03语言学Chapter 3_lexicon - 副本
语言学讲义第三章
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?•definition: It is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”:a. a physically definable unit;b. the common factor underlying a set of forms;c. a grammatical unit•a physical unit:a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks.It is wonderful.–Three words are recognized.–However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes–It‟s wonderful.–Are they two words or three?b. the common factor underlying a set of forms•-- walk, walks, walking, walked•How many words are there? (considered only one word/lexeme walk in dictionary)•I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven.•How many times did the word “have” occur?•Lexeme: the abstract and smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which can be distinguished from another smallest unit.e.g. “write” is the lexeme of the set of the following items:write wrote written writing writesc. a grammatical unit•Language is hierarchy.3.1.2. Identification of words•stability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc•relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word•a minimum free form:(suggested by Bloomfield)maximum→ sentenceminimum→ word3.1.3 Classification of words•Variable vs. Invariable Words:–Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.–Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.•Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:–Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.–Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.•Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:–Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.–Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.•Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.Word class–Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. •Some new word class:–Particles:infinitive to,negative not,subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.–Auxiliaries: do, have–Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.–Pro-form–DeterminersPro-forms•Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.–Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone–Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.–Pro-verb: He spoke English better than she did.–Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.–Pro-locative: He went there.Determiner•Determiner: words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has.•There are 3 classes of determiners:predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third…central determiners: this, that, every, each, either, my…post determiners: cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, next, last, other, many, few, a great many o f…•Their positions are fixed:Predeterminers + central determiners +post determiners;•E.g. all her many good ideasP C P modifier•*their all trouble•*five the all boys•*all this boy•*all both girls3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 morpheme and morphology•Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.e.g. dis appoint ment (3)•Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes.•Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.3.2.2 Types of morphemes•Free morphemes & Bound morphemesFree morphemes:those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Free morphemes fall into two categories:Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g. mooncake Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-Bound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2) Root, affix and stem•Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity,e.g. friend as in unfriendliness.•Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into–prefix (dis-, un-)–suffix (-en, -ify) and–Infix( feet, goose).•Stem : it is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. A stem can be bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3) Inflectional and Derivational AffixAffixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational•Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case.•- (e) s: plurality of nouns•- (e) s: third person singular, present tense•- (e) d: past tense for all three persons•- (e) d: past participle form of verbs•- ing: progressive aspect•- er : comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- est: superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs•- …s: the possessive case of nouns•Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Difference Between Roots ,Base and Stem ?•Some linguists consider the base to be the equivalent to the term root; that is, the base form of a word or that part of the word left when all the affixes are moved .•Some other linguists maintain that the base is any part of a word when an affix is added to a root or stem.( in the word unhappiness, unhappy may be the base, happy is the root )•A stem is the main part of a word to which inflectional affixes are added and it can be a bound root, afree morpheme, or a derived form itself. The stem and the root often coincide( stars: root=stem); 1 stem=2 root/free morphemes (motherlands)3.2.3 Inflection and Word FormationThere are 2 fields Morphology concerns:the study of Inflections (Inflectional Morphology) andWord Formation ( Lexical or Derivational Morphology).•Inflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy’s ) do not change the grammatical class of the stems•Derivation: shows the relations between roots and affixes, e.g.lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)(2) Word Formationi. compound•Compounds: two or more free roots combine to make a new word.–Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill–Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit–Adjective compounds: gray-haired,insect-eating, dutyfree–Preposition compounds: into, throughout•Endocentric & exocentric compounds•Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg–self-control: a kind of control–armchair: a kind of chair•E xocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg–scarecrow: not a kind of crow–breakneck: not a kind of neck•Written forms of compounds–Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard–Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length–Open: coffee table, washing machine•Free variation:–businessman, business-man, business man–winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle–no one, no-one, nooneii. Derivation•Word class changed:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Word class unchanged:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant3.3 lexical change3.3.1 lexical change proper3.3.2 Morphosyntactic change3.3.3 Semantic change3.3.4 Phonological change3.3.5 Orthographic change3.3.1 lexical change proper1. Invention (coinage)one of the least common process of word formation in English. The invention of totally new terms.e.g. kodak, nylon2. BlendingTwo words are blended by joining the initial part of the first one and the final part of the second, or by joining the initial part of the two parts, e.g.–transfer +resistor>transistor–smoke+fog>smog–motorist+hotel>motel–breakfast+lunch>brunch–modulator+demodulator>modem–dance+exercise>dancercise–advertisement+editorial>advertorial–education+entertainment>edutainment–information+commercial>infomercial3. Abbreviation/ Shortingwords can be formed by the reduction of other words or phrases.