Sentence Semantics , Situations

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英语存在句错误的语义分析

分类号：H313 单位代码：10183 研究生学号：2007132100 密级：公开吉林大学硕士学位论文英语存在句错误的语义分析Mistakes in English Existential Sentences: A SemanticAnalysis作者姓名：刘颖专业：英语语言文学研究方向：英语语言学指导教师：许京兰教授培养单位：外国语学院2009年5月英语存在句错误的语义分析Mistakes in English Existential Sentences: A SemanticAnalysis作者姓名：刘颖专业名称：英语语言文学指导教师：许京兰教授学位类别：文学硕士答辩日期： 2009年 6 月7 日未经本论文作者的书面授权，依法收存和保管本论文书面版本、电子版本的任何单位和个人，均不得对本论文的全部或部分内容进行任何形式的复制、修改、发行、出租、改编等有碍作者著作权的商业性使用（但纯学术性使用不在此限）。

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学位论文作者签名：日期：2009年5月15日《中国优秀博硕士学位论文全文数据库》投稿声明研究生院：本人同意《中国优秀博硕士学位论文全文数据库》出版章程的内容，愿意将本人的学位论文委托研究生院向中国学术期刊（光盘版）电子杂志社的《中国优秀博硕士学位论文全文数据库》投稿，希望《中国优秀博硕士学位论文全文数据库》给予出版，并同意在《中国博硕士学位论文评价数据库》和CNKI系列数据库中使用，同意按章程规定享受相关权益。

论文级别：■硕士 □博士学科专业：英语语言文学论文题目：英语存在句错误的语义分析作者签名：指导教师签名：2009 年 5 月 15 日作者联系地址（邮编）：吉林大学外国语学院（130012）作者联系电话：138****7336内容提要存在句历来是国内外研究者关注和争论的焦点。

语言学重要概念梳理(中英文对照版)完整版

第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性 Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure ofsounds and meaning）3.多产性productive: 语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number withsentences）4.移位性 Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性 Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1.传达信息功能 Informative：最主要功能The main function2.人际功能 Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.行事功能 performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”等等6.元语言功能 Metalingual Function：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学 Core linguistic1)语音学 Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。

语言学第五章Semantics

语⾔学第五章SemanticsChapter Five SemanticsTeaching Focus1. What is semantics2. Meanings of “meaning”3. Sense and reference4. Sense relations5. Componential analysis --- a way to analyze lexical meaning6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaning1. What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Or specifically, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Different focus of the study in semantics:Logical semantics/philosophical semantics: Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or …propositions?) within a single language.Linguistic semantics: The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.2. Meanings of “Meaning”The word “meaning” has different meanings.It has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists.The naming theory: Plato & AristotleWords are just names or labels for things.Can you show the limitations of this theoryThe semantic triangle: C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923) → The Meaning of Meaning.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. ?thought/reference (concept)symbolizes refers tosymbol/form referent(word, phrase) stands for(object)Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaningConnotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaning associative meaningReflected and meaningCollocative meaningThematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaningIt makes the central part of meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaningThe communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features. ?Involving the …real world? experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.(3) Social meaningWhat a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.domicile: very formal, official steed: poeticresidence: formal horse: generalabode: poetic nag: slanghome: general gee-gee: baby language (4) Affective meaningReflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Youre a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!Im terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. orWill you belt up.(5) Reflected meaningArises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. When you hear …click the mouse twice, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaningThe associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaningWhat is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.They stopped at the end of the corridor.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.3. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.Grammatical words like but, if ,and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things. Therefore it is suggested that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4. Sense relationsSynonymygradableAntonymy complementaryconverseHyponymyPolysemy4.1 SynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Complete synonyms are rare. According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:i. Dialectal synonyms --- used in different regional dialectsBritish English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorflat apartmenttube undergroundii. Stylistic synonyms --- differing in stylekid, child, offspringkick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, deceaseiii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningcollaborator, accompliceiv. Collocational synonymsaccuse, chargev. Semantically different synonymssurprise, amaze, astound4.2 AntonymyThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.There are three types of antonyms.i. Gradable: Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very; Can have comparative forms; Can be asked with how. good, badyoung, oldhot, coldii. Complementary: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.alive, deadmale, femalepresent, absentiii. Converse or relational: exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the pair; one presupposes the other. husband, wifebuy, sellbefore, after4.3 HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general word and a more specific word. It is a kind of inclusiveness. Superordinate: the more general wordHyponyms: the more specific wordsCo-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinateflower, rose, lilyanimal, cat, dogfurniture, bed, desk4.4 PolysemyPolysemy refers to the sense relation that the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called a polysemic word.table: a piece of furniture; orderly arrangement of facts, figures5. Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaningComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, calledsemantic features.HUMANman (ADULT, MALE)woman (ADULT, FEMALE)boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaningThe meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.Predication analysis: proposed by the British linguist G. LeechThe basic unit in this method is called prediction. It is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.An argument is logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. Tom smokes.Tom is smoking.Tom has been smoking. TOM (SMOKE)Does Tom smokingTom does not smoke. argument predicateKids like apples. → KID, APPLE (LIKE)It is hot. → (BE HOT)AssignmentsHow can words opposite in meaning be classified To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?north/south vacant/occupiedliterate/illiterate above/belowdoctor/patient wide/narrowpoor/rich father/daughterhonest/dishonest normal/abnormalExercisesI. Multiple choice.1. The naming theory seems applicable to ___ only.A. verbsB. adjectivesC. adverbsD. nouns2. Hyponyms of the superordinate “flower” do not include “___”.A. wardrobeB. tulipC. lilyD. rose3. Predication analysis is a way to analyze ___ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentenceII. Make judgments (true or false)1. In the diagram of the classic semantic triangle, the word “symbol” refers to the object in the world of experience.2. When the same one word has more than one meaning we call it a polysemic word.3. Complete synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare in English.。

