外直接投资的关系，进一步发展了内部化理论。
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垄断优势理论
但是垄断优势理论无法解释为什么拥有独占性优势的企 业一定要对外直接投资，而不是通过有偿转让技术或出 口来获取那些潜在收益；此外，该理论也无法解释发展 中国家企业的对外直接投资行为。
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Values and Attitudes
Education
Education is a means of passing on and the sharing of culture. Education levels will have an impact on the different business functions.
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Religion
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What We Are Striving To Accomplish?
1. To understand the effects of cultural differences on international business. 2. To illustrate the risks involved in cross-cultural business communications and transactions. 3. To suggest ways in which international businesses act as change agents in the diverse cultural environments in which they operate. 4. To examine how cultural knowledge is acquired and how individuals and organizations prepare for cross-cultural interaction.
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Social Institutions
“…affect the way people relate to each other”
Four Dimensions of Culture • Individualism • Power distance • Uncertainty avoidance • Masculinity
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ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
Gaining Cultural Knowledge
GMAC Global
Cultural knowledge is: •factual •experiential
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What is Culture?
Values
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Aesthetics
Colors, forms, music and symbolism may have to be changed according to culture.
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SOURCE: Adapted from Barbara F. Grimes, Ethnologue, 13th ed. (Summer Institute of Linguistics, Inc.:1996), accessed from , downloaded January 2, 2003
Attitudes Evaluations of alternatives based on values
Values Shared beliefs or group norms internalized by individuals
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Manners and Customs
Manners and Customs
Attitudes Religion
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Languages
Top Ten World Languages
Population Language
1. 2. 3. 4. Chinese, Mandarin Spanish English Bengali
(in millions)
885 332 322 189
Convey messages through spoken word and nonverbal gestures, body position and eye contact.
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Elements of Culture
CONCRETE ELEMENTS •Language Verbal Nonverbal •Infrastructure •Education •Social Institutions
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Understanding Cultural Differences
5. Hindi 6. Portuguese 7. Russian 8. Japanese 9. German, Standard 10. Chinese, Wu
182 170 170 125 98 77
• Aides information gathering and evaluation. • Provides local society access. • Reduces risk of errors. • Extends beyond the mechanics of communication in accurate interpretation of cultural contexts.
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Infrastructure
Economic
Social
Financial and Marketing
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Has an impact on international marketing that is seen in a culture’s values and attitudes toward entrepreneurship, consumption, and social organization.