•(1)initialism•(2)acronym•(3)clipping•Initialism–AI: artificial intelligence–a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible–ECU: European Currency Unit–HIV: human immunodeficiency virus–PC: personal computer–PS: postscript–RSVP: répondez s‟il vous plait (…please reply‟ in French)•4. Acronym–AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome–ASAP: as soon as possible–CD-ROM: compact disc read-only memory–WASP: white Anglo-Saxon protestant–dink(y): double income, no kids–nilk(y): no income, lots of kids•Clipping–Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)s–Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake–Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive)5. Back-formationa word of one type is reduced to form another word of a different type, e.g--diagnose < diagnosis–enthuse < enthusiasm–laze < lazy–liaise < liaison–reminisce < reminiscence–statistic < statistics–televise < television6. Analogical Creation–From irregular to regular:old new•work: wrought > worked•beseech: besought > beseeched•slay: slew > slayed•go: went > goed???7. Borrowing (loan words)•French: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, •Latin: admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minor•Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy•Spanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla•Italian: aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcano •Dutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yacht•Arabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, safari, sofa, zero•Indian: bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, yoga•Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoonTypes of loan words•Loanwords: both form and meaning are borrowed.–au pair, encore, coup d‟etat, kungfu, sputnik•Loanblend: part of the form is native and part is borrowed, the meaning is fully borrowed.–coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)–Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town (English)•Loanshift: form is native, meaning is borrowed.–bridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte•Loan translation, or calque: each morpheme is translated in the equivalent morpheme in another language–free verse < L verse libre–black humor < Fr humour noir–found object < Fr objet trouvé8. CompoundingCompounding : to join two separate words to produce a single form.•(1) When the two words are in the same grammatical category ,the compound will be in this category :N + N = N : boyfriend ,elevator-operator, fighter-bomber, landlordAdj. + Adj. = Adj. icy-cold, red–hot•(2) When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound:N. + Adj. = Adj.: headstrong ,watertight, lifelongV. + N. = N. : daredevil, sawbones•Compounds formed with a preposition are in the category of the nonprepositional part of the compound:Overtake: prep + v. = v.Hanger-on: n. + prep. = n.Uplift: prep. + v. = v.Sit-in: v. +prep. = v.•(3)Though two-word compounds are the most common in English , it would be different to state an upper limit: e.g.Three-time loserFour-dimensional space-timeA middle-income-familyThe one –child-family policyA sentence in Washington post reads:“The air force is bei ng weaned away from the bomb-them-into-the-stone-age-with-the-biggest-fiercest-planes-imaginable-philosophy9. Derivationshow the relation between roots and affixes, e.g. nation, national, nationalize, nationalization, international;•Class-changing:–N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard–N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless–V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant–V>A: acceptable, adorable–A>N: rapidness, rapidity–A>V: deafen, sweeten–Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly•Class-preserving:–N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife–V>V: disobey, unfasten–A>A: grayish, irrelevant10. Conversiona change in the function of a word,e.g a noun is used to be a verb: to dust11. Onomatopoeia•The use of words that sound like the thing that they are describing, like hiss, boom…3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change•Morphological change:–third person singular present tense:-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth >-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds–the campus of the university >the university‟s campus•Syntactical change:–He saw you not. > He d idn‟t see you.–I know not where to hide my head. > I don‟t know where to hide my head.•Fusion/blending:–equally good + just as good > equally as good–It‟s no use getting there before nine + There‟s no use in getting there before nine > There‟s no use getting there before nine.3.3.3 Semantic change•1) Broadening:–holiday: holy day (religion) > day for rest–bird: young bird > any kind–task: tax > work•2) Narrowing:–meat: food >–girl: young person > young woman–deer: beast > a special kind of animal•3) Meaning shift:•bead: prayer > the prayer bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood•4) Class shift: conversion to other word classes–engineer: person trained in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)•5) Folk etymology: a popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase .–history: Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'.–his story > herstory•Fake etymology: a kind of folk etymology–Manhattan: man with hat on–MBA: married but available–PhD: perhaps have divorced–golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Forbidden3.3.4 phonological change•phonological change: refers to changes in sound leading to changes in forms.•Types: (1) loss(2) addition(3) metathesis 换位(4) assimilation 同化•Loss of sound:–loss of sound in fast speech, eg cabinet, laboratory –and > ‟n in connected speech, eg rock-‟n-roll •Addition of sound:–L. studium > O.F. estudie, Sp. estudio, Port. estudo –English: strike > sutoraiki (Jap.) •Metathesis: changing the sequence of sound–O.E. brid > bird, O.E. ox/ax > ask •Assimilation:–impossible, immovable–irregular, irresponsible–illogical, illegal3.3.5 Orthographic change•Change of spelling:–Iesus > Jesus–sate > sat–Sunne > Sun。
英语语言学 第三章
In its technical sense, lexicon is synonymous with lexicology, which is a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the main units of language; in other words, it deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations.
2.2 Types of morphemes
Free morphemes (1) Morphemes Bound morphemes Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves Bound morphemes: morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with
c. word can be used independently: d. word is relatively stable and uninterruptible 1.3 Classification of word a. Variable vs. invariable words Variable words: words that have series of grammatically different forms.
Eg. Follow follows following followed
胡壮麟语言学第三章课件
Chapter 3 Lexicon
15
3.1.3 Classification of words
definitions: word: the minimum free form of a language closed-class: one whose membership is fixed or limited (no new members can be added.) open-class: one whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited (new members can be added.) word class: part of speech
Chapter 3 Lexicon 17
3.1.3 Classification of words Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.
In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term "word", the term LEXEME is postulated（假定）as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language, which appears in different grammatical contexts. For example, "write" and "fat" are the lexemes of the two sets of words in ex. 3-3 respectively.
语言学重点章节介绍
语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
英语语言学Chapter 3 Lexicon
Lexicon
❖ Definition of “word”: word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.
❖ Three senses of “word”:
1) A word is a physical definable unit
2) A word is a common factor underlying a set of forms. (check, checks, checked, checking)
The categories newly introduced:
a. particles(小品词): (1)to (2)not (3)get by, go up, look back, …(The subordinate units in phrasal verbs)
b. auxiliaries(助动词)
4) Word class(词类): Based on Latin tradition, eight or nine words classed are established, such as noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection and article.