专八人文知识--语言学

第一章概述一、什么是语言？1.Definition of language （语言的定义）Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（语言是人类用来交流的一套具有任意性的声音符号系统。

）2.Design/distinctive feature of language（语言的定义/本质特征）1)2)3)4)（移位性指语言可以让使用者谈论不在说话之时、说话之地存在的物体、事件和观点）例如：我们在中国可以谈论美国的物体和事件。

5)Cultural transmission（文化传播/文化传递性）Language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.（文化传播指语言是靠文化传播的，而不是靠父母遗传。

虽然人类的语言能力是天生的，但是语言系统的细节不是靠遗传传递，而是靠学习掌握的。

）二、什么是语言学？Linguistics is a scientific study of language.（语言学是对语言的科学研究）语言学的研究对象不是某特定的语种，而是人类所有的语言，在考察分析大量语言现象的基础上总结语言规律。

语言学家想要回答的基本问题是：什么是语言？语言的机制是什么？人们是如何使用语言实现各种目的的。

三、语言学的重要概念1.descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述性与规定性）描述性研究是现代语言学家采取的基本立场，注重观察分析语言中的事实，目的通常是描述人们一般是怎么说话、写作的。

规定性研究注意总结语言中的标准，目的通常是规定人们应该如何说话、写作。

例如：规定只能用单数、复数2.synchronic vs. diachronic（共时性与历时性）synchronic: the study of a language through the course of its history（共时研究以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象）例如：莎士比亚时代语言研究diachronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation（历时研究则研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律）ngue vs. parole（语言与言语）该区分是现代语言学鼻祖Saussure提出的。

