第五章词汇学
《现代汉语词汇学》教学大纲
第五章 词义和语境的关系................................................................................................................... 670 一、语境对理解词义的作用 ................................................................................................... 670 二、语境对词义的影响 ........................................................................................................... 670 复习与思考题........................................................................................................................... 670 拓展阅读书目........................................................................................................................... 670
《训诂学》第五章考点手册
《训诂学》第五章测诂考证的工作与材料考点19 考释与证明综述、考证的两大类型、考证的结构（★三级考点，选择、填空）（整合知识点045-047）1.考证工作在清代最为发达，但不等于说清代才有考证。
汉代的文献词义训释也是有考证的，只不过是受书写条件的限制不可能把考证的过程记载出来。
2.考证工作到了清代发展到巅峰，主要是因为两个学术上的原因：（1）清人反思宋明理学的末流空谈义理的空疏，崇尚汉儒以实事求是阐明古义的精神；（2）受到宋代学术不迷信、敢于怀疑精神的影响。
3.考证的步骤:（1）指出考证对象，提出问题，说明进行考证的原因；（2）考求并列举文献材料;（3）论证(正面论述或驳论），得出结论。
★4.考证因考释目的和论证取向的不同，可以分成证实与反驳两大类。
5.【证实类】：对未有结论的问题证明其结论;对已有的结论加以考察核实，证明其正确。
6.初证如果有直接证据，可视为定论。
但初证往往是先提出疑问，任何学者都会受到一定的时代的或个人见闻的限制，所以初证有的可以当时定论，也有的是有待后人的复证。
7.【复证】指对已经提出的问题补充证据或补充论证思路，进一步加以证实。
8.【反驳类】：对已有的结论提出异议，以证据推翻之；同时提出新的证据而易以新的结论。
9.方法：（1）因声以求义，体现为破假借。
（2）对文以见义，说明其语言结构和意义应当相对应。
（3）以古代文化背景为观照，即用《尔雅》所记来互证。
10.考证都由三部分组成：发疑、取证、释理。
11.发疑是产生词义考证的动因，考证的特点即是因疑而发，有针对性。
(1)证实类考证多因语义不明、证据不足或论证不详而发疑。
①语义不明的。
②证据不足的。
③论证不详的。
(2)反驳类考证的产生，多因原来的解释没有看到较充分或较全面的证据，或虽有证据而对证据不能正确理解，或违背语言规律，或违背训释体例，或违背事理，因而发疑。
①有证据若不能正确理解，那也得不出正确结论。
②违背语言规律的。
③违背训释体例的。
语言学概论第五章练习题
一、填空题1. 语言学是研究______的科学。
2. 语言学的基本任务包括______、______、______和______。
3. 语言学的研究对象是______。
4. 语言的______和______是语言的本质属性。
5. 语言的______是语言的基本单位。
二、选择题1. 下列哪项不属于语言学的分支学科？A. 语音学B. 语义学C. 逻辑学D. 语法学2. 下列哪项不是语言的社会属性？A. 交际性B. 时代性C. 地域性D. 个体性3. 下列哪项不是语言的符号属性？A. 表意性B. 结构性C. 任意性D. 可变性4. 下列哪项不是语言学的三大任务？A. 描述语言现象B. 解释语言现象C. 应用语言知识D. 创造新语言5. 下列哪项不是语言的社会功能？A. 交际功能B. 记录功能C. 传播功能D. 表达功能三、判断题1. 语言学的研究对象是人类社会的语言现象。
（）2. 语言的任意性是指语言符号与所代表的意义之间没有必然的联系。
（）3. 语言的民族性是指不同民族的语言在结构上存在差异。
（）4. 语言的历时性是指语言在历史发展过程中不断变化。
（）5. 语言的共时性是指在同一时期内，语言系统内部各要素之间的关系。
（）四、简答题1. 简述语言学的定义及其基本任务。
2. 简述语言的社会属性。
3. 简述语言的符号属性。
4. 简述语言的社会功能。
5. 简述语言的历史发展过程。
五、论述题1. 论述语言的社会属性对语言学研究的重要性。
2. 论述语言的符号属性对语言学研究的影响。
3. 论述语言的社会功能在人类社会发展中的作用。
4. 论述语言的历史发展对现代语言学研究的启示。
5. 论述语言学与其他学科的关系及其相互影响。
六、名词解释1. 语音学2. 语义学3. 语法学4. 词汇学5. 修辞学6. 话语分析7. 语言学史8. 语音学中的音素9. 语义学中的多义现象10. 语法学中的句法结构七、选择题1. 下列哪位学者被誉为“现代语言学之父”？A. 威廉·冯·洪堡特B. 罗曼·雅各布森C. 马克斯·普鲁斯特D. 费尔迪南·德·索绪尔2. 下列哪项不属于索绪尔提出的语言学的两个基本概念？A. 语言/言语B. 音素/音位C. 形态/词法D. 语义/所指3. 下列哪项不是结构主义语言学的代表人物？A. 雅各布森B. 列维斯特劳斯C. 布龙菲尔德D. 哈罗德·拉斯克4. 下列哪项不是功能主义语言学的代表人物？A. 奥斯汀B. 莫里斯C. 布龙菲尔德D. 哈罗德·拉斯克5. 下列哪项不是语法学的代表人物？A. 乔姆斯基B. 布龙菲尔德C. 列维斯特劳斯D. 奥斯汀八、判断题1. 结构主义语言学强调语言的结构和模式。
现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter5
Chapter 5Word meaning and Semantic Features 词义与语义特征⏹ 5.1 Conventionality and Motivation 约定俗成与有理据词⏹ 5.2 Main Types of Word Meaning 词义的分类⏹ 5.3 Componential Analysis and Semantic Features 语义成分分析与语义特征5.1 Conventionality and Motivation 约定俗成与有理据词The sound and meaning of words relatedTwo ways:1. Conventionality 约定俗成Most English words are conventional, arbitrary symbol.Arbitrary: adj. decided by or based on chance or personal opinion rather than facts or reason. Conventional or arbitrary: there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.Eg. △□English –house French –maison Chinese –fángzi Russian –dom Spanish –casa 2. Motivation 有理据词Motivation: refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense.⏹Phonetic motivation语音理据Phonetic motivation: pronunciation suggests the meaning, including echoic words or onomatopoeic wordsE.g. woof-woof the woof-woof of a dogmiaow the miaow of a catroar the roar of a lionbang the bang of a door⏹Morphological motivation 形态理据Morphological motivation: there is a direct connection between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning.E.g. anticancer 抗癌的kilogram 公斤，千克good-looking 好看的，美貌的daydream 白日梦，做白日梦⏹Semantic motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation: The figurative meaning can be understood by those who know the literal meaning.E.g. a stony heart 铁石心肠，冷酷无情the leg of a table 桌子的腿5.2 Main Types of Word Meaning 词义的分类Types of Word Meaning: A. Grammatical meaning语法意义B. Lexical meaning 词汇意义⏹ A. Grammatical meaning1. word-class词类:The word-class determines the position that a word normally occupies in a sentenceEg. Being a child, he can’t understand what he just said.He never dreams of being a superstar.2. inflectional paradigm词形变化:Eg. seasons of a year 一年四季the poles 南北两极cat –cats mouse –mice walk –walks –walked write –wrote –written⏹ B. Lexical meaning1.Denotative meaning外延意义(conceptual meaning概念意义)Denotative meaning involves the relationship between a linguistic unit (esp. a lexical item )and the non-linguistic entities (physical objects, natural phenomena / things, events, processes) to which a word refersThe denotative meaning of a word’s definition given in a dictionaryEg. chairchair: a piece of furniture for one person to sit on, which usually ahs a back, a seat, fourlegs, and sometimes armsthe same meaning for all speakers of a given communityIt is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.the central factor in linguistic communication2.Connotative meaning内涵意义Connotative meaning: the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’smind.E.g. motherdenotative meaning: female parentconnotative meaning: love, care, warmTwo levels of connotation●Connotations pertaining to individualsbased on personal experiencee.g. father●Connotations pertaining to a groupe.g. communist, road, Uncle Sam3.Social or stylistic meaning 社会或文体意义●Social meaning: a piece of language conveys about the social circumstance of its use.One adjusted one’s language so as to make it appropriate in various situation in terms of :(1)the social relationship between the speakers or correspondents (friend tofriend ,professor to student )(2)the occasion (a class reunion or an official reception )(3)subject matter(about serious political issues or about films ,swimming or food )(4)the mode of discourse (spoken or written )●Stylistic meaningConsultative style is a polite and fairy neutral style ;it’s used when we are talking to a person whom we do not know well ,or to someone who is senior to ourselves in terms ofage or social position .Casual style is used in conversion between friends or in personal letter when the language is informal ,familiar ,relaxed ,warm and friendly .●the criterion of formality: formal, neutral and informal4. Affective meaning情感意义Affective meaning is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of speaker or writer.snarl words –show disapproval or contempt on the part of the speaker . derogatory (derog.)E.g. gang, niggardlypurr words—express the speaker 's approval of the person or thing he is talking about .appreciatory (apprec.)E.g. scholar, masterpiece, generous5.3 Componential Analysis and Semantic Features 语义成分分析与语义特征●Componential analysis on the basis of semantic contrastComponential analysis: A process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components (semantic features).⏹ManMan: [+Hunan +Adult +Male]⏹ChildChild: [+Human -Adult +Male]⏹CowCow: [+Bovine +Adult -Male]⏹LambLamb: [+Ovine -Adult +Male]⏹BoarBoar: [+Porcine +Adult -Male]现代英语词汇学概论最强版复习资料chapter5●Advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis➢Advantages:1)Enable us to have an exact knowledge of the conceptual meaning of aword2)Help us to choose the right word or collocation➢Disadvantages:1)The impossibility of making a list of the infinite number of semanticfeatures.2)The analysis of word meaning into its sense components is not enough.3)Many words are often used figuratively without observing the normal“usage rules”。
英语词汇学chapter5
� Review Chapter 5 � Exercises in Chapter 5 � Preview Chapter 6
Assignment
Extension of Meaning
It is also called widening of meaning or generalization. It’s a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.