3) A word is a grammatical unit. ( Hierarchical rank scale of grammar: sentence, clause, group/phrase, word, morpheme)
语言学胡壮麟第三版第三章笔记
Chapter 3 LexiconⅠWhat is word?1. 3 senses of word1) a physically definable unitWord may be seen as a set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.2)word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as a specific items (boy and boys are two words).3) a grammatical unitThe work rank is located between morpheme and word group.2.Identification of words1)StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.2)relative uninterruptibilityNew elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in a word.3) a minimum free formWord is the smallest unit that can be used by itself.3.Classification of wods1)Variable and invariable wordsVariable words may have inflective changes. The same word may have differentgrammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant.Invariable words refer to those words that do not have inflective endings.2)grammatical words and lexical wordsThose which mainly work for constructing group are grammatical words, such as, conj., prep., art., and pron., are grammatical words also known as function words.Those which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as n., v., adj.and adv., are lexical words, also known as content words.3)closed-class words and open-class wordsThe closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pron., prep., conj., art., and others.The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as n.,v., adj., and many adv..4)word class: particle, auxiliaries, pro-form, determinersⅡThe formation of wordMorpheme: A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning whether it is lexical or grammatical.1.classification of morpheme1)free morpheme: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words bythemselves, are free morpheme.bound morpheme: Those that cannot occur alone, must appear with at last another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes,2)root: Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroyingits meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed.affix: Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.stem: Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3) inflectional affix n. ----s n. ----`sv. ----ed v. ----ing w. ----ed/enadj./adv. ----er adj./adv. ----estderivational affixDifferences:1^ Inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme. However, derivational affixes are vey productive in making new words.2^ Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to, whereas derivational affixes might or might not.3^ Whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on the other factors within the phrase or sentence.4^ Inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. But derivational affixes can both be prefixes and suffixes.2.word formation1)inflection: It indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes; and wheninflectional affixes are added, the grammatical class of the terms (to which they are attached) will not change.2)compound: It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, orthe way to join two separate words to produce a single form. It can be further divided into two kinds, the endocentric compound and the exocentric compound.3.Sememe Vs. Morpheme and Phoneme Vs. Morpheme1)sememe Vs. morpheme1^ one morpheme Vs. one sememe2^ one morpheme Vs. more than one sememe3^ one sememe Vs. more than one morpheme4^ morphemes that have no specific sememe5^ function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change2)morpheme Vs. phoneme1^ a single phoneme Vs. a single morpheme2^ a single morpheme Vs. multiple phoneme3^ allomorph4^ morphemic conditionsⅢLexical change1.lexical change proper1)invention2)blendingBlending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.3)abbreviation4)acronymAcronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5)back-formationBack-formation refers to an usually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.6)analogical creation7)borrowing1^ loanwords2^ loanblend3^ loanshift4^ loan translation2.morpho-syntactical change1)morphological changeThe present section is on the inflectional side, i.e. the form of inflectional affixes.2)syntactical changeEnglish speaker today no longer uses the fifteenth century’s double.3.semantic change1)broadingBroading is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.2)narrowingNarrowing is contrary to broading: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.3)meaning shiftWhat makes the meaning of a word different is its departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage.4)class shift5)folk etymologyIt refers to the change of the form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.4.phonological change1)loss2)addition3)metathesis4)assimilation5. orthographie change。
语言学第三章笔记和习题
Chapter 3 Morphology⏹Lexicon is the collection of all the words of a language. It is synonymous with “vocabulary”.Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words, i.e., the analysis and creation of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in language. The features of wordWord is meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and uninterruptible.⏹Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.⏹The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.⏹Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of linguistics, whereas lexicon is a component of language instead of a branch of linguistics. Open class word and closed class word⏹Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.⏹Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.⏹1-morpheme boy, desire⏹2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble⏹3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity⏹4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity⏹5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness⏹7-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism⏹Morph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may sued theterm.It is the phonetic realization of a morpheme⏹Allomorph: A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs. It is the phonetic variant of amorpheme.⏹Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:⏹map----maps [s]⏹dog----dogs [z]⏹watch----watches [iz]⏹mouse----mice [ai]⏹ox----oxen [n]⏹tooth----teeth⏹sheep----sheep⏹Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.⏹Affix⏹Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.⏹Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morpheme⏹Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.⏹Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.⏹Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.⏹Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to freemorphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.⏹The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be usedindependently in speech or writing.⏹Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes). Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphem e⏹Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.⏹Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) c ase: John/John’s⏹Inflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs,and degree of adjectives and adverbs.⏹Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes◆Bound morphemes●Inflexional●Derivational: affixes⏹Prefixes⏹SuffixesMorphological rules⏹The rules that govern the formation of words, e.g. the “un- + ----” rule.unfair unthinkable unacceptable…⏹Compounding is another way to form new words, e.g.landlady rainbow undertake…◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compounds⏹Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)⏹Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)⏹Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)⏹Preposition compoundsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compounds⏹When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…⏹When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…⏹Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…⏹The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.●Formation of new words1. Inflection: it is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number ofaffixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly,friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termedcomplex derivation.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.pounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns,verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.4. Conversion (invention)◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipping (abbreviations) front, back, front and back◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example,the wordsbus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarely usedin their complete form.6.Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existingwords. For example, smog(smoke + frog), brunch(a meal in the middle of morning, replacing bothbreakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for juniormiddle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).7. Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. Forexample, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed byputting the prefix tele-(far) to the root vision(viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion inEnglish indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and dropit to form the verb televise.8.Acronyms◆Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter byletter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.9.Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, theword sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his foodbetween two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.10.Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a newproduct. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.11.Borrowing: English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by Borrowing words fromother languages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in thisprocess, such as “atom, electricity”from Greek, “cancer, tumour”from Latin, “violin, pizza”from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore”is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is_______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology 33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme 37. root 38. affix39. prefix 40. suffix41. derivation 42. CompoundingV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3 MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can besubdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in th e word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless如有侵权请联系告知删除，感谢你们的配合！。
morphology练习部分答案
Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammaticalwords C. function words D. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB.free C.bound D. derivational3. There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB.four C. five D. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB.suffixes C. infixes D.stems5. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectionalaffix C. infix D.back-formation6. __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB.back-formation C. insertion D. addition7. The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB.clipping C. initialism D. blending8. The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by__________.A. blendingB.clipping C. back-formation D. acronymy9. The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB.agree C. disagree D. disagreement10. All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB.phoneme C. morpheme D. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. Back-formation is a productive way ofword-formations.20. Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with__________.23. Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. All words may be said to contain a root__________.25. A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largestpart of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to__________ class.26. __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. A word formed by derivation is called a__________, and a word formed by compounding is calleda __________.30. Bound morphemes are classified into two types:__________ and __________.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Blending32. Allomorph33. Closed-class word34. Morphological ruleV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?（厦门大学，2003）36. What are the main features of the English compounds?VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN II（武汉大学，2004）I II(1) acronym a. foe(2) freemorpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectionalmorpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. calculati onI.1~5 AACBB 6~10 BCADB II.11~15 FTFTT 16~20 FTFFFIII.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26.back-formation27. conversion 28. morpheme 29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound root IV.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective. V.Omit.VI.37.(1) c (2) a (3) e (4)d (5) b。
语言学教程第三版03Chapter_3_lexicon
Some new terms in word class:
Particle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs ―get by”, ―look back‖, etc. Auxiliary: do, have Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.