semantics知识点总结

semantics知识点总结Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It is concerned with how words and sentences are interpreted, how meaning is assigned to linguistic expressions, and how meaning is inferred from language. In this summary, we will explore some key concepts and topics in semantics, including the following:1. Meaning and reference2. Sense and reference3. Truth-conditional semantics4. Lexical semantics5. Compositional semantics6. Pragmatics and semantics7. Ambiguity and vagueness8. Semantic changeMeaning and referenceMeaning is a fundamental concept in semantics. It refers to the content or interpretation that is associated with a linguistic expression. The study of meaning in linguistics is concerned with understanding how meaning is established and conveyed in language. Reference, on the other hand, is the relationship between a linguistic expression and the real world entities to which it refers. For example, the word "dog" refers to the concept of a four-legged animal that is commonly kept as a pet. The study of reference in semantics is concerned with understanding how words and sentences refer to objects and entities in the world.Sense and referenceThe distinction between sense and reference is an important concept in semantics. Sense refers to the meaning or concept associated with a linguistic expression, while reference refers to the real world entities to which a linguistic expression refers. For example, the words "morning star" and "evening star" have the same reference - the planet Venus - but different senses, as they are used to describe the planet at different times of the day. Frege, a prominent philosopher of language, introduced this important distinction in his work on semantics.Truth-conditional semanticsTruth-conditional semantics is an approach to semantics that seeks to understand meaning in terms of truth conditions. According to this view, the meaning of a sentence isdetermined by the conditions under which it would be true or false. For example, the meaning of the sentence "The cat is on the mat" is determined by the conditions under which this statement would be true - i.e. if there is a cat on the mat. Truth-conditional semantics has been influential in the development of formal semantics, and it provides a formal framework for analyzing meaning in natural language.Lexical semanticsLexical semantics is the study of meaning at the level of words and lexical items. It is concerned with understanding the meanings of individual words, as well as the relationships between words in a language. Lexical semantics examines how words are related to each other in terms of synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, and other semantic relationships. It also explores the different senses and meanings that a word can have, and how these meanings are related to each other. Lexical semantics plays a crucial role in understanding the meaning of sentences and discourse.Compositional semanticsCompositional semantics is the study of how the meanings of words and sentences are combined to create complex meanings. It seeks to understand how the meanings of individual words are combined in sentences to produce the overall meaning of a sentence or utterance. Compositional semantics is concerned with understanding the rules and principles that govern the composition of meaning in natural language. It also explores the relationship between syntax and semantics, and how the structure of sentences contributes to the interpretation of meaning.Pragmatics and semanticsPragmatics is the study of how language is used in context, and how meaning is influenced by the context of language use. Pragmatics is closely related to semantics, but it focuses on the use of language in communication, and how meaning is affected by factors such as the speaker's intentions, the hearer's inferences, and the context in which the language is used. While semantics is concerned with the literal meaning of linguistic expressions, pragmatics is concerned with the implied meaning that arises from the use of language in context.Ambiguity and vaguenessAmbiguity and vagueness are common phenomena in natural language, and they pose challenges for semantic analysis. Ambiguity refers to situations where a linguistic expression has multiple possible meanings, and it is unclear which meaning is intended. For example, the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the edge of a river. Vagueness, on the other hand, refers to situations where the boundaries of a linguistic expression are unclear or indistinct. For example, the word "tall" is vague because it is not always clear what height qualifies as "tall". Semantics seeks to understand how ambiguity and vagueness arise in language, and how they can be resolved or managed in communication.Semantic changeSemantic change refers to the process by which the meanings of words and linguistic expressions evolve over time. Over the course of history, languages undergo semantic change, as words acquire new meanings, lose old meanings, or change in their semantic associations. Semantic change can occur through processes such as metaphor, metonymy, broadening, narrowing, and generalization. Understanding semantic change is important for the study of historical linguistics and the diachronic analysis of language.ConclusionSemantics is a rich and complex area of study that plays a fundamental role in understanding the meaning of language. It encompasses a wide range of topics and concepts, and it has important implications for fields such as philosophy of language, cognitive science, and natural language processing. By exploring the key concepts and topics in semantics, we can gain valuable insights into how meaning is established and conveyed in language, and how we can analyze and understand the rich complexity of linguistic expressions.。