� …almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century ago… (Quirk) � Shakespeare is perhaps more difficult to understand than more recent writings because many of his words were used in different sense from what they have now in contemporary dictionaries. � Eg. “the rivals of my watch, bid them make haste.” (partner) � “How pregnant sometimes his replies are.” (meaningful)
3) Elevation
4) Degeneration
� The meaning of a word narrows toward an unfavorable meaning is called degeneration or pejorative change. For example “lust” (desire in general).
符淮青《现代汉语词汇》词汇学笔记
专业课笔记 | 词汇学 | 符淮青《现代汉语词汇》第一章绪论词汇学与词汇词汇学：以语言中的词汇为研究对象的学科，是语言学的分支之一词汇：语言中词语的总和，包括词和固定语固定语：语言中可以把词作为构成部分的、同词一样作为一个整体来运用的语言单位。
包括熟语和专门用语词汇学分类普通词汇学（一般词汇学）：研究词汇的普遍规律具体词汇学（个别词汇学）：如汉语词汇学、英语词汇学等汉语词汇学汉语历史词汇学：历时发展演变汉语描写词汇学：共时某时现象上古汉语词汇学中古汉语词汇学近代汉语词汇学现代汉语词汇学－本课内容词汇学的产生和发展（了解）前身：中国古代语言研究三“小学”—音韵学、训诂学、文字学古代语言学名著《尔雅》训诂学第一本义类词典《方言》用通言解释方言《释名》语言考理据《说文解字》第一本文字学书籍字形考理据“五四”—40年代以来词汇研究汉语词汇学建立与发展20c50y：汉语词汇学真正建立：涌现了一批专家与著作，确定研究的对象、任务和范围60y：研究方法更新，词语意义的结构70y：引进义素分析法80y：由定性研究逐渐转为定量研究21c初：计量分析主导词汇学研究总体情况词汇学研究内容：以现代汉语词汇为研究对象，研究词的性质、创造和结构、词义内容、词义发展、词的各种关系、词汇划分与关系等现代汉语词汇特点语素以单音节为主，词以双音节为主，但单音节词使用频率更高多音节词主要来源古代汉语：仿佛徘徊犹豫其他语言：咖啡巧克力沙发词语呈现双音化趋势为什么？内在驱动力：词义表达复杂化的需求与有限词形之间的矛盾社会发展：旧词新义、音变构词、两个词复合构词语音系统简化（避免同音）明确表意：新产生的双音词意义明确；原有单音节词部分义项被取代而减少审美追求（双音节的韵律形式）句法词汇化受外来词影响结果：长度增加，表义明确途径单音节语素前或后加上辅助性相关成分：眼泪头发毛笔松鼠月亮眉毛单音节语素的前面或后面添加一个不表示具体意义的附加成分：老虎阿姨桌子石头意义相同、相近或相对的单音节语素联合起来使用：国家意义寻找牙齿皮肤忘记停止单音节语素重叠：哥哥妈妈爸爸仅仅静静紧紧星星单音节词替换成与原语素无关的双音节词：眼睛（目）筷子（箸）匣子（椟）大腿（股）三音节词省略其中一个因素照相机—相机外国语—外语电视机—电视四音节及其以上的词语缩略：对外贸易—外贸国有企业—国企复合词为主，内部构造与短语大体一致：并列偏正动宾动补主谓同义词数量多，同音语素多：适应不同需要，之间互补，具有多样性和可伸缩性词汇与非词汇界限模糊，切词困难语素构词理据性强，即语素义对词义有明显提示作用少量语素构成大量合成词缺少词形变化成语一般由四个音节组成音节相对而言较短量词、语气词丰富离合词多，使用频率高叠音词多，重叠形式较为丰富词汇学与语言学相关学科的关系（了解）与语音学：语音是语言的物质外壳，是词语的存在形式词的意义靠语音手段来表现，语音是词的音响形式。
完全版英语词汇学名词解释
第一章word1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.第三章formation 11. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.2. Allomorph --- Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are know as allomorphs.3. Free morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes which are independent of other morphemes.4. Bound Morphemes--- They are morphemes which cannot occur as separate words.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.7. Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as inflectional morphemes.8. Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word.11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Stem--- a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.第四章formation 21. Affixation --- affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. Prefixation --- is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Suffixation--- is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.3. Compounding（Compositon）-- is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.4. Conversion-- is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.5. Blending-- is the formation of new words by combined by parts of two words or a word plus a plus a part of another word.6. Clipping- is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting apart off the original and using what remain instead.7. Acronymy-- is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.8. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.第五章meaning1. Reference --- the relationship between language and the world.2. Concept --- which beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.3 .Sense– denotes the relationship inside the language.4. Motivation--accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.5.Onomatopoeic Motivation--These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.6. Morphological Motivation--Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.7. Semantic Motivation--refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.8. Etymological Motivation--The history of the word explains the meaning of the word9 .Grammatical meaning– refer to that part of the meaning of the word which indi cates grammatical concept or relationships.10 .Lexical meaning--is constant in all the words within or without context related to the notion that the word conveys.11.Conceptual meaning （denotative meaning）– the meaning given in the diction ary and forms the core of word-meaning12.Associative meaning– the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual me aning. It is open-ended and indeterminate13.Connotative meaning ---the overtones or association suggested by the conceptual meaning14.Stylistic meaning– stylistic features make the words appropriate for different cont exts.15. Affective meaning– the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question .第六章Sense Relations and semantic Field23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III. AcronymsI.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other word12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16.Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Polysemy— the word with more than one senses or which can be used to express more meaning.18. Diachronic approach–Diachronically，polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. This first meaning is the primary meaning. With the advance of time and the development of language，it took on more and more meanings. These latter meanings are called derived meanings.19. Synchronic approach –synchronically，polysemy is viewed as the coexistent of various meaning of the same word in a certain historical period of time. The basic meaning of a word is the core of word meaning. The core of word meaning called the central meaning （secondary meaning）.20. Radiation–a semantic process which shows that the primary meaning stands at the center and each of the derived meanings proceed out of in every direction like rays.21. Concatenation–meaning “linking together”，is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until，in many cases，there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the tern had at the begining.22. Homonyms——are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.23. Perfect Homonyms——are words identical both in sound and spelling，but different in meaning.24. Homographs——are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.25. Homophones（most common）——are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.26. Synonyms—are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.27. Absolute Synonyms——are words，which are identical in meaning in all itsaspects，i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning，including conceptual and associative meanings.28. Relative synonyms——are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.29. Antonyms——are words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms （according to the semantic opposition ）1）Contradictory terms – these antonyms are truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. They assertion of one is the denial of the other.2）Contrary terms—— a scale running between two poles or extremes.3）Relative terms– consist of relational oppositeness. The pairs of words indicate such a social relationship that one of them can not be used without suggesting the other，the type is also reverse terms. The two words of each pair interdependent. .Hyponymy——deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is，the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.These specific words are known as hyponyms（下义词）. For instance，tulip and rose are hyponyms of flower. The general word flower is the superordinate term（上义词）and the specific ones tulip and rose are the subordinate terms（下义词）. 第七章changes in word meaning1.Extension （generalization）——It is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less definite concept.2. Narrowing（specialization）——It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.3.Elevation or amelioration——refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.4. Degradation or pejoration of meaning ——It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.5. Transfer ——It is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to different but related thing.第八章contextThe extra-linguistic context may extend to embrace the entire culture background.Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical contextLexical Context – refers to the words occur together with the word in question.Grammatical context – The meanings of a word may be inflected by the structure in which it occurs.第九章：idioms1.Idiom—idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences，which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas.2.Characteristics of idiomsa. Semantic unity - Idioms each consist of more than one word，but each is a semantic unity. Though the various words which make up the idiom have their respective literal meanings，in the idiom they have lost their individual meaning. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. The part of speech of each element in no longer important. Quite often the idiom functions as one word.b. Structural Stability– the structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable.True idioms– the meaning of the idiom cannot be deduced from those of the individual constituents.Regular combination– the speaker of the regular collocations，the meaning of the idiom can be understood from the literal meaning of the constitute.Semi-idioms– the meanings are in a way related to the meanings of the constitute but are not themselves explicit.1. Idioms nominal in nature（名词性）– have a noun as the key word and function as a noun.2.Idioms adjective in nature （形容词性）- function as adjectives but the constituents are not necessary adjectives.3.Idioms verbal in nature（动词性）– this is the largest group.Phrasal verbs – idioms which are composed of a verb plus a prep and/or a particle.4. Idioms adverbial in nature（副词性）5.Sentence Idioms– are mainly proverbs and sayings including colloquialisms and catchphrases. Each function as a sentence.Figure of speech1.Simile2.Metaphor「n.隐喻」——is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison，in which a word or phase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another.3.Metonymy「n.借代」——is the device in which we name something by one of its attributes，as in crown for king，the White House for the President. The kettle is boiling. （kettle for water in the kettle）4.Synecdoche「n.提喻法」——means using a part for a whole，an individual fora class a material for a thing or the reverse of any of these.5.Personification （拟人）6.Euphemism （委婉）Variation of idioms1.Replacement– a constituent may be replaced by a word of the same part of speech，resulting in synonymous or antonymous idioms.2.Addition or deletion– some constituent can be added or deleted without any change of meaning3.Position-shifting– the position of certain constituent is some idioms can be shifted without any change of meaning4.Shorting– in proverbs and sayings，where only a part of them is used instead of the whole5.Dismembering– breaking up the idioms into pieces，an unusual case of idioms particular in literature or popular press to achieve special effect.。