2.1 Morphemes
The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:
Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries. Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
free: those that can stand by themselves, eg black+board; nation+-al; or bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive;
《英语语言学》复习要点
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguisticsnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barest definition language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental social and conventional. Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or alternatively as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2.Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement etc.Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds even with onomatopoeic words.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.☺the lower or the basic level---- the sound units or phonemes which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.☺the higher level ----morphemes and words which are meaningfulCreativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined matters in the past present or future or in far away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.Jakobson : In his article Linguistics and Poetics (1960) defined six primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addressee, context,message, code, contact.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. What are the major differences between Saussure’s distinction betwe en langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?According to Saussure,(1) Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation;(2) Langue is not actually spoken by an individual , parole is always a naturally occurring event;(3) Langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation.According to N. Chomsky,Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence; Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It isconcerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language.Phonology aimsto discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication1. Lips2. Teeth3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈4. Hard palate 硬腭5. Soft palate (velum) 软腭6. Uvula 小舌7. Tip of tongue8. Blade of tongue 舌面9. Back of tongue10. V ocal cords 声带11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 12. Nasal cavity 鼻腔2.Phone （音素): the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. / / = phoneme [ ] = phone { } = set of allophonesIPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet .Minimal pairs 最小对立体Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.e.g. a minimal pair: pat -fat; lit-lip; phone-toneminimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etcplementary distribution 互补分布Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.If they are two distinctive phonemes, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit];If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic contextSuprasegmental features 超音段特征—features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress （重音），length（音程）, rhythm （节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）及juncture（音渡）．Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology1. Word1.1 Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause orblank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit1.2 Identification of wordsSome factors can help us identify words:(1) Stability(2) Relative uninterruptibility(3) A minimum free form1.3 The classification of wordWords can be classified in terms of:(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词)The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article. the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)The traditionally recognized word classes are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. More word classes have been introduced into grammar: particles 小品词/语助词(go by, look for, come up);auxiliaries 助词(can, be, will);pro-form 替代词(do, so);determiners 前置词/ 限定词(all, every, few, plenty of, this).2. The formation of word2.1 Morphology 形态学Definition：Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The two fields (p64)Inflectional morphology: the study of inflectionsDerivational morphology: the study of word-formation3. Lexical change3.1 Lexical change proper（词本身的变化）Invention 新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation 缩合词Acronym首字母缩略词back-formation 逆构词analogical creation 类比造词Borrowing 借词、外来词definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2) Terminology 术语解释Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.Chapter 4 Syntax From Word to TextSyntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voicethree kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordinationCoordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can beexpressed by more than one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus.Chapter 6 Language and cognition1.What is Cognition?In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual with particular relation to a view that argues that the ming has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing.Another denefition is mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.2.Cognitive LinguisticsCognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.3.What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2. Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3. A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4. In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy thecomparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of character of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphor is actually a cognitive tool that helps us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.2.Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity with the use of language.Language acquisition (1) Holophrastic stage（单词句阶段）–Language’s sound patterns–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.2) Two-word stage: around 18m3) Three-word-utterance stage4) Fluent grammatical conversation stageChapter 7 Language, culture and society1.the relationship between language and thought?Generally, the relation of L to C is that of part to whole, for L is part of C.The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in L.There exists a close relationship between language and culture. This is evidenced by the findings of anthropologists such as Malinowski, Firth, Baos, Sapir and Whorf. The study of the relation between language and the context in which it is used is the cultural study of language.2.What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structural differentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Chapter 8 Language in usePragmatics: The study of language in use and the study of meaning in context, as well as the study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning& contextual meaning..What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Use one or two examples to discuss the violation of its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. CP is meant to describe whatactually happens in conversation. People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated. Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?Semantics and pragmatics are both linguistic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is, the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics.Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The former regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; The latter analyses utterances in close connection with their contexts of situation.2. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答： Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and he arer must take the context into their consideration so as to affect the right meaning and intention. T he development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expan sion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major diff erence between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics st udies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does n ot. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims give rise to conversational implicature?答： Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the ac cepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) . ② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation Be relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression. ② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.Chapter 9 Language and literature1.What is ‘foregrounding’?In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elementsare to be understood by the listener / reader.In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence;-specific devices (as produced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.Literal language and figurative language-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.Chapter 11 LinguisticsApplied linguistics: is the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of the ways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching. Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all Possible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without being taught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be. Syllabus: a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. Interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.contrastive analysis: A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easyto learn and what will be difficult. Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism. the Input Hypothesis: according to krashen's input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguisticsTransformational-Generative GrammarThe five stages of development of TG Grammar:1) The classical theory (1957)2) The standard theory (1965)3) Extended standard theory4) GB/PP theory (1981)5) The Minimalist ProgramInnateness hypothesis: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device(LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.CHOMSKY’S TG GRAMMAR DIFFERS FROM THE STRUCTURAL GRAMMARIN A NUMBER OF WAYS1. Rationalism2. innateness 3 deductive methodology4 emphasis on interpretation 5formalization 6.emphasis on linguistic competence 7. strong generative powers 8.emphasis on linguistic universals。
语言学chapter three partI
Part One
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
Teaching aim Introduce to the students the senses, identification and classification of words, the types of morphemes in English.
Generally
What is word?
A unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.
A set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks. Three senses Both as a general term and as a specific term. A grammatical unit between morpheme and word group in the hierarchical scale of language.