语言学考点

Sentence meaning1.sentence and proposition2.sematic roles（语义角色）包括agent(施事)、patient（受事）、experiencer(经历者)、instrument、cause（致事）、recipient(接收者)、benefactive(受益者)、locative、temporal3.sense relationships between sentences 包括presupposition(预设)、entailment(蕴含)、synonymy、inconsistency、implicature1.Sentence and proposition可能会考二者的关系（1）A sentence is something that expresses a complete thought. Sentences are more knowable than thoughts.(2) The semantic content is a proposition which may bejudged by truth conditions.(3) A proposition can be expressed by different sentences.2. Semantic rolesWords and sentences的关系（1）words and sentences are the two units of language that carry meaning.（2）The sentence meaning must rely on the meaning of individual words it contains.（3）The sum of the meaning of a sentence is not simply thesum of the meaning of its words and other constituentswhich compose it. 判断题Semantic role的定义术语解释Semantic role is a way of characterizing the meaning relationship between a noun phrase and the verb of a sentence. By semantic role we mean such things as who did what to whom, with whom, and for whom. It is the role that its referent plays in the action, state or situation described by the sentence.语义角色的类型问答题/选择题问答题要举例说明（1）agent施事: the responsible initiator of an action(2) patient受事: the entity that undergoes a certain change of state.John (agent) kissed Mary (patient).（3）experiencer 经历者Experience a physical or mental sensation, and receive a sensory input.John experiencer likes blueberry pancakes.（4）instrument: the intermediary through which an agent performs the action.John was injured with a stone instrument.（5) cause 致事: any natural force that brings about a change ofstate.John was injured with a stone cause.Instruments and causes can be expressed in prepositional phrases (as in the previous examples) or subjects as in:The silver key instrument opens the door to the wine cellar. (instrument)The snow cause caved in the roof. (cause)（稍微注意一下就行）（6) recipient接收者: that which receives a physical objectI gave John recipient a puppy.（7) benefactive受益者: that for which an action is performed John passed the message to me for Tom benefactive.（8) locative: the location of an action or state（9) temporal: the time at which the action or state occurred Beijing is cold in winter. (locative)She left home the day before yesterday. (temporal)判断题(下面都是正确的说法，注意标黄的部分)(1)Semantic role is not an inherent property of a noun phrase:a given noun phrase can have different semantic roles indifferent sentences.(2)The point of this theory is to characterize all possiblesemantic roles that noun phrases can play in a sentence. (3)Every noun phrase in a clause is assigned a semantic role,and, aside from coordinate NPs, the same semantic role cannot be assigned to two different noun phrases within the same clause.Sentence relationships between sentences问答题说明句子关系有哪几种，并举例；选择题，判断句子属于哪种关系；或者考术语解释（我觉得可能性小一点）1.PresuppositionX presupposes Y.(Y is a presupposition of X.)e. g. X: My father is/is not at home.Y: I have a father.In terms of truth condition:If X is true, Y must be true.If X is false, Y is still true.If Y is true, X is either true or false.If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X.问答题可以先列举上上面的内容在对例子稍加解释2.EntailmentX entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.)In terms of truth condition,if X is true, Y is necessarily true;if X is false, Y may be true or false.If Y is true, X may be true or false;If Y is false, X is false.e.g.X: John married a blond heiress. [a type of blond persons]Y: John married a blond. [bigger concept]The difference between presupposition and entailment可以看上面的truth condition 标黄的部分进行理解If we negate an entailing sentence, then the entailment fails; but negating a presupposing sentence allows the presupposition to survive.3.SynonymmyX is synonymous with Y.e.g.X: I am an orphan.Y: I am a child and have no father or mother.In terms of truth condition, If X is true, Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false4.inconsistencyX is inconsistent with Y.e.g.X: I am an orphan.Y: I have a father.In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.5.implicatureIf we can draw conclusion B from sentence A, here B is the implicature of A:A. Few girls are coming.B. Some girls are coming.。

语言学知识_语义学

语言学知识_语义学语义学一．语义学（Semantics）的定义：研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。

二．词汇意义（Lexical Meaning）：1）意义与指称（sense and reference）：意义与指称是语言研究中的两个术语，它们之间既相互联系，又相互区别。

意义（sense）是一系列抽象语义特征的集合，与语境无关，可以在字典中查到。

而指称（reference）是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物；它涉及语言形式与非语言的现实世界之间的关系。

意义与指称是意义的两个相关但不同的方面，例如“morning star”和“evening star”的意义虽然不同，但其指称一样，都指代天空中的同一颗星星。

2）外延意义（denotative meaning）：指词语所指称的外部世界的事物、状态、抽象情感。

例如：dog(狗)的外延意义是指“一种四肢、有毛、会汪汪叫的哺乳动物”，这种意义在任何国家、任何时代都不会改变。

3）内涵意义（connotative meaning）：指源于语言使用者的个人经历、情感、评价、语境等外部因素的意义。

例如dragon一词，在汉语文化中象征着“高贵”、“权利”，但在某些英语国家文化中，其内涵意义则为“残暴”和“邪恶”。

三．意义关系（Sense Relationship）：1）同义关系（Synonymy）：方言同义词（Dialectal synonyms）：意义相同但方言有差异的词，例如：autumn（BrE）= fall（ArE）。

文体同义词（Stylistic synonyms）：意义相同但在文体上或者正式程度上有差别的词，例如：buy（较为随意）——purchase（较为正式）。

搭配同义词（Collocational synonyms）：指意义上相同，但是搭配不相同的词。

例如：provide和supply，provide sth. for sb.和supply sth. to sb.在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词（Synonyms with different emotive or evaluative meaning）：意义相同，但在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的词，例如：politician （政客）含贬义色彩，statesmen（政治家）含褒义色彩。