现代汉语词汇学第五章
色彩，又有方言色彩。
• 书面语体又可分为文艺语体、政论语体、科技语体、
事务语体等。例如：“头颅 、孩提”属文艺语；
“专制 、弹劾”属政论语体；“化合、因特网” 属科技语体 ；“案由、函达”属事务语体。
书面语体色彩：头颅
身躯 措施 殴打 观看 欢笑 颤抖 瞅 乐 看 笑 哆嗦 发抖
口头语体色彩：脑袋瓜儿 个儿 法子 揍 通用词： 头 身材 办法 打
中心意义不同于词源学上的词的原始意义（本 义）。本义是多义词义项中最早的意义，即词的 最初意义。例如：“兵”的本义是“武器”，中 心意义是“战士”。
•
•
•
中心意义是词在现代最常用、最主要的意义。 有的词基本义同本义是一致的。
“长”的本义和中心意义都是“距离大”。
•
• •
割：用刀截断。《左传 襄公三一年》犹未能操 刀而使割也。
如“花”的概念意义是：“种子植物的有 性繁殖器官。由花瓣、花萼、花托、花蕊组成， 有各种颜色，有的长得很艳丽，有香味。”
•
词典对词目的解释，主要是理性义。
• 【雪】空气中降落的白色结晶，多为六角形，是气 温降低到零度以下时，空气层中的水蒸气凝结而成 的。
• 概念意义是词义的核心内容，一般实词都有概念意
• 四、词义的客观性和主观性 • 词义是客观事物、现象在人们头脑中的反映，具有
两方面的含义：一方面是说它必须有客观基础；另
一方面是说它有可能带进人们的主观态度。 • 例如同是表示死亡，“逝世、谢世、仙逝”等就带 有肃穆、哀婉的情感，而“呜呼哀哉、翘辫子、蹬 腿”等则带有轻蔑、嘲讽的意味。
• 五、词义的稳固性与变异性
• ①行走时两脚之间的距离，脚步； • ②阶段；
• ③地步，境地；
词汇学
英语词汇学第五章课后练习及答案Questions and Tasks1. What is reference?2. What is concept?3. What is sense?4. What is motivation? Does this theory contradict the theory of 'arbitrariness' and'conventionality' concerning the relationship between linguistic symbols and their senses?5. What are the four types of motivation? Explain them with examples.6. Match the words in Column A with those in Column B.A Bapes sing/twitterbirds gibbercattle coocrickets gobbledoves chatterfoxes bleatgeese howlsheep laughwolves crymonkeys yelppigs gabblehyenas(鬣狗) gruntturkeys lowswans chirp7. What is the difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning?8. What are the characteristics of conceptual meaning and associative meaning?9. What connotations do you think the word atomic might have for each of the following people?a. A scientist working in a project to develop industrial uses for nuclear power.b. A Japanese resident of Hiroshima.c. A student of nuclear physics.10. All the words talkative, articulate(明确表达) , gossip, garrulous(喋喋不休) , rambling(说话散漫的；不连贯的) , fluent, gabby(<口>健谈的；饶舌的) , mouthy(话多的，唠叨的) can describe a person's ability of speech. What impression do you obtain of the person with the use of each of the words?11. Put the following groups of words under Appreciative, Neutral and Pejorative. Note that notwords of every group fit neatly under the three categories.a. fastidious(爱挑剔的；难讨好的) , fussy(过分苛求的；难以取悦的；爱挑剔的), particularb. critical, fault-finding, picky(过分讲究的；好挑剔的；吹毛求疵的)c. fad(时尚，一时的狂热) , vogue(时尚，时髦物；流行，风行) , styled. cunning(狡猾的；灵巧的，熟练的) , artful(狡猾的，欺诈的；熟练的，有技巧的), sly(狡猾的，诡诈的<口>灵巧的，巧妙的)e. unstable, fickle(感情异变的，无常的), capricious(任性的，反复无常的；变换莫测的)f. backward, developing, underdevelopedg. encourage, instigate(唆使，怂恿) , promoteh. clique(派系，小集团) , gang, group12.What are semantic features?13. What are the merits and demerits of componential analysis?14. Try to analyze the following words in terms of semantic opposition ( ± HUMAN), (±MALE),[±ADULT), (± BOVINE)(牛的；牛类动物) , [±GALLINE)(禽类) .bull cow calfrooster hen chicken英语词汇学第五章练习答案1. Reference is the connection between the word form and what the form refers to in the world.( or : Reference is the relationship between language and the world. )2. Concept is a notion or idea, formed in the mind as a result of cognition, which reflects theobjective world.3. The sense of a word shows its place in a system of semantic relationships with other words in thelanguage. It is often used to substitute meaning.4. Motivation explains the relationship between the linguistic symbol and its meaning, or thelogical reason why a certain word has a certain meaning.As mentioned earlier, the relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional. Motivation seems to contradict the theory. The answer is "yes and no". By "yes", we mean all the mono-morphemic words in a language are non-motivated except a few onomatopoeic words which imitate the natural sounds or noises. By "no", we mean many multi-morphemic words are motivated, for in many causes the meaning of the whole word is the combination of the morphemes. The morphemic structure explains the meaning.5.The four types of motivation are onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation and etymological motivation. Onomatopoeic motivation explains onomatopoeic words whose meaning is based on the pronunciation of the words such as miaow, thump, peng, etc. ; morphological motivation explains the words whose morphological structure throws light on their meaning, such as profiteer (profit + -eer), darkroom (dark+room), (deconstruction (de + construct- + -ion) , etc. ; semantic motivation explains the figurative meaning of words whose literal meaning suggests the figurative meaning such as the tongue of fire, the mouth of the river, the face of the earth; etymological motivation explains the words whose meaning is closely related to their origins such as banting(therapy for keeping slim by going on a diet discovered by Doctor Banting) and Brille (language used by the blind created by Brille).6.apes—gibbercattle—lowdoves—coogeese—gabblewolves—howlpigs—gruntturkeys—gobblebirds—sing/twittercrickets-chirpfoxes—yelpsheep—bleatmonkeys—chatterhyenas—laughswans—cry7.Grammatical meaning refers to the part of meaning which shows grammatical relationship such as part of speech of words, plural forms of nouns, tense of verbs, etc. and lexical meaning inc ludes all the rest of the meanings of a word apart from the grammatical meaning, i. e. conceptual meaning and associative meaning.8. Conceptual meaning is fundamental, universal and stable whereas associative meaning is secondary, contextual, open-ended or indeterminate, thus changing.9. a. A scientist working in a project to develop industrial uses for nuclear power might have all the positive associations with atomic, such as "benefit", "energy' etc.b. A Japanese resident of Hiroshima, victim of the atomic explosion at the end of World War II might have all the negative associations with atomic, such as "suffering", "killing", "death", "horror", etc.c. To a student of nuclear physics, atomic might be associated with "mystery", "science", "knowledge", etc.10. talkative:implying a fondness for talking frequently and at length (neutral)articulate: expressing oneself easily and clearly (positive)gossip:indulging in idle talk or rumors about others (negative)garrulous: talking too much about trivial things (somewhat negative)rambling: talking aimlessly without connection of ideas (negative)fluent:speaking easily, smoothly and expressively (positive)gabby:inclined to chatter (negative)mouthy:overtly talkative, especially in a rude way (negative)11.No Appreciative Neutral Pejorativea. particular fastidious/fussyb. critical fault-finding/pickyc. vogue/style fadd. artful cunning/slye. unstable fickle/capriciousf.developing backward/ underdevelopedg. encourage/promote instigateh.group clique/gang12.Semantic features are the minimal semantic components of words which are abstracted from the words. These features are used to describe the sense of each words.13. Componential analysis (CA) is useful mainly in three aspects. First, CA reveals the semantic features of the sense of a word and helps one grasp the conceptual meaning of the word. Second, CA can help show the synonymy of two words by giving them both the same components. Third, CA can help tell whether a collocation or syntactic structure is acceptable or not.However, problems are obvious. First, CA is appliable only to concrete words which have definite referents, but not to abstract words or words expressing abstract ideas or concepts. Second, CA is useful in revealing the conceptual meaning, but helpless in showing the figurative meaning of words.14.bull [-HUMAN +MALE +ADULT +BOVINE]cow [-HUMAN -MALE + ADULT +BOVINE]calf [-HUMAN ±MALE -ADULT + BOVINE]rooster [-HUMAN +MALE +ADULT +GALLINE]hen [-HUMAN -MALE + ADULT +GALLINE]chicken [-HUMAN ±MALE ±ADULT +GALLINE]。
大学英语专业词汇学第五章
Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis Having discussed the structure and formation of words, we now move to the meaning of words. In Chapter 1, we touched upon word meaning in brief, in this chapter we will discuss it in more depth in terms of meanings of 'meaning', motivation of meaning, types of meaning and the components of word meaning.5.1 Word MeaningIt is agreed that a word is the combination of word-form and its meaning. 'Form' refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. 'Meaning' is what the form stands for. For example, the linguistic form cat /kaet/ is used to denote 'a small four-legged animal with soft fur and sharp claws'. It can be said that 'a small four-legged animal with soft fur and sharp claws' is the meaning of the word cat. But the term is not as simple as it seems to be. There are some related concepts which need further clarification.1. ReferenceWords are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. 'By means of reference, aspeaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about.' (Hurford and Heasley 1983:25) In other words, only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, i. e. , an object, a phenomenon, a person, etc. does the sign become meaningful. The form cat is meaningful because the language user employs it conventionally to refer to the 'animal' concerned. So part of the word meaning is the reference under discussion.The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary(任意的) and conventional （约定俗成的）(See Chapter 1). This connection is the result of generalization(概括) and abstraction(抽象). The word cat refers to a whole set of animals of the same species without the distinction of size, color, region, owner and other factors. It is the extension of all cats in the universe.Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite(确定的). Cat without context denotes a set of cats; but it refers to a particular cat in 'Jean forgot to feed her cat yesterday evening'. Therefore, meaning can be pinned down(确定；使明确说明) by the user, time, place, etc. . The same thing can have different referring expressions without causing any confusion. The cat can bereferred to as, say, the animal, my dear, Jassy, this , she and so on.2. ConceptIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of concept. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical(完全相同的). They are both related directly to referents(所指) and are notions of the words but belong to different categories(范畴). Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认知), reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on whereas meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. Therefore, a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, much and many both have the same concept, but collocate with different words, much time, much money, much water, but many people, many books, many buildings, not vice versa. Synonymous(同义的)pairs such as die—pass away, maiden—-woman, quarrel—argue are all good examples. Each pair has the same concept but different socio-cultural and stylistic values(文体色彩).3. SenseGenerally speaking, the meaning of 'meaning' is perhaps what is termed sense. Unlike reference, sense denotes(指称) the relationships inside the language. ' The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language'. (ibid) Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction that can be entertained(心存，持有（信心、意见）；容纳，接受；（准备）考虑) in the mind of a language user. Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. For example, probable, nearly, and, if, but, yes, none of which refer to anything in the world, all have some sense. Just as one can talk of the same concept in different languages, so one can talk of expressions in different dialects of one language as laving the same sense: pavement in British English and sidewalk in American English have the same sense, so do pal(<口>伙伴，好友)and chum(<口>好友，同房间的人).5.2 MotivationMotivation(理据)refers to the connection between thelinguistic symbol and its meaning. As we know, the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, most words can be said to be non-motivated(没有理据的). That is, the connection of the sign and meaning does not account for the meaning. Nevertheless, English does have words the meanings of which are transparent(透明的，清楚的；意义与形式有联系的) and reasonably explicable(可解释的).1. Onomatopoeic Motivation（拟声理据）In modern English one may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating(模拟) the natural sounds or noises. For example, bow-wow, bang, ping-pong, miaow, cuckoo, tick-tuck, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds which they represent means understanding the meaning. All the words based on the sounds made by birds, animals, insects and so on belong to this category: crow by cocks, quack by ducks, trumpet by elephants, buzz by bees or flies, croak by frogs, squeak by mice, neigh by horses, bleat by goats, hiss by snakes, roar by lions, etc. . But such echoic(拟声的；回声的) words are conventional to quite a large extent, for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other languages; splashand whisper do not mean 'splash' and 'whisper' for example in German or French (Quirk 1978).2. Morphological Motivation(形态理据)Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic(多词素的) words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Often, when one knows the meanings of the morphemes or bases, one can deduce the meanings of the words. For instance, airmail means ' to mail by air' ; reading-lamp is ' the lamp for reading'; miniskirt is 'a small skirt'; and hopeful means 'full of hope'.It should be pointed out that there are a lot of words whose structures are opaque(不透明的，不发亮的；难以理解), i.e. their meanings are not the combinations of the constituent parts. Black market, for example, is by no means the market black in color but expressing 'illegal selling and buying'. Likewise, egghead is not the head in the shape of an egg, but ' a learned person' in the derogatory(毁损的，贬低的) sense.3. Semantic MotivationSemantic motivation is the mental associations based on the conceptual meaning of a word. In other words, it is thefigurative(比喻性的) sense of the word. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate ' the opening part of the river' with ' the mouth of a human being or an animal'. When we use the foot of the mountain , we are comparing ' the lower part of the mountain' to ' the foot of a human being'. Bottle in ' He is fond of the bottle' reminds one of what is contained inside; and pen and sword in ' The pen is mightier(更强大的) than the sword' is suggestive(示意的；启发的；引起联想的) of 'writing' and 'war'.4. Etymological MotivationThe origins of words more often than not throw light on(说明，揭示) their meanings. For example, now people use pen for any writing tool though it originally refers to 'a heavy quill(羽毛管；羽根) or feather', because before modern pens were created, feathers were trimmed(整理；修剪) to a split point（有分叉的尖端）, used as writing tools. Though people in modern times no longer use feathers in writing, for the sake of conventionality, the name is retained. All the words commonized from proper names can be explained in terms of their origins. One example will suffice(足够) for illustration. The word laconic meaning 'brief' or 'short' is derived From Lacons, a tribe of people who were known for their brevity(简洁；简练) of speech and for their habitof never using more words than necessary. Hence a Laconic answer is 'a short answer' (See Commonization of Proper Names for details).5.3 Types of MeaningWord meaning per se(本身) is not monogeneous（单一的）but a composite(复合体)consisting of different components, which are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. These meanings are not found in every word, and in fact some words possess some of them, devoid(没有的；缺乏的) of others. Some types of meanings may appear more prominent in certain words than in others. Some meanings are constant, and others may be transient(暂时的), existing only in actual contexts. All these form part of the study of semantics and prove of paramount(最高的，首要的)importance in the use of words. This section will discuss in brief each type of meaning.1. Grammatical Meaning and Lexical MeaningAs mentioned earlier, grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns,tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm(范例，样式；【语】（名词、动词等的）词形变化)(forget, forgets , forgot, forgotten , forgetting). Grammatical meaning becomes transparent only when words are used in connected speech. For example, 'The dog is chasing a ball. ' The words dog and ball are nouns and both are singular used as subject and object in the sentence respectively; is chasing is the predicate verb(谓语动词), showing present continuous tense(现在进行时), and the and a are determiners(限定词，限定成分；决定因素), specifying definiteness and number. Unlike lexical meaning, different lexemes(词素)or lexical items(词项), which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning, e. g. tables, men, oxen, potatoes (having the same plural meaning) and taught, -worked, forgave (having the same tense meaning). On the other hand, one and the same lexeme may have different grammatical meaning as shown in forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning whereas content words have both meanings, and their lexical meanings are prominent.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning form the word meaning. As stated already, grammatical meaning surfaces(显现)only in use, but lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the concept the word conveys. Therefore it remains the focus of semantic studies and naturally is our chief concern. Lexical meaning itself embraces(包括)two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.2. Conceptual Meaning and Associative MeaningConceptual meaning ( also known as cognitive（认知的）, denotative（外延的）, or designative（指称的）meaning) is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers in the same speech community. Take 'The sun rises in the east'. The symbol sun here means 'a heavenly body which gives off light, heat, and energy', a concept which is unmistakable to anyone who speaks English.