Negation; inversion; code; emphasis
Pro-adjective
Pro-verb
Pro-form
Pro-adverb
Pro-locative
determiners
Chapter 3 Lexicon
Part One
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
All; both
FOREIGN LANGUAGES COLLEGE
语言学教程Chapter 3. Lexicon
2) grammatical words and lexical words
• grammatical words : words mainly working for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. • lexical words: words mainly working for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. • Lexical words carry the main content of a language while grammatical ones serve to link together different content parts. • Lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones as function words.
3.2.1 morpheme and morphology
• Definition of morpheme • Definition or morphology
3.2.2 types of morphemes
• (1) free morpheme and bound morpheme • Free morphemes: they can make up words by themselves. All mono-morphemic words ( words consisting of only one morpheme) are free morphemes. • Some poly-morphemic words are made up of two free morphemes, so they are free morphemes, too. Such poly-morphemic words are called compounds. • Morphemes which must appear with at least another morpheme are named as bound morphemes.
语言学lexicon
What is word?
• 3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
3. A grammatical unit
语法单位
clause complex
clause
phrase/ word group
word
morpheme
What is word?
• 3.1.2 Identification of words 1.Stability稳定性 Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in
What is word?
• 3.1.1 Three senses of “word” 2. General term & specific term
既是普通术语又是专门术语 Write-writes-wrote-writing-written 5 words (specific term) 1 word (general term)
What is word?
• 3. A minimum free form 最小的自由形式 Leonard Bloomfield. sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form.” “Help！”
What is word?
What is word?
• 2. Relative uninterruptibility相对连续性 disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. 词的各个成分之间不可介入新的成分， 也不可有停顿，但句子不同：
(Even) Paul (even) didn’t (even) love (even) Jane (even).
语言学--3.Lexicon
语言学教程（第三版）
Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology
1
黄石理工学院
外国语学院《语言学教程》
李金妹制作
Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology
Teaching objectives: let the students have a brief knowledge about morphemes and the basic word-formation methods Teaching Focus: definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methods Time Allocation: Morpheme 30 minutes Word formation 30 minutes Teaching Methods & Strategies: teacher presentation and class discussion
9
Linguistics
Made by LI Jinmei
(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词) • The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns （代词）; • the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..
语言学 chapter 3 总结
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is Word?As different criteria may identity and define different phenomena, it is hard to define “word” scientifically. However, it is agreed that there are three ways of defining “word”, though they can’t cover everything.3.11 Three Senses of “WORD”reference:指称论（the relationship between symbols and the things in outside world that refers to）Sense:词与词的关系（use other words to explain a word, just as we look up the dictionary to find the meaning of a word）(1)A physical definable unitLanguage is produced as a continuous stretch of speech or writing, but one can still pauses and blanks every now and then. Thus, word maybe seen asa set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.For example: It is wonderful.Phonological: /it is wandәful/O rthographic: it’s wonderful(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as specific terms ( boys and boy are two words). For example:Write/writes/wtote/writing/written(3) A grammatical unitThe grammar of a language contains a set of layers, and word is one of them. ( rank-----hierarchical scale 等级)Clause complex---clause---phrase/ word group---word---morpheme 3.1.2 Identification of words(1) Stability:A word can’t be rearranged, but a se ntence can.Word: nothingness **nessnothing(F)Sentence: a. John is a clever boyb. A clever boy John is(2) Relative uninterruptibility:A word can’t be separates or insertedwith other elements, but a sentence can.Word: disappointment *dis(#)appoint(#)mentSentence: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.(3) A minimum free form: Word is the smallest unit that can be used, byitself, as a complete utterance.Expression: ---Is Jane coming this evening?--- PossiblyException: ----what is missing in a sentence such as ”Dog isbarking ”----- A3.1.3 Classification of Word(1) Variable and invariable wordsWord including①variable words (having inflective changes. E.g.follow/follows/followed/following)②invariable words (not having inflective changes.E.g. since, when, hello)(2) Grammatical words(虚词) and lexical words（实词）①Grammatical words, known as FOUNCTION WORDS, mainly workfor constructing group, phrase, clause, clause, complex clause, such asconj., prep, articles, pron..②Lexical words, known as CONTENT WORDS, mainly work forreferring to substance, action and quality, such as noun, verb, adj., adv.(3) Closed- class and opened-class words①Closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited, thiskind of words can’t easily odd or deduce a new member. such aspronouns, prep, articles and others.②Opened-class word is one whose membership is in principle orunlimited. As noun, verb, adjective, adv.③exception: auxiliary verbs some preposition(regarding, by means of)(4) Word class⑴9 word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,conjunction, interjection, and article.⑵other word classes:①Particles(小品词，语助词): e.g. infinite marker “to”; negative marker “not”②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has, seems③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(so is mine); pro-v(did);pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)④Determiners(限定词)：a. Pre-determiners: all, both, half, twiceb. Central-determiners: this, those, every, no, either, yourc. Post-determiners: cardinal numerals(基数)，ordinal numerals(序数)，general ordinals(next, last, other, several, little, a great deal of)3.2 The Formation of Word3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology①Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.②Morphology is the study of morpheme and a branch of linguistics. Itstudies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.3.2.2 Types of Morphemes(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme①Free morpheme can make up words by itself.(dog, nation)②Bound morpheme must appear with at least another morpheme. (-dis,-ed)(2) Root, affix, and stem①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyedwithout destroying its meaning(NOTICES: a. Root can be free morpheme or bound morpheme.b. I t can be bound morpheme, such as –ceive inconceive and perceive; -mit in commit and permit.c. I t can be both free morpheme and bound morpheme.Child and child- in children))②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), including prefix(para-, mini-, un-,) , suffix(-ise, -tion),infix(abso-bloomingly-lutely)③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. For example:a.friend- in friends shows that a stem may be the same as a rootb.friendship- in friendships indicates that a stem may contain a rootand one, or more than one, derivational affix.3) Inflective affix and derivational affixThe differences between inflective affix and derivational affix:①.inflective affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes;②.inflective affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,while derivational affixes often change the lexical lexical meaning;③.inflective affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final(e.g.