自考词汇学Chapter3Morphology
大学英语语言学Chapter_3_Morphology
Chapter 3 Morphology1. What is word?•Definition: A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.• A vague definition.Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.1.1 Identification of words•Stability:stable linguistic units.chairman, but not *manchair•Relative uninterruptibility:though we recognize three components in the word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between, as in *disinterestappointment.But we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary ...• A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself.Sentence---the maximum free formWord---the minimum free form, the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance•Eg --Is Jane coming tonight?--Possibly.Hi.Wonderful.•词的特征词是由词素构成，比词素高一级的句法单位。
Chapter 3新编语言学教程 Morphology
the classification of morphemes 1
A. free morpheme自由语素 Morphemes may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemeic单语素词 words are free morphemes.
Free morphemes can be divided into two categories: Lexical morphemes(词汇语素)：ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of messages we convey. E.g. book, desk Functional morphemes(功能语素)：conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. E.g. if, when, because.
2. The smallest unit of morphology & the classification of morphemes
Morpheme(语素): A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function. It cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
1.4 Definition of morphology P52
Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案
Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words We have discussed the historical, cultural and social factors that facilitate (使……容易；推动) the development of the English vocabulary. Borrowing, as we see, has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary. In modern times, however, vocabulary is mainly enlarged on an internal basis. That is, we use word-building material available in English to create new words. But before we discuss the actual ways and means to make new words, we need to have a clear picture of the structure of English words and their components (成分) —word-forming elements. This chapter will discuss morphemes(语素；词素), their classification(分类) and identification(辨别), the relationship between morphemes and word-formation(构词法).3.1 MorphemesTraditionally, words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules(句法规则). Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take decontextualization for example. This is one word, but can be broken down into de-, con-, text, -a/ , -iz(e), -ation , each having meaning of its own. These segments (部分) cannot be furtherdivided; otherwise, none of them would make any sense. Though -ation has a number of variants (变体) such as -tion, -sion, -ion, they belong to the same suffix as they have the same meaning and grammatical function and occur owing to (因为；根据) different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes (morphe is the Greek word for 'form'; -eme as in 'phoneme' (音素) means 'class of' ). In view of word-formation, the morpheme is seen as 'the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words' (Crystal 1985). Syntactically(从句法上看), however, a morpheme is the minimal form of grammatical analysis (语法分析). For instance, each of the word-forms studies, studying, studied, consists of the morpheme study + ; the forms -es in studies, -ing in studying, -ed in studied are morphemes, which express grammatical concepts (语法概念) instead of deriving new words (See Classifying Morphemes).3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs(词素变体)Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units (具体单位) known as morphs(形素). 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning' (Bolinger and Sears 1981:43). In other words the phonetic or orthographic strings(语音串或拼写字串)or segments (切分成分；节) which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs' (Bauer 1983:15). The morpheme isto the morph what a phoneme (音位) is to a phone (音素). Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, green , sad, want, desire, etc. . These morphemes coincide (巧合) with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a set of morphs in different sound context, e. g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in matches /iz/. The alternates (作为替换的事物) /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are three different morphs. The same is true of the link verb morpheme {be}. Its past tense is realized by two distinct orthographic forms was , were, each of which happens to be a word-form, realizing {preterit} and {singular}, and {preterit} and {plural} respectively and each has its own phonetic form /woz/ or /wə:/. Therefore, both was, were and their phonetic forms /woz/ and /wə: / are morphs (See discussion in Bauer, p15).An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. Just as we class phones(音素) together as allophones (音位变体) of a single phoneme(音位), so we class morphs together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Take the plural morpheme {-s} again. Phonetically, it is realized by /s/, /z/, /iz/, all of which are allomorphs. In English, many morphemes canhave more than one allomorph, particularly those freestanding morphemes which are functional words in their own right. Once they occur in connected speech, they may be realized by different forms, depending on whether they are accented or weakened (Look at the data in the table).Morphem e AllomorphStrong Weak{am} /aem/ /əm/, /m/{ was} /woz/ /WəZ/{have } /haev/ /həv/, /v/{would } /wud/ /wəd/, /əd/,/d/{he} /hi:/ /i:/, /i/{his} /hiz/ /iz/{for} /fo:/ /fə/{to} /tu:/ /tu/, /tə/Then what is the difference between morphs and allomorphs? The relationship can be illustrated by the diagram below.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph →allomorph/wud/ /wəd/ /əd/ /d/3.3 Classifying MorphemesMorphemes vary in function. Accordingly, we can classify morphemes into several general categories: free versus bound, derivational versus inflectional, and lexical versus grammatical. However, their boundaries are not as clear-cut as they appear to be due to some overlapping(重叠). For the sake of discussion, we shall define each type in terms of its characteristics.1. Free versus Bound Morphemes(自由词素与粘着词素)This is the easiest and most preferred classification in morphological studies, discussed in Hatch and Brown (1995), Crystal (1985), Fromkin and Rodman (1983), Bauer (1983), Bolinger and Sears (1981) and Matthews (2000). Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with(与……完全相同) words, for example, man, earth, wind, car and anger.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particulargrammatical function.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words (派生词). Let us take recollection, idealistic and ex-prisoner for example. Each of the three words comprises three morphemes: recollection (re- collect-ion) , idealistic (ideal-ist-ic) , ex-prisoner (ex- prison -er). Of the nine morphemes, collect, ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes. All the rest re-, -ion , -ist, -ic, ex-and -er are bound as none of them are freestanding units.Free morphemes are all roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words like collect, ideal, prison , whereas bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes, most of which can be used to create new words like -dict- , -ced- (接近；去), re-, -ion, -ist, -ic and ex-(前). But there are a few affixes which can only indicate such grammatical concepts as tense, aspect, number and case, for example, the -ing in watching, -er in easier, -s in books, and -ed in worked.The English language possesses a multitude of (大量的) words made up of merely bound morphemes, e. g. antecedent, which can be broken down into ante-, -ced- and -ent. Among them, -ced- is a root meaning 'approach, go to', ante-, a prefix meaning 'before' and -ent, a noun suffix meaning 'a person, a thing', thus the whole word antecedent meaning 'something that goes before'(前例；前事；先行词；祖先). These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root (See Root, Stem, Base) and affix.2. Derivational versus Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes (派生词素) because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.In English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes. For example, a + mor + ai, clear + ance, Life + Like and homo + gen + eous are results of such morphological processes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折词素), in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios and potatoes; the same forms can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular such as likes, works and goes; the form -'s is used to denote the possessive case of nouns such as the children ' s library, the man ' s role and the mother-in-law' s complaints; the suffixes -er, -est are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative degrees like happier—happiest,harder—hardest. Apart from these, there is the past tense marker -ed and progressive marker -ing added to verbs. The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes can be summarized as follows (See Hatch and Brown, p266): Inflectional Derivational(1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem (1) Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.(2) Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(3) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs at margins of words.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.3. Content versus Grammatical MorphemesOn a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content and grammatical morphemes (Traugott and Pratt 1980:90; Bolinger and Sears, pp66~70; Hatch and Brown, p267). Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used as wesee above to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. These morphemes, whether free or bound, have a lexical content, hence the name. Grammatical morphemes, on the other hand, function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, -while, -where, but and that, which are traditionally called functional words.3.4 Identifying Morphemes(词素的区分)Since morphemes are the minimal distinct units, they should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution. Generally speaking, lexical morphemes are easy to define:Mono-morphemic: land, skyDouble-morphemic: chill + y, mis + takeTriple-morphemic: anti + govern + ment, sports + man + shipFour-morphemic:un + friend + li + ness, morph + olog( i) + cal + lyOver-four-morphemic: inter + nation + al + iz(e) + ationIf the morphemes are always consistent in form and meaning, there should be no difficulty in identification(区分). However, thereis often mismatch(不一致)between form and meaning. Some morphemes are identical(相同的) in form but different in meaning, for instance, -er in teacher, clearer and eraser. -er in teacher means 'one who', but -er in clearer indicates 'the comparative degree', and -er in eraser denotes 'an object'. Therefore, -er in each case is a different morpheme.Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation(单独)but acquire meaning by virtue of(通过)their connection in words (Fromkin and Rodman, p116). The classic examples are cranberry(越橘), huckleberry (黑果；乌饭树浆果)and boysenberry(博弈增莓), each seeming to be a kind of berry. But when cran-, huckle- and boysen- are isolated, they are meaningless and they are incapable of forming new words with other morphemes rather than with berry. There are other morphemes which occur in many words, but their meaning is difficult to define, for instance, -ceive in conceive (想象；设想), perceive(感觉，察觉；认为)and receive. Some forms are meaningful, but not morphemes, such as fl- meaning 'moving light' in flash , flame and flicker(闪烁，忽隐忽现), and gl-meaning 'static light' in glow(发光，燃烧)，glisten (闪耀；反光)and glitter(闪光；光彩夺目). These are only sound symbols often employed by poets in their literary creation but do not qualify as morphemes.The identification of inflectional morphemes is more problematic. In most cases, an inflectional morpheme can be segmented (切分)from the stem of a word and naturally can be added to the stem like the plural morpheme {s} in gloves, tables and classes. But what is the plural morpheme in men, sheep and feet ? The same is true of the past tense morpheme {ed} , which is explicit and segmentable in walked, loaded and danced. How can we isolate the past tense morpheme from knew, taught and cut ? To solve the problem, we have to resort to other ways.3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationWe know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.1. AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes because none of them can stand as words in their own right. According to the functions of affixes, we can divide them into inflectional affixes like -s, -ed and -ing, and derivational affixeslike pre-, ex-, de-, -less, -dom and -ic. Derivational and inflectional affixes are identical with derivational and inflectional morphemes. In view of their distribution in the formation of words, affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Prefixes are all derivational, i.e. they are used to form new words whereas suffixes embrace(包括) both derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes. Accordingly, the above-mentioned affixes can be further grouped into prefixes: pre-, ex- and de-y and suffixes: -less, -dom, -zc, -5, -ed and -ing.2. Root, Stem, BaseBefore we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes, there are some basic concepts that need clarifying(澄清). The processes of derivation and compounding involve different word-forming elements: affixes and root or stem or base. Indeed, some people use root or stem undiscriminatingly (不加区别地) on all occasions. But these three terms are not the same, and they denote to a greater or lesser degree different concepts despite the semantic overlapping between them.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity (Crystal 1985). As mentioned earlier, the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the maincomponent of meaning in a word. In the word internationalists, removing inter- , -at, -ist, -s leaves the root nation. If we further divide nation as * na/tion or * at /ion, though -tion and -ion coincide with the noun suffix, the other part is meaningless and the original lexical identity is totally lost. Therefore, nation defies(使不能；使落空)further analysis. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a 'root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed' (Bauer 1983). Take internationalists again. After the removal of the inflectional affix -s and the derivational affixes -ist, -al and inter-, nation is what is left and thus is the root.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, understatement. To make things more clearly, we say that the stem is used only when we deal with inflectional affixes. As Bauer defines, a stem is 'that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed' (ibid). In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem. Consider the word internationalists again. Nation is a root as well as a stem as the plural -s can be added to it; national is not a root as it can be further divided, but a stem because an inflectionalaffix -s can be added to it when used as a noun; similarly, international is not a root but a stem for the same reason. This is also true of internationalist, which is a stem.A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. In the case of internationalists, nation is a base, national is a base, so are international and internationalist.nation(root, stem, base)national(stem, base)international(stem, base)internationalist (stem, base)InternationalistsIt should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base. This is not true. In many cases, a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem, but only a base. This often happens when we deal with derivational affixes exclusively, for example impracticality(不切实际；无用；不现实). Removing the derivational affix -ity leaves only the base form impractical, and by further removing im- we have the base form practical left and by still further analysis, only practice remains.impracticalityimpractical (base)practical(base)practice(root, stem, base)Therefore, in the chapters to follow, we shall employ only the term base to refer to any basic word-building element.英语词汇学第三单元课后练习及答案Questions and Tasks1. Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions.a. a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( )b. one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( )c. a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme ( )d. a morpheme that can stand alone ( )e. a morpheme attached to a base, stem or root ( )f. an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( )g. an affix that forms new words with a base, stem or root ( )h.what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( )i. that part of a word that can take inflectional affixes ( ) j. a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( )2. What is the difference between grammatical and lexicalmorphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes?Give examples to illustrate their relationships.3. Analyze the words in terms of root, stem and base.individualistic undesirablesanize the following terms in a tree diagram to show their logical relationships.affix morphemederivational affix free rootbound root inflectional affixprefix free morphemebound morpheme suffix参考答案1. a. morphemeb. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affixh. rooti. stemj. base2. Inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end ofwords to denote grammatical concepts such as -s (-es) , -ed,-ing and -est (to show superlative degree of adjectives andadverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes andsuffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un- , -lion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles,auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and was; lexicalmorphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixesand suffixes.3.individualisticindividualist+ic[stem, base]individual+ist[stem, base]individu+al[stem, base]in+dividu[root, stem, base]undesirablesun+desirable[stem, base]desir+able[root, stem, base]4. morpheme free morpheme=free rootbound morpheme bound rootaffix inflectional affixderivational affix prefixsuffix。
Chapter3 Morphology
e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “carefully”, “believe” in “unbeliev(e)able”…
All
words contain a root morpheme. Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves such as black in black, blackboard, blackbird. Morphemes of this type are potentially unlimited in number in a language. However, there are relatively few bound root morphemes in English, such as，–ceive in receive, perceive, conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, submit; -tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in incur, recur, occur, etc.