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented(补充) to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture,experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc.. Nida in his Language, Culture, and Translating (1993) lists six sources of associative meanings, namely,(1)the persons who use such lexemes;(2) the settings in which such lexemes are generally employed;(3) the occurrence of such lexemes in prior texts (intertextuality(互文性));(4) contamination(（词语的）感染错合；（文章的）混杂) from linguistic collocations;(5) contamination from homophones(同音词);(6) cultural values associated with the referents of the lexemes.These could be fused into four categories: connotative(内涵的), stylistic, affective(情感的), and collocative(搭配的) (Leech 1981).1) Connotative MeaningOpposite to the denotative meaning(外延意义), connotative meaning(内涵意义) refers to the overtones(附带意义)or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part ofthe word meaning, but social and cultural values that might occur in the mind of particular users of the language. For example, mother, denoting a 'female parent', is often associated with 'love', 'care', 'tenderness', 'forgiving', etc. . These connotations are not given in the dictionary, but associated with the word n actual context to particular readers or speakers. Another example is home, whose conceptual meaning is 'a dwelling place'. When readers come across the term in actual reading, they may make out more than that. It may remind them of their 'family, friends, warmth, safety, love, convenience', etc. . These connotations are implied in he well-known sayings ' East or west, home is best' and ' There is no place like home'.Connotative meaning is peripheral(边缘的；不重要的) compared with conceptual meaning and annotations are relatively unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. Suppose a child is prejudiced against, often jeered(嘲笑)at, beaten or scolded at home, then home to him is nothing but a hell, naturally he unfavorable connotations, 'indifference', 'hatred', 'disgust' and so on. Even a phrase like son of a bitch which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity(粗俗；粗野) may convey the connotation of 'friendly conviviality'(欢宴；宴饮交际) used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time as in 'And how are you doing, you old son of a bitch ?'. (Nida 1993:41)2) Stylistic MeaningApart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles. These distinctive features form the stylistic meaning of words. In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as formal', 'informal', 'literary', 'archaic' (古体的，不通用的；过时的), 'slang' and so on. For instance, pregnant, expecting, knocking up, in the club, greggers, up the stick, up the spout(被典当掉；被毁灭；丧失掉；怀孕), glowing, etc. , all can have the same reference, but differ in their contextual appropriateness. Words such as facticity(确凿性), neoclassicism(新古典主义), plausibility(似真性),legitimacy(合法性)carry meanings of pedantry(卖弄学问；迂腐) and are appropriate for technical writing.The stylistic differentiation(差异) is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and the stylistic meaning. Martin Joos (1962) in his The Five Clocks suggests five degreesof formality: 'frozen'(冷冻体), 'formal'(正式体), 'consultative'(商洽体), 'casual'(随意体) and 'intimate '(亲密体). Accordingly, the synonyms charger(战马), steed(骏马), horse, nag(老马), plug(老而无用的马)can be labeled as 'frozen', 'formal', consultative', 'casual' and 'intimate' respectively. People generally do not go into such elaboration(详述). The normal terms used to classify styles are 'formal', 'neutral' orinformal'. In such terms charger and steed can be marked 'formal', nag and plug 'informal' and horse ' general' or ' neutral'. Compare the following two groups of synonyms:domicile (very formal, official)(住宅；【律】原籍)residence (formal)abode (poetic)(住所)home (general)diminutive (very formal) (小的，小型的)tiny (colloquial)w ee (colloquial, dialectal)(极小的；（苏格兰）一点点)(Leech 1981: 14-15)Leech also illustrates the stylistic distinction in the following two sentences (ibid):(1) They chucked(扔)a stone at the cops(条子), and then did a bunk with(窜)the loot(战利品).(2) After casting a stone at the police, they absconded() with the money.Apart from the structural difference, the stylistic features of words are quite conspicuous(). Sentence (1) could be said by two criminals, talking casually about the crime afterwards, so all the words used in italics are slang, whereas sentence (2) might be said by the chief inspector in making his official report, thus the words used are literary (cast, abscond) or neutral (police, money).3) Affective MeaningAffective meaning expresses the speaker's attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be overtly and explicitly conveyed simply by the choice of the right words as many have emotive content in themselves, e. g. vicious(恶毒的), villainous(罪恶的), tyrant(暴君), love, hate, anger, grief(悲痛), pleasure. Interjections(感叹词)are generally expressions of emotions such as oh , dear me, alas, hurrah.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative(褒义的)or pejorative. Words ofpositive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval such as famous, determined, slim /slender, black; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt(鄙视)or criticism, e.g. notorious(臭名昭著的), pigheaded(倔强的), skinny(皮包骨的), nigger.(黑鬼)Just like connotative meaning, affective meaning varies from individual to individual, from culture to culture, from generation to generation, from society to society. Words like revolution, freedom, democracy, imperialism may have quite different interpretations in different societies and sometimes these' emotive' overtones are more important in the words' use than the denotations (概念意义) (Jackson 1988). Another example is the word dog which may have quite different affective meanings in different societies. In most Western countries, dog is associated with 'loyalty', 'faithfulness', a close companion' and all positive qualities; whereas to Chinese, dog at its best is a useful animal. As a matter of fact, it generally takes on negative associations. If a person is compared to a dog, the speaker's attitude towards the person is no more than contemptuous'(鄙视的). In many cases, the appreciative or pejorative meaning of the words are brought out only by the speakers in context:(1) He is bright and ambitious.(有抱负的)(2) Knowledge of inequality has stimulated envy, ambition and greed.(野心)(3) The reactionary's chief ambition is to become the emperor.(野心)(4) One who is filled with ambition usually works hard.(抱负)In sentences (1) and (4), the italicized words are obviously used in good sense showing approval on the part of the speaker. In sentences (2) and (3), however, ambition undoubtedly conveys a pejorative overtone. Therefore, to a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the circumstances under which it is used.4) Collocative MeaningAs Leech defines, 'collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. ' In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs. He illustrates the point by the synonyms of pretty and handsome. These two words share the conceptual meaning of 'good-looking ' , but are distinguished by the rangeof nouns they collocate with:girl boyboy manwoman carflower womanpretty gardenovercoathandsomecolor airlinevillage typewriteretc. etc.It may be noted that there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words, e. g. pretty woman and handsome woman. Though both are perfectly correct, yet they suggest a different kind of attractiveness. A pretty woman stresses the attractiveness of facial features while a handsome woman may not be facially beautiful yet is attractive in other respects: a slender figure, graceful posture and behaviour, etc. . The same is true of tremble and quiver, both meaning 'shake involuntarily', but people tremble with fear and quiver withexcitement, showing different implications.It is again noticeable that collocative meaning overlaps with connotative and affective meaning because in a sense both connotative and affective meanings are revealed by virtue of collocations or contextuality(互文性). As Nida notes, one can often tell what work a person has been doing by the kinds of stains on clothing, so a word in particular contexts is likely to acquire associative meanings reflecting such usage. Green is a kind color but its meaning is obviously affected when it occurs in such phrases as green on he job, green fruit, green with envy, green-eyed monster.5.4 Componential AnalysisComponential analysis, according to Leech, is the process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components. Every content word, even some of the simplest, harbours(包含；怀有) an amazingly explicit(明确) set of wayward(难以捉摸的，无法预言的；不规则的) traits(特征，特性) . Digging them out, classifying them, and showing their relationships is termed componential analysis(成分分析) ( Bolinger and Sears 1981:114). As an example, let us examine a group of semantically related words man , woman , boy, girl.A B1 man wo ma n2 boygirlThis diagram represents three-dimensions of meaning of these words. Vertically, Column A and Column B show the dimension of sex 'male' and 'female'; horizontally, Line 1 and Line 2 reveal the dimension of age 'adult' and 'young'. Considered as a whole, these four words form the semantic field(语义场) 'human race', the third dimension. These traits of words are abstracted from the words and are called by semantic analysts semantic features(语义特征) , which are the components of the sense of words. Conventionally, these minimal components can "be symbolized in terms of binarity(两极性) : + ADULT (adult) , —ADULT (young), + MALE (male), —MALE (female), + HUMAN (human), -HUMAN (non-human). Therefore, the meanings of the individual items can be expressed by combinations of these features:man ( + HUMAN + ADULT + MALE)woman ( + HUMAN + ADULT -MALE)boy( + HUMAN -ADULT + MALE)girl( + HUMAN - ADULT - MALE) however, the sexual dimension of the meaning of many lexical items is characteristic of neutralization(中性) of opposition such as cat, child. Under such circumstances, we might describe the definition as follows (See Leech 1981:90) :child ( + HUMAN - ADULT OMALE)cat ( - HUMAN + ADULT OMALE)In making componential analysis, it is important to focus on the defining features, i.e. features which can distinguish one word from another. For example, between horse, cattle and machine, chair, the defining feature is ( ± ANIMATE); between road, house and thought, philosophy, the distinguishing feature(区别性特征) is ( ± CONCRETE); between water, gas and stone , tree, the discriminating feature(区别性特征) is [ ±COUNTABLE] , etc. . Verbs like nouns also have defining features(区别性特征) , for example, ( ± MOMENTARY), ( ±DYNAMIC), ( ±TRANSITIVE).Componential analysis as a theory of word meaning is a useful and revealing technique(展示手段) for demonstrating relations of meaning between words. Knowing the semanticfeatures of a word helps one in grasping the conceptual meaning. For example, the word dog can be defined as ( + ANIMATE, -HUMAN, +CANINE(犬科动物) , + DOMESTIC) plus (OMALE) or (+ COUNTABLE) depending on the intention of the user. Similarly, the meaning of foal() is composed of [ + ANIMATE, -HUMAN, + EQUINE(马；马科动物) , -ADULT, OMALE], which tell us it is a 'young horse'.Secondly, componential analysis can help show the synonymy of two items by giving them both the same componential features. For instance, spinster and maiden are synonymous in that both are [ + HUMAN, - MALE, - MARRIED], but differ considerably in connotations: the former conveying a negative overtone(含蓄之意；暗示) , the latter a positive association.Thirdly, by componential analysis of words, we can tell whether a certain collocation or syntactic structure is acceptable or not. Let us look at two sentences:(1) * He has left this neighborhood for ten years.