-s). But derivational affixes can both be prefixes(e.g. sub-, de-) andsuffixes(e.g. -er, -able )3.2.3 Inflection and word formationTo be more specific, there are two fields that morphology is concerned with: (ⅰ).The study of inflections( also called as INFLECTIONA MORPHOLOGY);(ⅱ). The study of word formation( often referred to as LEICAL or DERIV ATIONAL MORPHONOLOGY)⑴INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations by addinginflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect andcase; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical classof the stem(to which they are attached) will not change. Forexample,(a)number: table/tables(b)person: finiteness and aspect;open/opens/opening/opened(c)case: boy/boy’s⑵Word formationWord-formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how words are formed.Two sub-types: a. the compositional type(COMPOUND)b. the derivational type(DEROV ATION)ⅰ、Compound⑴(a)NOUN COMPOUNDS(构成词是名词)e.g. day+brea k→daybreak(b)VERB COMPOUNDS（构成词是动词）e.g. lip+rea d→lipread(c)ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS(构成词是形容词)e.g. dut y+free→dutyfree(b)PREPOSITION COMPOUNDS（构成词是介词）e.g. in+t o→into⑵two kinds of compound: (a)endocentric compound(self-control)(b)exocentric compound(breakthrough)⑶the ways of written(a) as a single word(wardrobe, birdseed, bodyguard)(b)joined with a hyphen”-”(rest-room, wedding-ring)(c)with ordinary space between two words(washingmachine)ⅱDerivationDerivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes, and make the word class of the original word either changed (length--lengthen)or unchanged (non+smoker=nonsmoker)3.2.4 Sememe & Morpheme and Phoneme & Morpheme⑴Sememe vs. morphemeSememe is the smallest component of meaning, while morpheme is smallest unit of meaning①one morpheme vs. one sememe②one morpheme vs. more than one sememe③one sememe vs. more than one morpheme④morphemes that have no specific sememe⑤function changes in both sememe and moepheme without morphemechange⑵Morpheme vs. phoneme①a single phoneme vs. a single morpheme②a single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme③allomorph④morphemic conditionsa. phonological conditionedb. morphonologically conditioned3.3 Lexical Change3.3.1 Lexical change proper⑴Invention: Coke, Nylon, granola⑵Blending: transfer(initial)+resister(final)=transistor. digital(initial)+computer(initial)=digicomAnother sort of blending is called FUSION, such as rippe(ripple+shuffle), stample(trample+stample), and spinwheels(pinwheel+spin)(3) Abbreviatiom(also called CLIPPING)缩写词e.g. advertisemen t→adbicylc e→bike(4) Acronym(缩略词)e.g. CI A→Central Intelligence Agency(5) Back-formation: editor---edit(6) Analogical creation: work→wrough t→worked; sla y→sle w→slayed(7)Borrowing: a Loanwords: borrow both form and meaning(au pair fromFrench);b .Loanblend: borrow the meaning, the form isblended(china-town);c Loanshift: meaning is borrowed and the form isnative(bridge); loan translation(翻译借词):：black humor 3.3.2 Morph-Syntactical Change(词素句法变化)(1) Morphological change: third person; plural form, possessive case(2) Syntactical changes:--Split infinitive:e.g.. I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it--Postponed Preposition:e.g.The person is impossible to work with--Objective case of relative pronoune.g. The girl who(m) he talked about is a violinist3.3.3 Semantic change(1) Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from itsoriginally specific sense to a relatively general one.e.g. “holiday”→”holy day” in religious Englis h→”a day for rest”(2) Narrowing is contrary to broadening: the original meaning of a word canbe narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.e.g. meat→“food”→the edible flesh of mammals.(3) Meaning shift here understood in its narrow sense, that is, the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.e.g. “bead”→“the prayer bead”→“small, ball-shaped piece of glass,metal or wood”(4) class shift: By changing the word class one can change the meaning of aword from a concrete or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as ZERO-DERIV ATION, or CONVERSIONe.g. hog→N(a pig)→V(to take and keep (all of something) foroneself )(5) folk stymology(民俗词源学) refers to the change of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.e.g. Spanish cucaracha changed into English cokroach3.3.4 Phonological change(1) loss(省音)：temperature /’tempәrәt ә/----/’temprәt /(2) Addition(增音)：a(n) article(3) Metathesis(换位)：is a process involving a change in the sequence ofsound.e.g. They taxed him with his failures. (accused)They took him to task for his failures. ( scolded)(4) Assimilation: 同化cap----can3.3.5 Orthographic changea. The same day went Iesus(sun)out of the house, and sate by theseaside.b. And when the Sunne (sun) was up, they were scorched。
语言学 chapter 3 总结
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is Word?As different criteria may identity and define different phenomena, it is hard to define “word” scientifically. However, it is agreed that there are three ways of defining “word”, though they can’t cover everything.3.11 Three Senses of “WORD”reference:指称论（the relationship between symbols and the things in outside world that refers to）Sense:词与词的关系（use other words to explain a word, just as we look up the dictionary to find the meaning of a word）(1)A physical definable unitLanguage is produced as a continuous stretch of speech or writing, but one can still pauses and blanks every now and then. Thus, word maybe seen asa set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.For example: It is wonderful.Phonological: /it is wandәful/O rthographic: it’s wonderful(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as specific terms ( boys and boy are two words). For example:Write/writes/wtote/writing/written(3) A grammatical unitThe grammar of a language contains a set of layers, and word is one of them. ( rank-----hierarchical scale 等级)Clause complex---clause---phrase/ word group---word---morpheme 3.1.2 Identification of words(1) Stability:A word can’t be rearranged, but a se ntence can.Word: nothingness **nessnothing(F)Sentence: a. John is a clever boyb. A clever boy John is(2) Relative uninterruptibility:A word can’t be separates or insertedwith other elements, but a sentence can.Word: disappointment *dis(#)appoint(#)mentSentence: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.(3) A minimum free form: Word is the smallest unit that can be used, byitself, as a complete utterance.Expression: ---Is Jane coming this evening?