Root, base, stem Derivational Morpheme & Inflectional Morpheme The Hierarchical Structure of Words
4.Word Coinage 5.Summary
How many words do you know?
able
Ⅲ Rules of Word Formation
All
Hale Waihona Puke words contain a root morpheme A word is not a simple sequence of morphemes. It has an internal structure which reflects the Hierarchical Structure of Words .
Chapter 3 Morphology 要点总结
Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)1.What is morphology（形态学）?Morphology, as a branch of linguistics , is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.eg. Unfriendly → un + friend + ly2.Morphemes(词素、语素)A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.eg. Maps→(2 units)→map + s3.Types of morphemes:free morphemes(自由语素) and bound morphemes(黏着语素)1>Free morphemes(自由语素)A.Some morphemes can stand alone as words, such morphemes are called freemorphemes.B．Rooot(词根) & Stem(词干)❶Root：a root is the based form of a word which cannot be further analyzed . It may be a free morpheme(as black in blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith) as well as a bound morpheme( -ceive in perceive认识，deceive欺骗，receive).❷Stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added (friend in friends, friendship in friendships are both stem).C . Free Morphemes can be divided into two categories. They are:Closed Class & Opened Class(封闭词类和开放性词类)❶Closed Class（functional morphemes）: a closed class is one whose membership is principle fixed or limited. (封闭类：连介代冠conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, articles)❷Open Class( lexical morphemes): an open class is one whose membership is principle indefinite or unlimited. (包括：名动形副数叹noun, verbs, adjectives)2>Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)A.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)—>prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), infix(中缀).eg. dis- , un- , -ity, -al, -sB. Two Categories of Bound Morphemes:Derivational Morphemes(派生语素) & Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素)❶Derivational Morphemes(派生语素): ~~ are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.eg. nouns→ verbs/ adj. verbs→ nouns/ adj.friend→ unfriend解除朋友关系( noun→ verb)❷Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素):~~ are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.①plurality(复数): - s, - es, - ies……②tense(时态): - s, - ing, - en, - ed……③possessive case(所有格): ’s④comparative/ superlative degree(比较级/最高级): -er, - esteg. dislikes → dis + +3> free morphemes(自由语素) & bound morphemes(黏着语素)❶All monomorphemic(单词素/单语素) words are free morphemes;❷These polymorphemic words are either compounds( combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives(words derived from free morphemes).4.Morphs(形素) and Allomorphs（语素变体）Morphs: the phonological and orthographic forms which realize morphemes are termed ― morphs‖.(语素的语音及对应拼写法的体现叫形素)Most morphemesSome morphemesAllomorphs: an allomorph is any of the different form of the same morpheme( 语素变体是同一个语素的不同形式).eg. plurality ―- s‖: map→ maps; dog→ dogs; class→ classed; mouse→ mice; sheep→ sheep Complementary distribution(互补分布)：allomorph is a member of a set of morph;allomorph can’ t occur in the same environment .5> Types of Word Formation(构词法)❶Compounding(合成法)Words are formed by putting two words together, this way of building new words is called compounding.❷Derivation(派生法)Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.❸Conversion(转换法)Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun.❹Backformation(逆向构词法)As we have editor, we get edit by dropping – or . This process is called ~~❺Clipping(截短法)This process by cutting off part of word is called ~~❻Blending(混合法)A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms, this process iscalled ~~~❼Acronymization(缩略法)。
Chapter 3 Morphology
Chapter 3 Morphology1、What is a morpheme? Dissect the following words into morphemes:The smallest unit of meaning.de-scrip-tion under-develop-ed photo-synthe-tic ana-tomyradia-tion geo-graph-y phil-harmon-ic de-frost-edre-fresh-ment de-mobil-iz-ed con-duct-ing sup-press-ion circum-spect dia-logue de-form-ed com-bina-tion2、Describe with examples the various types of morpheme used in English Free morpheme e.g. mate, sun, fame, likeBound morpheme: roots and affixesRoots e.g. fin-, spect-, -cideAffixes: inflectional and derivationalDerivational: prefix and suffixInflectional affixes:-ing, -ed, -(e)sPrefixes: un-, dis-, de, en-Suffixes:-ly, -less, -tion, -ize3、What are the main inflectional affixes in English? What grammatical meaning do they convey?