英语语言学概论 Chapter 7 Semantics

3 objects, characteristics and state of affairs in the real world. 4 the speaker and the specific situational context(情景语境)
(4) Theories of meaning
Conceptual meaning: the meaning given in the dictionary: Associative meaning(联想意义):the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meanings.
Basic concepts
Reference(所指指称 the relation between 所指,指称所指指称): the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers to. Denotation: the objects or state of affairs in the real world that linguistic expressions stand for. Denotation is invariant and utteranceindependent while reference is variable and utterance dependent, could be specific.
Extension(外延 the class of entities to 外延): 外延 which a linguistic expression is correctly applied. Intension(内涵内涵):the set of defining 内涵 properties which determine the applicability of a linguistic expression. Extension and intension are two aspects of denotation, which are complementary to each other.

2010教案《英语语义学》-5 句子语义学-情景

5.2.1 Introduction static and dynamic situations 静态情景和动态情景 static verbs 静态动词
5.2.2 Verbs and Situation Types 动词与情景类型名词和动词是语言中最为重要的词类, 名词和动词是语言中最为重要的词类因此是语言学家、哲学家和认知科学家关注的重点。是语言学家、哲学家和认知科学家关注的重点。句子是用来描述事件状态 (states of affairs) 句子所描述的情景有不同类型, 的。句子所描述的情景有不同类型这主要体现在动词的意义上, 在动词的意义上不同类别的情景对动词的时和体有不同要求。换言之, 体有不同要求。换言之动词的类型以及它们所选择的时和体反映了它们所描述的情景的特点。选择的时和体反映了它们所描述的情景的特点。
随着数理逻辑的发展, 随着数理逻辑的发展可能世界逐渐成了逻辑语义理论的一个基本内容。逻辑语义理论的一个基本内容。逻辑研究命而命题有真值; 题, 而命题有真值要知道表达命题的句子的语义, 语义就是要知道在什么条件下这个句子才是真的。然而, 是真的。然而一个句子的真值在不同的时间是不同的。此外, 间是不同的。此外句子的真值又是随着不同的语境而变化的。这些种种条件的组合, 同的语境而变化的。这些种种条件的组合就是一个可能世界。就是一个可能世界。
5.3.3 Evidentiality 证据性 5.3.4 Summary
Semantics
Chapter 5 Sentence Semantics 1: Situations 句子语义学一: 句子语ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้学一情景
5.1 Introduction
situation type 情景类型 tense 时 aspect 体 mood 情态 evidentiality 证据性