--- PossiblyException: ----what is missing in a sentence such as ”Dog isbarking ”----- A3.1.3 Classification of Word(1) Variable and invariable wordsWord including①variable words (having inflective changes. E.g.follow/follows/followed/following)②invariable words (not having inflective changes.E.g. since, when, hello)(2) Grammatical words(虚词) and lexical words（实词）①Grammatical words, known as FOUNCTION WORDS, mainly workfor constructing group, phrase, clause, clause, complex clause, such asconj., prep, articles, pron..②Lexical words, known as CONTENT WORDS, mainly work forreferring to substance, action and quality, such as noun, verb, adj., adv.(3) Closed- class and opened-class words①Closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited, thiskind of words can’t easily odd or deduce a new member. such aspronouns, prep, articles and others.②Opened-class word is one whose membership is in principle orunlimited. As noun, verb, adjective, adv.③exception: auxiliary verbs some preposition(regarding, by means of)(4) Word class⑴9 word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,conjunction, interjection, and article.⑵other word classes:①Particles(小品词，语助词): e.g. infinite marker “to”; negative marker “not”②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has, seems③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(so is mine); pro-v(did);pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)④Determiners(限定词)：a. Pre-determiners: all, both, half, twiceb. Central-determiners: this, those, every, no, either, yourc. Post-determiners: cardinal numerals(基数)，ordinal numerals(序数)，general ordinals(next, last, other, several, little, a great deal of)3.2 The Formation of Word3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology①Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.②Morphology is the study of morpheme and a branch of linguistics. Itstudies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.3.2.2 Types of Morphemes(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme①Free morpheme can make up words by itself.(dog, nation)②Bound morpheme must appear with at least another morpheme. (-dis,-ed)(2) Root, affix, and stem①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyedwithout destroying its meaning(NOTICES: a. Root can be free morpheme or bound morpheme.b. I t can be bound morpheme, such as –ceive inconceive and perceive; -mit in commit and permit.c. I t can be both free morpheme and bound morpheme.Child and child- in children))②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), including prefix(para-, mini-, un-,) , suffix(-ise, -tion),infix(abso-bloomingly-lutely)③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. For example:a.friend- in friends shows that a stem may be the same as a rootb.friendship- in friendships indicates that a stem may contain a rootand one, or more than one, derivational affix.3) Inflective affix and derivational affixThe differences between inflective affix and derivational affix:①.inflective affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes;②.inflective affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,while derivational affixes often change the lexical lexical meaning;③.inflective affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final(e.g.-s). But derivational affixes can both be prefixes(e.g. sub-, de-) andsuffixes(e.g. -er, -able )3.2.3 Inflection and word formationTo be more specific, there are two fields that morphology is concerned with: (ⅰ).The study of inflections( also called as INFLECTIONA MORPHOLOGY);(ⅱ). The study of word formation( often referred to as LEICAL or DERIV ATIONAL MORPHONOLOGY)⑴INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations by addinginflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect andcase; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical classof the stem(to which they are attached) will not change. Forexample,(a)number: table/tables(b)person: finiteness and aspect;open/opens/opening/opened(c)case: boy/boy’s⑵Word formationWord-formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how words are formed.Two sub-types: a. the compositional type(COMPOUND)b. the derivational type(DEROV ATION)ⅰ、Compound⑴(a)NOUN COMPOUNDS(构成词是名词)e.g. day+brea k→daybreak(b)VERB COMPOUNDS（构成词是动词）e.g. lip+rea d→lipread(c)ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS(构成词是形容词)e.g. dut y+free→dutyfree(b)PREPOSITION COMPOUNDS（构成词是介词）e.g. in+t o→into⑵two kinds of compound: (a)endocentric compound(self-control)(b)exocentric compound(breakthrough)⑶the ways of written(a) as a single word(wardrobe, birdseed, bodyguard)(b)joined with a hyphen”-”(rest-room, wedding-ring)(c)with ordinary space between two words(washingmachine)ⅱDerivationDerivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes, and make the word class of the original word either changed (length--lengthen)or unchanged (non+smoker=nonsmoker)3.2.4 Sememe & Morpheme and Phoneme & Morpheme⑴Sememe vs. morphemeSememe is the smallest component of meaning, while morpheme is smallest unit of meaning①one morpheme vs. one sememe②one morpheme vs. more than one sememe③one sememe vs. more than one morpheme④morphemes that have no specific sememe⑤function changes in both sememe and moepheme without morphemechange⑵Morpheme vs. phoneme①a single phoneme vs. a single morpheme②a single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme③allomorph④morphemic conditionsa. phonological conditionedb. morphonologically conditioned3.3 Lexical Change3.3.1 Lexical change proper⑴Invention: Coke, Nylon, granola⑵Blending: transfer(initial)+resister(final)=transistor. digital(initial)+computer(initial)=digicomAnother sort of blending is called FUSION, such as rippe(ripple+shuffle), stample(trample+stample), and spinwheels(pinwheel+spin)(3) Abbreviatiom(also called CLIPPING)缩写词e.g. advertisemen t→adbicylc e→bike(4) Acronym(缩略词)e.g. CI A→Central Intelligence Agency(5) Back-formation: editor---edit(6) Analogical creation: work→wrough t→worked; sla y→sle w→slayed(7)Borrowing: a Loanwords: borrow both form and meaning(au pair fromFrench);b .Loanblend: borrow the meaning, the form isblended(china-town);c Loanshift: meaning is borrowed and the form isnative(bridge); loan translation(翻译借词):：black humor 3.3.2 Morph-Syntactical Change(词素句法变化)(1) Morphological change: third person; plural form, possessive case(2) Syntactical changes:--Split infinitive:e.g.. I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it--Postponed Preposition:e.g.The person is impossible to work with--Objective case of relative pronoune.g. The girl who(m) he talked about is a violinist3.3.3 Semantic change(1) Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from itsoriginally specific sense to a relatively general one.e.g. “holiday”→”holy day” in religious Englis h→”a day for rest”(2) Narrowing is contrary to broadening: the original meaning of a word canbe narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.e.g. meat→“food”→the edible flesh of mammals.(3) Meaning shift here understood in its narrow sense, that is, the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.e.g. “bead”→“the prayer bead”→“small, ball-shaped piece of glass,metal or wood”(4) class shift: By changing the word class one can change the meaning of aword from a concrete or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as ZERO-DERIV ATION, or CONVERSIONe.g. hog→N(a pig)→V(to take and keep (all of something) foroneself )(5) folk stymology(民俗词源学) refers to the change of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.e.g. Spanish cucaracha changed into English cokroach3.3.4 Phonological change(1) loss(省音)：temperature /’tempәrәt ә/----/’temprәt /(2) Addition(增音)：a(n) article(3) Metathesis(换位)：is a process involving a change in the sequence ofsound.e.g. They taxed him with his failures. (accused)They took him to task for his failures. ( scolded)(4) Assimilation: 同化cap----can3.3.5 Orthographic changea. The same day went Iesus(sun)out of the house, and sate by theseaside.b. And when the Sunne (sun) was up, they were scorched。