-(e)s – plural number-(e)s – third-person、singular、present tense-(e)d – past tense-ing – progressive aspect-er – comparative degree-est – superlative degree-‟s – possessive case4、T ry to find out the meaning of the following roots in English and give two or three words that contain each of them.1、Hydro – water e.g. hydraulic, dehydrate2、Chron – time e.g. chronological, chronicle3、Demo – people e.g. democracy, demography4、Dur – lasting e.g. during, durable5、Agr – farming e.g. agriculture, agrarian6、Kilo – one thousand e.g. kilometer, kilogram7、Nym – name e.g. pseudonym, antonym8、Ped – foot e.g. centipede, impede9、Rupt – breaking e.g. rupture, abrupt10、Gress – movement e.g. progress, digress11、Poly – various e.g. polygon, polyglot12、Syn – identical e.g. synchronic, sympathy5、State the morphological rules that govern the use of the given derivational affixes.Example: -er This suffix is added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent that carries out the action, e.g. write – writer1、-ant suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the agent e.g. assistant2、-ment suffix added to a verb to form its corresponding noun e.g. development3、sub- Prefix added to an adjective to form another adjective to indicate a lesser degreee.g. substandard4、-en Suffix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of thequality denoted by the adjective e.g. darken5、en- Prefix added to an adjective to form a verb to indicate the acquisition of thequality denoted by the adjective e. g. enrich6、-ee Suffix added to a verb to form a noun indicating the recipient of the action denotedby the verb e.g. employee7、-ful Suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by thenoun e.g. plentiful8、-some Suffix added to a noun to form an adjective indicating the quality denoted by thenoun e.g. quarrelsome9、-wise Suffix added to a noun to form an adverb meaning “with regard to the areaindicating by the noun” e.g. careerwise10、un- Prefix added to an adjective to indicate the absence of the quality indicated by theadjective e.g. unemployed6、What are the main features of the English compounds?1、Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. E.g. armchair, follow-up.2、Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.E.g. icy-cold, greenhouse3、Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components.e.g. a redcoat is not a coat at all, and neither a hotdog a dog.4、Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.e.g The same form “running dog” can possibly be pronounced in two differently ways. One way to pronounce it is to give the primary stress to the noun “dog,‟ so that the fall occurs on this word and the –ing form receives secondary stress. …running dog. Thus pronounced, the form means “a dog that is running,” i.e. the action indicated by the –ing form is carried out by the noun that follows it. The other way is to put the primary stress on the first element “running” so that the fall of the intonation occurs on the syllable “run” and the word “dog”receive secondary stress: running dog. In this case, “running dog”is actually a compoundnoun and it does not means a dog that is running, but metaphorically it refers to a person who follows another person obediently in his wrong doings.7、Explain the formation and meaning of the following compounds:Example: nightcap, noun formed by combining two nouns, meaning a drink one takes before going to bed1、cat‟s paw -- noun formed by combining two nouns, meaning a person used byanother as a cool2、tablecloth -- noun formed by combining two nouns, meaning a piece of clothspread on a table to cover it3、green-eyed -- adjective formed by combining an adjective an an –ed from, meaningjealous4、green horn -- noun formed by combining an adjective and a noun, meaning a personnot experienced for a job or occupation5、update -- verb formed by combining an adverb and a verb, meaning to bringsomething up to date6、jet lag -- noun formed by combining two nouns, meaning the feeling of fatiguecaused by traveling in a jet plane crossing different time zones7、bootleg -- verb (also noun) formed by combining two nouns, meaning “ to take,carry, or sell illicit goods”8、built-in -- adjective formed by combining a past participle with a preposition,meaning “ made as an integral part”9、cockpit -- noun formed by joining two nouns, meaning the compartment in anaircraft where the pilot or the crew sit10、good-for-nothing adjective formed by joining an adjective, a preposition, and apronoun, meaning irresponsible or worthless8.Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration 1)MorphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is divided into two sub-branches, inflectional morphology and lexical or derivation morphology.2)MorphemeMorpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. .e.g. re- is not a word, but it does carry meaning, thus re –s a morpheme3)Free morphemeFree morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.e.g. help, table, able4)Bound morphemeBound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. E.g. –er, -en, dis- bio-, -less, -sym.A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.e.g. liter- in literal, and literature.6）A ffixAffixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes (inflectional morphemes) –ing,-ed manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. Derivational affixes (derivational morphemes) are added to an existing form to create a word. E.g. in-, -er. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem.According to its position in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, it modify the meaning of stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, except be-, and en(m)-. Suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.. e.g. large, enlarge, rich, enrich.7）D erivationDerivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. Derivation can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.8）C ompoundingCompounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.N+N – handbook, sunshineA+N highway, easychairV+N driveway9.What are the two sub-branches of morphology? What does each of tem study?Morphology is divided into two sub-branches; inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.10.How do you distinguish a compound noun from a noun phrase?There are various ways to classify the compound words. One of them is to look at the parts of speech of the component words. Words of various parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. E.g. noun+noun (handbook), adjective+noun (highway), verb+noun (driveaway)Four features of compound.11.Why is the meaning of a compound often idiomatic?Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components. For example, a greenhouse is not a house that12.What are inflectional and derivational affixes? What grammatical meanings do the main inflectional affixes in English convey?Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.e.g. –(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns.-ing, indicating progressive aspect.Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.。
2017-Chapter 3 Morphology精讲版
DM
lexical
morpheme root IM
grammatical
function word
Root, Base, Stem, Affixes,
A ROOT
A root is basic part of word that cannot be further
analyzed without total loss of identity. UNANALYZABLE A“root” is part of the word left when all affixes are removed. Inter-nation-al-ism
ESSENCE
P32 Words have an ①internal structure which consists of ②smaller units ③organized in a particular way 单词有内部结构，由更小单位按特定方式组成
MORPHOLOGY- ① WORD STRUCTURE ② MORPHEME ③ WORD FORMATION
1 1.1 2 2.1 2.2 2.3
① Word Classification of Word ② Morpheme
Contents
Definition of Morpheme Classification of Morphemes Morpheme, Morph, Allomorph ③ Word Formation Derivation
affixes
Bound M
bound affixes
inflectional affixes derivational affixes
词汇学Chapter-3-Morphological-structure-of-English-words
Allomorph 词素变体
• An allomorph refers to a number of a set of morphs, which present one morpheme. 词素变体指一套形素中的一个成员，表征一个 词素。
When the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog, and horse, it is pronounced differently as /-s, -z,
but they cannot be further divided, otherwise they will not make any sense.
Morphemes may have some variants, e.g. - ation. May also be -tion, -sion,-ion, but they
9. Stupig 笨猪
decontextualization
decontextualization
• de-; 否定、非、相反：destruction, dematerialize… 除去、取消、毁：desalt, de-oil, de-water…
• con-; 共同,一起;加强意义：conclude, condense… • text; 编制: context, pretext, textbook, textile • -al; 表示属于…的、具有…性质的：
personal, global, natural… 构成抽象名词，表示行为、状况、事情：
refusal, removal, arrival… • -iz(e); 表示“…化”、按照…样子去做、按…方式去处理：
modernize, realize, organize, popularize… • -ation; 表示行为、情况、状态：starvation, invitation…
Chapter-3-Morphology--形态学(现代语言学)
Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。
The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。
Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学）。
前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。
2.Morpheme 词素Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language词素：语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
Monomorphemic words 单词素单词Types of morphemes 词素的类型Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes. Such as help, table, room, mate, quick, able.这些词素是独立的、可以自由使用的意义单位，所以它们就被称作自由词素。
语用学chapter3 Morphology..