(2) He has lived in this neighborhood for ten years.The surface structures of the two sentences are very similar. It seems that one is not any better than the other. However, if we analyze just the semantic features of the verbs, we will come toquite a different conclusion. The verb leave used in sentence (1) is [ + MOMENTARY], and is not supposed to co-occur with 'for+ time' which is characteristic of [ - MOMENTARY]; while in sentence (2), live is a [ - MOMENTARY] verb, and is grammatically compatible with(与…一致的) 'for + time'. Therefore, sentence (1) is not acceptable whereas sentence (2) is. This can be further illustrated:(1) The robbers broke into the bank with a hammer.(2) * A hammer broke into the bank by the robbers. Break has the feature of [ + DYNAMIC], entailing a subject which is [+ANIMATE]. The word robber is [ + HUMAN], which is semantically included in the feature of [+ANIMATE], so logically sentence (1) is correct. But sentence (2) is problematic, as hammer is [-ANIMATE], incapable of the agent of the action of breaking. (Consequently, sentence (2) is unacceptable.Nevertheless, semanticists do not agree on the merits of componential analysis, which is in fact controversial. The major views are:1) Componential analysis is useful only in a limited scope,for it accounts for only some parts of a language'svocabulary. It is well applicable, to concrete wordswhich have definite referents, but not effective when we deal with words of abstract ideas or words whose referents are not clear. For example, what are the semantic features of beauty, delight, hostility?It is not easy to abstract components of their senses. Even a concrete word like game is hard to analyze. Failing to find the essential defining features that constitute game, Wittgenstein concluded that we know what the word game means only by virtue of recognizing certain 'family resemblance'(家族相似性) between the activities it refers to. Labov's experiment with the object 'cup' (1973) leads to the same conclusion that often a word can not be defined in terms of a clear-cut, unvarying set of features. Does the cup have a handle, have a saucer? Is it narrow and deep rather than wide and shallow? Is it used for drinking out of or for other purposes? Indeed, it is difficult to pin them down (See discussion by Leech 1981: 117-118).2) Some semanticists hold that it is not enough to breakdown the sense of a word into its components in terms of their referents' physical aspects. In the actual contexts, many words are used in figurative rather than literalsense. For example, tiger is defined as [+ ANIMATE,+FELINE(猫科动物；猫科的) , +CARNIVOROUS(食肉的)], but it does not explain the sentence 'There is amixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of theimperialists'. Obviously, tiger in this context does notrefer to the animal in its physical sense but theassociative qualities of the referent under discussion, i. e.'cruel and ferocious(凶恶的；残忍的) '.Because of the figurative use of words, many collocations which in appearance are impossible are acceptable, e. g. beautiful tyrant, cold fire , honorable villain . Look at a few lines chosen from Oscar Wilde's The Ballad of Reading Goal:With yawning mouth the yellow hole (黄穴张开血盆大口，)Gaped for a living thing;(窥视等着吞食那生物；)The very mud cried out for blood(干渴的环形沥青之下，)To the thirsty asphalt ring:(泥土叫嚷拿血来喝。
英语词汇学总结复习资料
英语词汇学总结复习资料大家请注意：笔记中大多数是以名词解释的形式出现的，这些是绝对的基础，应该一字不漏的背下来。
其实不少简答题也就是几个定义的汇总，再加上个例子就可以拿满分了。
区分两个词的区别，主要还是指明其各自的定义。
第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1. 词的定义Word ——A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. “woman” means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by originthe English vocabulary consist of words of all kinds. they can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose . words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion , and into native words and borrowed words by origin.基本词汇的特点1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1.all national character （most important）–natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight –past electricity，machine，car，plane ——now3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language .though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary ,yet it is the most important part of it .e.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——(例子)1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicinephotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang——substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）–words taken over from foreign language. 80%本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stockand stand at the core of the language .therefore , what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizen s–words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece 2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky第二章The Development of the English1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、GermanicIn the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 words The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words bycombining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary herit age.From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been enteredto express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words当代英语词汇发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .词汇发展的主要原因1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词）1. Creation –the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing –to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%第三章Word Formation*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）*2.Morph——A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect –free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveysthe meaning of “say or speak” as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning “tell beforehand”。
语言学概论 第五章 第六章
第五章语义第一节词义一、词义及其内容:词义就是词所表示的意义内容。
具体可以包括词汇意义和语法意义两部分的内容。
（一）语法意义：是指词的表示语法作用的意义。
词的语法意义是语言中的词的语法作用通过类聚之后所显示出来的，所以是一种更抽象更概括的意义。
（上一章讲的）（二）词汇意义：是指词所表示的客观世界中的事物、现象和关系的意义。
如：一般词典中对词项所作的说明就是词的词汇意义。
实词具有词汇意义，虚词是否具有词汇意义？二、词义和概念的关系概念是词义形成的基础；另一方面，词义反映概念，概念凭借词义而成为直接现实。
具体来说：（一）词汇意义中的理性意义是指称客观事物的意义，是人们对客观事物的理性认识在词义中的反映。
这种意义与概念直接联系，基本上是一一对应的关系。
（二）语法意义与词汇意义中的色彩意义也与概念相联系，它们通常是多个概念的综合，与概念之间的联系具有类指性。
三、词义的性质（一）客观性（主观性）（二）概括性（具体性）（三）模糊性（确定性）（四）民族性（普遍性）四、词义的层次原生层——派生层引申义？？？（本义）比喻义五、词义的概念内容和联想内容概念内容：根据一个词所指称的事物的本质属性或共同特点所概括出来的内容，就是这个词的词义，也就是这个词义的概念内容。
联想内容：是指由词义的概念内容引发联想所产生的含义。
它通常是依附于词义的概念内容之上的，不能脱离词义的概念内容而存在。
六、词义的关系：（一）相同关系（二）相反关系（三）上下义关系七、义素分析（一）义素是构成词义的基本要素，是最小的语义构成成分，又叫语义特征。
（二）义素分析就是通过对最合适的语义场中的两个或两个以上的义项进行比较、分析，找出这些义项所包含的义素的方法。
(三)义素分析的原则：1、系统性原则。
就是说义素分析必须在一定的语义系统中进行，不在一个系统中无法进行义素分析。
2、对等性原则。
就是说义素分析的结果必须与义项的意义相等，所指范围不能过宽或过窄。
英语词汇学各章节重点、词汇解释、阅读及试卷
英语词汇学各章节重点、词汇解释、阅读及试卷大学英语词汇学复习要点1.外来词分为四类：1 Denizens ,cup from cuppa , port form portus 2) Aliens garage , décor 3) Translation –loans e.g. long time no see 4) Semantic- loans.e.g. dream.2.Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation, morphological motivation, semantic motivation, etymological motivation. Types of meaning: grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,)多义关系及两种研究方法:Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time.3.Synchronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies the coexistence of various meanings of the same word ina certain historical period of time.4.Primary meaning is the only meaning that a word had when it was first created.5.Derived meanings are the meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning at different stages of its development in the course of time.6.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonymsare those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person; deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.7.同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.8.同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English,figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.9.Sources of Synonyms 1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions10.如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application11.What are the characteristics of antonyms?12.1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.4) Contrary termsare gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.13.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomesa subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes14.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation, elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).15.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover a broader or less16.definite concept. Compare the following；词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升华Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation.17.语境的种类:非语言语境。
英语词汇学_Unit_05_Pragmatic_meaning
Grammatical context
In some cases, the meaning of a polysemous word may be determined by the grammatical structure (not specific words) in which it occurs.