semantic知识点总结

semantic知识点总结Definition and Importance of SemanticsSemantics is the study of meaning in language and the interpretation of words, phrases, and sentences. It examines how words and symbols convey meaning, how meanings are structured and organized, and how meanings are used in communication. Semantics is a fundamental aspect of language and communication, as it enables people to understand and convey meaning effectively.The importance of semantics lies in its role in language comprehension, communication, and reasoning. It allows individuals to understand the meaning of the words and sentences they encounter, to interpret and infer meaning from context, and to express themselves effectively. Semantics also plays a crucial role in the development of language, as it helps children and language learners to acquire and understand the meanings of words and symbols.Role of Semantics in Language UnderstandingSemantics plays a crucial role in language understanding, as it enables individuals to comprehend the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. It involves several key processes, including lexical semantics (the meanings of individual words), compositional semantics (the derivation of meaning from word combinations), and pragmatic semantics (the use of language in context).Lexical semantics focuses on the meanings of individual words and how they are organized and structured in the mental lexicon. It examines the different types of word meanings, including denotation (the literal meaning of a word) and connotation (the associated or suggested meanings of a word). Lexical semantics also explores the relationships between words, such as synonyms (words with similar meanings) and antonyms (words with opposite meanings), and the polysemy (multiple meanings) and homonymy (same form, different meanings) of words.Compositional semantics is concerned with how the meaning of a phrase or sentence is derived from the meanings of its constituent words and the syntactic structure of the sentence. It involves processes such as semantic composition, which combines word meanings to form sentence meanings, and semantic ambiguity resolution, which resolves multiple possible interpretations of a sentence. Compositional semantics also considers the influence of context and pragmatic information on meaning derivation, such as the use of inference and presupposition in language understanding.Pragmatic semantics focuses on the use of language in context and the interpretation of meaning in communication. It considers how speakers and listeners use context, background knowledge, and communicative intentions to convey and infer meaning. Pragmatic semantics also examines various communicative phenomena, such as implicature (indirect or implied meaning), speech acts (the performative function of language), anddiscourse coherence (the organization and connection of utterances in a conversation or text).Aspects of Semantic Knowledge in Linguistics and Cognitive ScienceSemantic knowledge is a central topic in linguistics and cognitive science, as it provides insights into the nature, structure, and processing of meaning in language and cognition. It encompasses various aspects of language and cognition, including lexical semantics, conceptual semantics, and computational semantics.Lexical semantics is the branch of semantics that focuses on the meanings of individual words and how they are organized and structured in the mental lexicon. It examines the different types of word meanings, semantic relations between words, and the representation and processing of word meanings. Lexical semantics also considers the influence of semantic properties, such as imageability (the ease with which a word evokes mental images) and concreteness (the degree to which a word refers to tangible objects or experiences), on word processing and memory.Conceptual semantics is concerned with the representation and organization of concepts and meanings in the mind. It explores how people categorize and classify the world, how they form and distinguish concepts, and how they encode and retrieve meaning from memory. Conceptual semantics also investigates the relationships between language and thought, such as the influence of linguistic categories and structures on conceptual organization and the influence of conceptual knowledge on language comprehension and production.Computational semantics is the area of semantics that addresses the computational modeling and processing of meaning in language and cognition. It focuses on developing formal and computational models of meaning representation, meaning inference, and meaning generation. Computational semantics also considers the use of natural language processing (NLP) techniques, such as semantic parsing, semantic role labeling, and semantic similarity measurement, to extract and analyze semantic information from texts and to build intelligent systems that understand and generate natural language.In addition, there are other important aspects of semantic knowledge in linguistics and cognitive science, such as cross-linguistic semantics (the study of semantic universals and variation across languages), diachronic semantics (the study of semantic change over time), and psycholinguistic semantics (the study of the cognitive processes and mechanisms underlying language understanding and production). These aspects contribute to our understanding of how meaning is structured and processed in language and cognition and how semantic knowledge is represented and used in different linguistic and cognitive contexts.In conclusion, semantic knowledge is a crucial aspect of human cognition and communication. It plays a central role in language understanding, as it enables individuals to comprehend and convey meaning effectively. Semantic knowledge encompasses variousaspects of language and cognition, such as lexical semantics, conceptual semantics, and computational semantics, and provides insights into the nature, organization, and processing of meaning in language and cognition. By exploring and understanding semantic knowledge, we can gain a deeper understanding of how language and thought are intertwined and how we make sense of the world through meaning.。

sentencestructures

sentencestructures一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)~~~the most + 形容词+ 名词+ (that) + 主词+ have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。

Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had.张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

二、 Nothing is + ~~~ er than +不定式(to+do).Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than +不定式(to+do).例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.没有比接受教育更重要的事。

三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.（再怎么强调...的重要性也不为过。

）例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。

四、 There is no denying that + S + V ...（不可否认的...）例句：There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。

五、 It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ （全世界都知道...）例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

Semantics

Limitations applicable to nouns but not to verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. Not applicable to nouns which denote things not existing in the world
The conceptualist view
That relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mind
Heracleitus, Aristotle, Descartes, Kant, Hegel, Hume, Frege, Richards and Ogden (I think, therefore I am)
Semantics
-- You mean you are an agent? -- Yes. -- When did you become an agent? -- Anytime I did something. -- Who assigned you the role? -- Veeeeerb.
Some views concerning the study of meaning
命名说概念说语境说行为说 S --- ［r ... s］--- R s］
The naming theory ( Plato)
The linguistic forms or symbols, or words, used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. What are the limitations of this theory?