2018/10/7 英语语言学 14
Classification of word
1)According
to different criteria and word`s variability, word can be divided into variable and invariable words: Eg, work→working→works→worked (variable word) eg, since/when/seldom/through, etc.(invariable words).
英语语言学
1
What is a morpheme?
It
is the smallest meaningful unit in a language which cannot be further divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, eg, pine→pin /e (if “pine is divided into pin and e ,the meaning has been changed.)
2018/10/7 英语语言学 4
Points noticed: A)Some free morphemes never go together with bound morphemes, eg, very→※veryly; B) bound morphemes may be attached to other bound morphemes, eg, re-ceive; per-mit.C) free morphemes may be combined to form compound words: play-boy; baby-sit. D)lexical morphemes( 词 汇 语 素 )consist of the content words while functional morphemes( 功 能 语 素 ) consist of the functional words.eg, “Bush is going to the hell.”
语言学chapter 3. morphology
Morphology
Morph, verb; morphing, noun [U] [V, VN] to change smoothly from one image to another using computer ANIMATION; to make an image change in this way -ology (BrE also -logy) combining form (in nouns), a subject of study: sociology; genealogy a characteristic of speech or writing: phraseology; trilogy
Nouns verbs adjectives adverbs
Conjunctions prepositions articles pronouns
4. Word class
traditional grammar — parts of speech
word class in linguistic analysis — wider range of more precisely defined categories： particles, auxiliaries, pro-forms, determiners.
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
1. A physically definable unit: a set of sound segments or wirting letters between two pauses or blanks 2. Word both as a general term and as a specific term 3. A grammatical unit, just like morpheme or clause complex
Chapter 03 Morphology
3. The identification of words
Besides the three senses of “word” mentioned above, there are other factors which help us to identify words.
(1) Stability(稳定性): words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure. (2) Relative uninterruptibility (相对的不可隔断性): new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in the word. (i.e. outlaws, touch-menot) (3) A minimum free form: a word is the smallest unit which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.
According to their variability: variable and invariable words（可变化词和不变词）Variable words are those words which can take inflective endings; invariable words are those that cannot. According to their membership:c1osed- class and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词) An close class is one whose membership is in principle fixed or limited. （封闭类：连介代冠） An open class is one whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited. (开放类：名动形副 数叹) Some newly introduced categories which are more precisely defined (P82-83): particles (小品词) auxiliaries (助动词) pro-forms (代词形式) determiners (限定词)
培训学习资料-chapter_3__morphology-2022年学习资料
betymology,a subfield of lexicology-is the study of o ingins of words and-their history and semantic change .-cLexicography,an related branch,is-mainly concerned with the inclusion of-words and the science of compli g-dictionaries,dictionary-making.-ppt课件-6
词汇学是研究词汇背后的规律性和系统性-以及词汇的结构关系和类别的科学，它运-用语言学的相关理论，研究语言中 关词-汇的问题，讨论词的形态结构及构成方式，-探讨词的意义及语义关系，阐述词汇变化-过程，涉及相关的词典知 。学习词汇学-就是学习有关词汇的系统知识，了解词汇-的现状及其历史演变过程，能够对现代词-汇发展中出现的各 现象做出分析和解释。-《英语词汇学》，汪榕培-ppt课件
Open class words-nouns-W-verbs-adjectives-Content wor s-adverbs-开放词类-OH4-Close class words-conj-preposition -articles-Grammatical/-pronouns-Functional words-dete miner-封闭词类-ppt课件
Chapter 3-Morphology-ppt课件
lexicology-Lexicology is the branch of linguisitcs-th t investigaes,describes and-theorized about vocabular .-作为语言学的一个分支，词汇学对词汇进-行调查研究、描述并予以理论化。------H.Jackson E Z.Amvela,Words,-Meaning and Vocabulary:An-Introductio to Modern English-Lexiocology,2000-ppt课件
chapter_3__morphology
• Lexicology relies on morphology for information about construction of words, parts of words and distinction between different types of words. • Morphology is particularly relevant in the discussion of word formation in the study of lexcology.
• A grammatical unit: sentence clause phrase word morpheme
Morpheme
• the minimal unit of meaning • It is the smallest/minimal unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be further divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether lexical or grammatical.
Lexocology & Morphology
Lexicole words as their primary subject and both focuse on the correspondence between forms and meanings of words. • The essential difference is a matter of emphasis: morpholgy is word grammar with meaning, while lexicology is word semantics with form.