The word “paper” has a number of meanings in the dictionary, but in each of the following context, it conveys only one meaning. a sheet of paper It is obvious that the main reason for bringing out this a white paper or that meaning of the word a term paper “paper” is the specific words which the word today’s paper “paper” is combined with. examination paper
receive become cause
get+NP: get a big apple; get an interestingbook get+AP: get very angry; get incredibly cold get…to do…: I got him to do the job.
英语词汇学资料（续）
英语词汇学资料（续）Chapter Five: Word Meaning and Componential Analysis5.1 Word meaningword, reference, and concept1) Words and concepts are inseparable.2) Words and concepts are not identicala) Only notional words reflect things. Form words are not related to any actual thing in real life. They are abstraction of grammatical relations.b) The same concept can be expressed by different words: underground, tube, subway, all mean the same thing.Sense and ReferenceThe sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. (Lyons, 1968).The sense of an expression may be defined as the set, or network, of sense-relations that hold between it and other expressions of the same language. (Lyons, 1995)The relationship by which language hooks onto the world is usually called reference. The semantic links between elements within the vocabulary system is an aspect of their sense, or meaning. (Saeed, 1997: 12)Sense relationsThe relations may include lexical relations (such as paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations, polysemy, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy, member-collection, portion-mass, etc.) and sentence relations (such as logic and truth value, entailment, presup-position, etc.).Arbitrariness and MotivationWhat’s in a name? that which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet.5.2 Motivationa conception that the connection between name and sense is not arbitrary, but can be explained, or is motivated.Types of motivation1) Onomatopoeic Motivation:ducks (quack), frogs (croak), lions (roar), wolves (howl)2)Morphological Motivation:landlord, leader3) Semantic Motivationthe Pentagonthe foot of the mountainThe path to November was uphill all the way.4)Etymological MotivationIt refers to the motivation connected to the origin of the word.5.3 Types of Meaning (p. 103)Denotation and Connotation“Rose” denotes “a flower”, but connotes “love”.“Lion” denotes “an animal”, but connotes “bravery”.Conceptual and Associative MeaningContext and word meaningLiteral meaning----the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary.Contextual (Actual) meaning----the meaning of word used in a certain context.The role of context in the determination of meaning:1) Emotive (affective) meaning.2) Meaning-area. Only the context can determine theextension of the word in any situation. Man as opposed to animal covers the whole of “mankind”: as opposed to woman only one half of it.3) Shifts. Only the context can tell whether healthy is meant as “having good health” or as “conducive to health”.4) Ambiguity.Lexical ambiguity:The bat was found in the attic.The man decided to wait by the bank.Syntactic ambiguity:Old men and women took part in the parade.visiting relatives can be a nuisance.Mary made her dress correctly.5) Homonyms.The sheep were in the pen.I left my pen on the desk.SummaryW ord meaning----1)grammatical meaning2) lexical meaningThe word forms go, goes, went, gone, possess different grammatical meaning of tense, but have the same lexical meaning.Lexical meaning----a) conceptual meaningb) associative meaning.Leech’s classification of words’ meaning1. Conceptual meaning (denotative meaning; cognitive meaning) （概念义）It is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary, and the first component of the lexical meaning which makes communication possible, for words have essentially the sameconceptual meaning for all speakers of that language.child; woman; tiger;operation (手术; 操作; 经商; 作战; 运算)2. Associative (connotative) meaning （联想/内涵义）Woman: (Anyway, she is a woman.)frail, prone to tears, emotional, inconstant…gentle, compassionate, hard-working, sympathetic…A child is a child.traditional; home; the lost lambMore examples:old (and worn out) blue (and down-hearted)long (and tiresome) heavy (and dull)green (and inexperienced) rough (and uncultured)sweet (and lovely) slippery (and unreliable)plain (and tasteless) deep (and learned)3. Social (Stylistic) meaning (社会/文体义)It is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstance of its use.domicile (very formal); residence (formal); abode (poetic); home (general);cast (literary, biblical); throw (general); chuck (casual, slang) They chunked a stone at the cops, and then did a bunk with the loot.After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with the money.4. Affective meaning (情感义)It refers to that component of meaning which expresses the speaker?s emotion: appreciative neutral pejorativeslim thin skinnyfamous well-known notoriousinnovative new newfangledintercede intervene interfereY ou are a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate.Jane is an angel of a girl.5. Collocative meaning (搭配义) consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meaning of words which tend to occur in its environment:6. Reflective meaning (反映义)An example of Water ClosetW. C.; toilet; lavatory; washroom; bathroom;Men?s room; Gentleman?sWomen?s room; powder roomLast night I went to visit John twice.--- “I wonder if I can go somewhere?”