语言学期末复习重点

第七章The essential elements suggested by this framework include 1) speech community(言语社团), 2) situation(场景), event and act, and 3) mnemonic SPEAKING components(交际民族学模式)an important figure in American anthropological linguistics---Benjamin Lee Whorf and his famous hypothesis concerning language, thought, and culture: Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses(萨丕尔-尔夫假说)What this hypothesis suggests is this: Our language helps mould our way of thinking and,Consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ uniqu e ways of understanding the world.two versions of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis have been developed, a strong version and a weak version. The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version of this hypothesis, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative(相对), rather than categorical(绝对).some social factors that are believed to influence our language behavior in a social context. Among these factors, some major ones include a) class; b) gender; c) age; d) ethnic identity; e) education background; f) occupation; and g) religious belief.社会语言学(the sociolinguistics of language)cross-cultural communication1.When in Rome do as the Romans do 入乡随俗2.Put yourself in other’s shoes 换位思考3.One culture’s meat is another culture’s poison 萝卜青菜各有所爱Honesty and sincerity are key points to mutual understanding第八章If we divide meaning into two major sides: the side more closely related to the words used, the more constant, inherent side of meaning (which is studied under the heading of semantics) and the side more closely related to the context,themore indeterminate side, or something extra (which is studied under the heading of pragmatics)Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use Austin revised the notes and changed the title from Words and Deeds (《言与行》)to How to Do Things with Words(《怎样用词做事》),Austin’s first shot at the theory is the claim that there are two types of sentences: performatives and constatives.Austin argues that sentences like the following do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. So they arc called PERFORMATIVES.Ex. 8-2 said by a chemistry teacher in a demonstration of an experiment is not a performative. It is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking.The speaker cannot pour any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must accompany his words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a false statement. Sentences of this type are known as CONSTATIVES.A Theory of the Illocutionary Act 行事行为理论In his(Austin) opinion, there are three senses in which saying something may be understood as doing something. The first sense is an ordinary one(普通意义). That is, when we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.For example, when somebody says “Morning!”, we can ask a question like “What di d he do?” instead of “What did he say?” And the answer could be that he produced a sound, word or sentence------“Morning!” The act performed in this sense is called a Locutionary Act (发话行为).Within this act, however, Austin suggests that there is another act. In other words, when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood.In the example of “Morning!” we can say it has the force(语力) of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something, and the act performed is known as an Illocutionary Act(行事行为).The third sense in which to say something can mean to do something concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed. This act, which is performed through, by means of, a locutionaryact, is called a Perlocutionary Act (取效行为).The second major theory in pragmatics is t he theory of conversational implicature （会话含义理论）, proposed by another Oxford philosopher Herbert Paul Grice. This theory first became known to the public at Harvard in 1967. Part of the lectures was published in 1975 under the title of “Logic and Conversation”, on which we base our present introduction.The Cooperative Principle 合作原则Grice noticed that in daily conversations people do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. In order to avoid the logical use of implication(蕴含), which we touched on in the section on logical semantics, Grice coined the term implicature(含义)Cooperative Principle, or CP Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows: QUANTITY 数量QUALITY 质量RELATION 关系MANNER 方式Characteristics of Implicature 含义的特征(1)Calculability 可推导性(2)Cancellability 可取消性(3)Non-detachability 不可分离性(4)Non-conventionality 非常规性Relevance Theory 关联理论This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperbe r (斯波伯) and Deirdre Wilson (威尔逊) in 1986.The definition of this theory: Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance. 每一个明示交际行动，都传递一种假定：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。

语言学导论的任意选举例

语言学导论的任意选举例语言学是以语言为研究对象的科学。

它研究的对象主要就是人类的语言，包括语言的各个方面。

语言学研究的任务包括研究、描写语言的结构、功能及其历史发展，揭示语言的本质，探索语言的共同规律，所以语言学是一个很抽象的学科;但是它又牵扯到我们日常生活中语言的具体呈现形式，因此初识语言学，我们要了解的就是它研究层次的分类，即分为宏观语言学和微观语言学，这也是语言学导论部分的第一个知识点。

总体来说，语言学导论重点包括以下内容：1. 语言学的定义(the definition of linguistics)Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but the language of all human society, language in general. It is a scientific study, based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. The four principles that make linguistics a science are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity. As a science, linguistics now has a set of established theories, methods and sub-branches.在这段话中，核心的词为the scientific study of language.在回答语言学定义的相关问题时，须要有这句话。