自考英语语言学Chapter 3 Morphology
Chapter 3 Morphology形态学一、本章纲要二、本章重点1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation. 形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支，前者研究语法屈折和语法意义的表达，后者研究单词的构成和同义的表达。
2.Morpheme语素2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language语素：语言最小的意义单位。
（2004填空）The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. 单词不是语义的最小单位，因为单词可以解析为在意义上更小的意义成分。
语义的最小单位是语素。
语素表达的意义有两种：语法意义和词汇意义。
2.2 Types of morphemes语素的类型2.2.1 Free morphemes自由语素（2005，选择；2006，填空；2007选择）Morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 自由语素有着完整的语义，它们被称为自由语素是因为它们可以作为单词独立使用，如helpful中的help就是自由词素，因为help可以作为独立的单词来使用。
Chapter 3语言学- Morphology
Morphology
1
Teaching Focus
1. What is word? 2. Morphology 3. Lexical change
2
1. What is word?
1.1 Three senses of “word” 1.2 Identification of words 1.3 Classification of words
11
1.3 Classification of words
(1) General classification Variable vs. Invariable Words:
Variable words: may have inflective changes. Such as write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. Such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Invariable words: do not have inflective endings. Such as because, but, seldom, under, etc. Such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.
20
2. Morphology
Morphology: a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2.1 Morphemes 2.2 Allomorphs 2.3 Types of morphemes 2.4 Word-formation
Chapter 3. Morphology 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋
Roots(词根) A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. That means it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. E.g international disheartened
2.2 Types of morphemes Free morpheme(自由词素) A free morpheme is one that may constitute a word by itself. E.g bed, tree, sing, dance Bound morpheme(粘附词素) A bound morpheme is one that cannot appear alone. It may appear with at least one other morpheme. E.g “-s” in “dogs” “-al” in “national”
Words have Structure The simplest way to form new words out of old elements is by compounding V N V baby sit N N N church yard
chapter 3_Morphology
• 3.2 Root • internationalisation • Root (词根) is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. • It is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. • Question: Is a root a free morpheme or a bound morpheme?
• 3.2.1. Free morpheme and bound morpheme • Free morpheme (自由语素): those morphemes may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves.
Teaching objectives
⊙ To define and classify, distinguish morphemes
⊙ To classify words and master word-formation
Teaching difficulties ★ Definition and classification of morphemes ★ Major word-formation methods
Inflectional and derivational morphemes ◆ more productive ？ ◆ purely grammatical markers ? ◆ signify tense, number, and case ？ ◆ adding any lexical meaning ?
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Preliminaries:
morphology --- the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.
(1) open class and closed class: • open class: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs • closed class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles,
A. word class changed:
length+-en fool+-ish pay+-ee accept+-able rapid+-ity exact+-ly
B. word class unchanged:
non-+smoker
il-+logical
ex-+president
profit+-eer
A. number: tables B. person/finiteness: opens C. aspect: talks, talking, talked, taken D. case: boy’s E. degree of comparison: smaller, smallest
un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity • 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness • 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism
Now it’s your turn to …
disagreeable denationalization
2. bound morphemes (that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc. ) A. prefix: e.g. un-, im-, dis-, re-, en-, B. suffix: e.g. -ly, -ful, -ive, -ness, -tion,-or, -ity,
• map----maps [s] • dog----dogs [z] • watch----watches [iz] • mouse----mice [ai] • ox----oxen [n] • tooth----teeth • sheep----sheep
e.g. teacher, actor
pronouns
(2) morpheme --- the minimal unit of meaning e.g. boyish---boy+-ish
beautiful---beauty+-ful unfair---un-+fair dislike---dis-+like
Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning
Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g. • 1-morpheme boy, desire • 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble • 3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity • 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness,
Allomorph
• Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme.
impossible, incorrect, illegal, irresponsible
1) free morphemes vs. bound morphemes: 1. free morphemes (morphemes that may constitute a word
(free form) by itself, i.e. is one that can stand alone) e.g. boy, girl, act, teach, good, nice, in, a, the
Derivational morpheme & infl来自ctional morpheme
• Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words.
• When they are conjoined to other morphemes/words, a new word is derived.
tall+-ish
Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme
• Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.