--- “Y es, you can go anywhere in China.”7. Semantic meaning （主题义）Chapter Six Sense Relations6.1 PolysemyIt is used of a word having two or more closely related meanings (a plurality of meaning).Diachronic approach to polysemyunderstood as the growth and development or, in general, a change in the semantic structure of the word.e.g. table:1) a piece of furniture;2)the persons seated at a table (to keep the table amused; The whole table gotexcited at the news.);3) (sing. only) the food put on a table, meals (to keep a good, poor table);4) a flat slab of stone or wood used for inscriptions;5) words cut into it or written on it (the ten tables);6) an orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc. (table of contents);7) part of machine tool on which the work is put to be operated on;8) a level area, a plateau.Synchronic approach to polysemyunderstood as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the English language.Two processes lead to polysemy:1. Radiation: a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. Each of them is independent of all the rest and may be traced back to the central signification.For example: headCentral meaning: the top part of a body1)top of anything: the ~of a walking stick;2)the highest or uppermost part of a thing: the~ of a bed;3)the top or most important end: the ~ of the table (queue);4) a chief or leader; ~ of state (of a delegation);5)heads or tails (of coin);6)the source of a stream, spring: the ~of the river;7)the hydraulic sense: twenty meters ~of waters;8) a unit of measurement: count heads, four dollars a head, ten head of cattle;9)the main points: the heads of the discourse;10)mental power: use your ~.2. Concatenation: (连锁联结)the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first signification by successive shifts of meaning until，in many cases, there is not a shadow of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had in it at the outset.Cheater ---(from late Middle English)其原意为“an officer who attended to escheats”即，看管领主的土地的官吏。
第一节 语言的社会属性
请同学们思考下列问题
一、语言的本质属性是什么？应该怎样 理解？ 二、语言不是个人现象，为什么会有 “鲁迅的语言”、“老舍的语言”的说 法？
三、为什么说语言是一种特殊的社会现 象？
2.1.2语言与社会的关系
语言是社会现象，可以从以下两个方面证明： 1.音义结合的任意性和世界语言的多样性说明语言是 社会现象。 2.语言与社会的关系说明语言是社会现象。
（1）语言依存于社会。社会是语言产生和发展必备件。 （2）社会需要语言。语言是社会的重要组成部分。
2.1.3语言社会属性的特殊性
19世纪，受达尔文生物进 化论影响，比较盛行的一种观 点。以德国语言学家施莱赫尔 为代表。他在《达尔文学说与 语言学》一书中把达尔文关于 物种起源和发展的学说运用于 语言学领域，认为语言是属于 施莱赫尔（1821-1868） 自然界范围。
德国语言学家
语言不是自然现象
1.语言的发展过程与自然界生物生长老死的过程有 本质区别。
第二章第二章语言的本质语言的本质第三章第三章语音学语音学第五章第五章词汇学词汇学第六章第六章语法学语法学第七章第七章语用学语用学第八章第八章语言的发展语言的发展第九章第九章文字学文字学第一章第一章绪绪论第四章第四章语义学语义学右上角按钮功能说明
欢迎同学们在这里和我一起学习 和研讨专业基础理论课——
——主讲教师
（一）社会属性中包含了自然因素和个人成分 （二）语言是非经济基础的社会现象 （三）语言是非上层建筑的社会现象
语言不是上层建筑
1.经济基础有适合于它的上层建筑，上层建筑随着经济基础的变化而变 化，语言不是这样。 2.上层建筑只为自己的经济基础服务，语言则一视同仁地为各个经济基 础、各个阶级服务。 3.上层建筑生命不长久，语言生命长久。 4.上层建筑与生产及人的生产行为没有直接联系，语言与生产及人的生 产行为则有直接联系，因为它是人类的交际工具。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
词汇系统——功能上
▪ 根据词汇单位在语言及词汇系统中的作用
➢ 基本词汇
普遍性 、稳定性 、能产性
➢ 一般词汇
▪ 根据词汇的使用频率
➢ 常用词汇
标准：词次、频率、分布、使用度 现代汉语有8548个常用词
➢ 非常用词汇
▪ 根据词汇使用的范围和群体
➢ 专业词汇和非专业词汇
▪ 根据词汇使用的场合
▪ 词语单调 ▪ 替代词增多
三、新鲜的网络言语
▪ 网络词汇 ▪ 网络词汇的来源 ▪ 网络言语的规范化问题
▪ 从词的形式上看，是指根据词的语音形式或书写形式来划分 词汇的子系统
▪ 从词的语音形式 ➢ （1）从构成词的音节数量上来看，可把词汇系统分为单音节词、
多音节词两大系统 ➢ （2）双声词：指两个音节连缀成义而不能拆开的而且两个音节声母
相同的词 ➢ （3）叠韵词：指两个音节连缀成义而不能拆开而且两个音节的云相
“信”（诚实）引申为书信、信息 古英语“boc（榉木）”通过借代（用材料指物品）引申
为现代英语的“book”
三、词
▪ 词的构成方法
➢ 语法构词
（1）复合法：主谓式、偏正式、支配式、并列式、补充式 （2）派生法：
➢ 又叫附加法、加缀法，即在词根上附着词缀成新词 ➢ 初一、阿姨、unfair、dislike、friendship、桌子、木头、“里”
表达“美”与“丑”之对立的用词 丰富多彩的平民语汇
二、文学作品中的“呆傻语”词 汇
▪ 文学形象——呆傻人
➢ 虽生理上存在障碍，但他们的思维能力和言语 能力没有完全丧失，仍可进行言语活动。
➢ “呆傻语”偏离甚至打破了正常的语言规范 ➢ 《尘埃落定》《爸爸爸》《现实一种》
▪ 命名事物的固定词语形式被描述性话语取 代
➢ 完全音译：雷达、拷贝、沙龙、咖啡、奥林匹克 ➢ 音译兼意译：绷带、俱乐部、香波 ➢ 半音译半意译：卡车、酒吧
▪ 同源词
➢ 由书写形式或语音形式的分化而形成的同源关系
➢ 由语义的分化而形成的词的同源关系
▪ 同根词
第三节 言语词汇
▪ 一、名家、名著词汇
➢ 鲁迅
文言词语的使用 绍兴方言的使用 口语词的使用 凝练的词汇运用
➢ 口语词汇和书面语词汇
▪ 从词的语法功能
➢ 实词和虚词
词汇系统——来源上
▪ 古语词
➢ 历史词：表示历史上曾经存在过，现在已经不存在的事物现象行为 的词，还包括历史上出现过的神话传说中的事物的名称 。
➢ 文言词：古代汉语文言著作中的词。文言词所表示的事物现象和观 念，现实中还存在。
▪ 新词 ▪ Leabharlann 言词 ▪ 外来词▪ 意义的完整性
➢ 固定词语的意义并不是构成成分意义简单相加， 而是经过约定俗成，有一个整体性的意义
▪ 专有名词和熟语
词语系统
▪ （一）词汇系统
➢ 从形式上看 ➢ 从意义上看 ➢ 从功能上看 ➢ 从来源上看
▪ （二）语汇系统
➢ 成语 ➢ 惯用语 ➢ 谚语 ➢ 俗语 ➢ 歇后语 ➢ 格言
词汇系统——形式上
自由语素和不自由语素 定位语素和不定位语素 词根、词缀、词尾
➢ 词根是词的核心部分，它决定了词的主要词汇意义 ➢ 词缀指附着在词根之上的语素，它对词义的构成起附加作用 ➢ 词尾指附加在词根或词缀后面只表达语法意义的语素，一般属于
词的形态变化部分
▪ 词的结构类型
➢ 关于复合词
复合词的词义与语素义的组合并不完全对应 复合词的词类与语素的词类也不对应
（3）变性转化
➢ 语素的结构不变而词类功能发生变化而形成另一类词。 ➢ cook、mask、smile、tramp（流浪汉、流浪）、锁、热、在
（4）变形转化
➢ 把原本合成词中的不成词语素变为成词语素从而形成新的词 ➢ 逆序成词：就是把原来只有合成词形式没有单纯词形式的词，反向截取其
中的一个语素在形成单纯词。baggar ➢ 缩略构词：不是指简缩词语，而是指那些经过缩略而已经凝固为典型的单
➢ 老舍
大量儿化词的使用 大量后缀的使用 大量熟语的使用 北京方言词语的使用
一、名家、名著词汇
➢ 《围城》
词语的书面化 词语的讽刺化文言词的运用 夹带外文词
➢ 《儒林外史》
浓郁的江淮方言韵味 科举气与八股气 句无可删，字无可削，一个动词就足以创造一个形
象
➢ 《巴黎圣母院》——雨果
第五章词汇学
第一节 词汇的定义和分类
▪ 词汇的定义
➢ 词和词的等价物——固定词语的总和
▪ 词汇的分类
➢ 语言词汇，是指一种语言中全部词和固定词 语的总和 。
➢ 言语词汇，是指个人运用语言的词汇，它是 允许存在偏离语言规范、不同于语言词汇之 处的。
三、词
▪ 词的构成成分——语素
➢ 语素是语言中最小的音义结合体。 ➢ 语素的分类
▪ 单义词和多义词
➢ 单义词指只有一个义项的词
科学术语（如“风蚀”“光压”），鸟兽、草木、器物的名称 、人名、地名大多 是单义词
➢ 多义词指有多个有联系的义项的词
全部义项是词义的多义词 有的义项是词义，有的义项是语素义的多义词
▪ 上义词和下义词
➢ 上义词适用的对象大于下义词，而下义词表示的对象特征深于或多于上义词
同的词
➢ （4）同音词：两个语音形式完全相同而意义不同的词就是同音词
同音同形 同音异形
▪ 词的书写形式
➢ 同形词
同音同形 、同形异音
➢ 叠音词和各种拟声词
词汇系统——意义上
▪ 同义词和反义词
➢ 意义相同或相近的词叫作同义词
等义词 近义词
➢ 意义相反或相对的词叫作反义词
互补反义词 极性反义词
➢
单音节
➢
单纯词
联绵词
词
➢ ➢
多音节
叠音词 外来词
的
➢
➢
联合式 偏正式
结
➢词
复合式 补充式
构
➢ ➢
合成词
动宾式 主谓式
类
➢
➢
型
➢
➢
附加式 重叠式
前加式 后加式
三、词
▪ 词的构成方法
➢ 语音构词
蛐蛐、蝈蝈 、咩、哞、 bomb（炸弹、轰炸） patter（吧 嗒声）
➢ 语义构词
语义构词是指新词产生是由于旧词的语义孽生、分化， 即由于词义的比喻、借代等方式产生的，或者是由于词 义的联想而产生的 。
纯词的那些词 。 APEC（亚太经合组织）、 “laser”来自“light amplification by stimulated”（光受激发
四、固定词语
▪ 结构的定型性
➢ 固定词语是一种特定的结合形式，词与词的组 合关系和前后顺序已经固定了，不能改变其结 构形式
1）不能颠倒原有成分 2）不能替换原有成分 3）不能插入或删减成分