语言学必考名词解释

语言学必考名词解释1. Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system sharedby all the members of a speechcommunity Langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.2. Design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness,duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.3. Synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but notnecessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind4. Arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face thatthe forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.5. Duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of havingtwo levels of are composed of elements of the secondary. Level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.6. Displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enabletheir users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.7. Competence:language user ' s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.8. Prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.Prescriptive:a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.9. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in aparticular language.10. Assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacentsound, which is more specifically called. ” contact ”or ” contiguous ”assimilation.11. Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of theentity a word denotes.12. Reference:the use of language to express a proposition, meaning the properties of theentity a word denotes.Reference:the use of language to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.13. Sense:the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situationalcontext.14. Linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e.language determines thought.15. Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).16. Interlinguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learnerswho are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.thelanguage system between the target language and the learner ' s native language.17. Transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language. When structures ofthe two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer of facilitation; when the two languages are different in structures, negative transfer of inference occurs and results in errors.18. Perlocutionary act:the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it 'sthe consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.19. Hyponymy: a relation between tow words, in which the meaning of one word (thesuperordinate) is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)20. Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme (eg. is an allophone of /t/inEnglish. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated.Bothand are allophones of the phoneme/t/.21. Error analysis: is the process of determining the incidence, nature, cause andconsequence of unsuccessful language22. Utterance: 1.A spoken word, statement, or vocal sound 2.The action of saying orexpressing something aloud the simple utterance of a few platitudes 3.Anuninterrupted chain of spoken or written language23. Interference: a process more commonly known as negative transfer, which occurs whenan L1 patter is different from the counterpart pattern of thetarget language.24. Predication analysis:is a way to analyze the meaning of sentences. A sentence,composed of a subject and predicate, is a basic unit for meaning analysis is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence25. Cohesion:refers to the way in which text “hang together ”; to the resources withinlanguage that help relate ideas and information and make links between different parts of a text26. Polysemy:words have two or more than two senses27. Speech act:refers to an action performed by the use of an utterance.28. Linguistics:generally, it is defined as the scientific study of the language29. Phonetics: is the study of production of speech sounds30. Semantics:is generally defined as the study of the meaning of linguistic units. to bemore specific, the meaning with which linguistists are concerned is defined aslinguistic semantics语言学考试范围1. Does the traffic light have duality? Explain the reasons.2. IC analyzes the sentence structure with brackets or a tree diagram.Lovely Jane ran away.3. What are Leech 's seven types of meaning?Conceptual meaning. Connotative meaning. Social meaning. Affectivemeaning. Reflected meaning. Collocative meaning.Thematic meaning4. What are the differences between modern linguistics and traditionalgrammar?5. Explain surface structure and deep structure.6. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?7. What are the four maxims of the CP?8. Analyze the structure of a syllable. Give one example to illustrate.9. Explain the two terms “sensea”nd “reference an”d what is theirrelationship?10. What are the differences between errors and mistakes?What are the major views concerning the study of meaning What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?(1) The naming theory 命名论----One of the oldest notions converning meanings, and also a very primitive one, was the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects theySta nd for. So words are just n ames Or label for thi ngs命名论是最原始的语义理论，该理论是把词看作所指事物的名称。

Semantics_语义学

Semantics1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2．Geoffrey Leech利奇Seven types of meaning7种意义类型:①Conceptual meaning概念意义②Connotative meaning内涵意义③Social meaning社会意义④Affective meaning 感情意义Associative Meaning联想意义（②——⑥）⑤Reflected meaning反射意义⑥Collocative meaning搭配意义⑦Thematic meaning主位意义3.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）：① The Referential Theory② The Semantic Triangle③ Sense and Reference7.The referential theory指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称) is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations涵义关系①Synonymy（同义关系）②Antonymy（反义关系）（Gradable、Complementary、Converse）③Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences①Synonymity (同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of another sentence②Inconsistency(矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence.③Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blonde.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.④Presupposition(前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.⑤Contradiction(矛盾)⑥Semantic anomaly(语义反常)18. An integrated theory﹡Compositionality(组合性原则)：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.﹡This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semantics﹡Their basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules﹡The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words﹡The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）﹡A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.﹡It is the basic meaning which a sentence express.﹡A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.。

语言学第五单元 sentence meaning

2. In 1963, Katz and Fodor put forward semantic theory to put Compositionality into practice.
Sentence meaning
Semantic Theory
A Dictionary
A set of Projection Rules
All men are rational Socrates is a man Therefore, Socrates is rational
Predicate Logic
Argument
some property or relation Predicate
A simple proposition: a function of its argument .
E g: The earth is flat. （False） The earth goes around the sun. (True) All teachers are female. (False)
Classification of proposition: simple and composite proposition.
b. John murdered Bill without intending to. murder =
INTEND( x,(CAUSE( x,( BECOME( y,(~ALIE))))))
Entailment(衍推关系)
a. I saw a boy. b. I saw a child
If a is true, b is true. If b is false, a is false.
pq
TT TF FT FF

专八语言学考点

语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。

2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。

3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。

5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。

6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。

7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。

三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。

Semantics 语义学

语言学英汉术语对比

1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。

语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussurec. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。