语言学chapter3课后答案
语⾔学chapter3课后答案Chapter 3Revision exercises reference1.Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. micro + film e. tele + com + muni + cat + ionb. be + draggle + d f. fore + fatherc. announce + ment g. psycho + physicsd. pre + digest + ion h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.suffix: -mentmeaning: added to some verbs to form nouns that refer to actions, processes, or statesstem type: added to verbsexample: statement, “something you say or write, especially publicly or officially, to let people know your intentions or opinions, or to record facts” enjoyment, “the feeling of pleasure you get from having or doing something, or something you enjoy doing”suffix: -nessmeaning: added to adjectives to form nouns which often refer to a state or quality stem type: added to adjective example: happiness, “the state of being happy”Kindness, “kind behavior towards someone”suffix: -shipmeaning: added to some nouns to form nouns which often denote a state, status, or skillsstem type: added to nounsexample: friendship, “a relationship between friends”readership, “all the people who read a particular newspaper ormagazine regularly”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify thetypes of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.in-: when added to adjectives, it means not; when added to nouns, it means without, lack of; it can also be spelt as il- before l, im- before b, m, p, and ir- before r. e.g.inability inaccuracy inaction inconsistencyinconvenience indeterminacy indiscretion inequityinhuman inapt infrequent infiniteingenuous infiltrate inhospitable immuneimmortal imperceptible imperfectde-: This prefix can form verbs and their derivatives meaning down, away; when added to the verb and their derivatives, it denotes removal or reversal. e.g.decaf decipher decolour descenddebase deform defrost defocusdegrade debrief debug deactivatedehydrate defoliate delimit dematerialize re-: This prefix means 1) once more, afresh, anew as in the world reaccustom; 2) returning to a previous state as in restore; or 3) in return, mutually as in react etc.E.g.recap reanimate rearm reassemblereassessing reattach reapply reappear Note: There is an exception to the rule when the word to which re- attaches begins with e. In this case a hyphen is often inserted for clarity, e.g. re-examine, re-enter, re-enact. A hyphen is sometimes also used where the world formed with the prefix would be identical to an already existing words, e.g. re-cover (meaning cover again), nor recover (meaning getting better in health).4.The Italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectionalmorpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.●Sue moves in high-society circles in London.-s, third person singular, present simple tense● A traffic warden asked John to move his car.-ed, past tense●The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.has -ed, present perfect●The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.are + v-ing, present continuous (plural).5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a)go, goes, going, gone (inflection)●go, the root form●go + -es, present participle●go + -ing, present participle●gone, past participleb)discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverability (derivation)●dis-, prefix ( added to the nouns to form verbs) meaning reversal●-y, suffix (added after the verbs form nouns) denoting a state or an actionor its result●-er, a noun suffix added to the verbs, meaning a person or thing thatperforms a specified action or activity●-able, an adjective suffix added to the verbs meaning able to be●-ability, a noun suffix, or a derivative suffix of -able. It can also spell as-ibility, meaning having the quality as in manageability (可处理性) and suitability (适合性).c)inventor, inventor`s, inventors, inventors` (a mixture of inflection or derivation)●derivation: invent + -or●inflection: inventor`s, inventors`, `s indicating possessive cased)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize (derivation)●-cy, added to the nouns ending with t to form another noun denoting astate governed in such a way●-ic, an adjective suffix, added to the nouns to form adjectives meaningrelated to or in resemblance with...●-ize, a suffix added to the nouns to form verbs denoting the conversion,or transforming.6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a)b)c)d)e)The strongest rower continued.f)g)h)Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.2.Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.3.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.4.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.5.Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.6.Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:7.M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.8.The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.9.D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.10.C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words tocreate new words.11.The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form anew word are called m___________ rules.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:12.The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme13.The compound word “bookstore” is the place wh ere books are sold. Thisindicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.14.The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part ofspeech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.15._______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combinedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words16.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semanticIV. Answer the following question(s):17.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.。
英语语言学语言学第三章录课教案
References:
1．胡壮麟.《语言学教程》上海外语教育出版社（2014年第四版修订版）
2.戴炜栋何兆雄主编：《新编简明英语语言学教程》上海外语教育出版社（2002年修订版）
3.Bloomfield,L. 1933 language. Holt and Winston Press
Word is the common factor underling a set of forma, a unit of vocabulary, a lexical item, or a lexeme.
What is lexeme?Lexeme is an abstract unit which refers to the smallest semantic unit that can be distinguished from other smaller units.
（3）Inflectional affix and derivational affix(Inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes)
Inflectional affixesdo not change the word class of the word they attach to
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Chapter 3 Lexicon
3.1 what is word
Word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. A word is the unity of sound, form and meaning.
英语语言学Chapter3
英语语言学Chapter3Chapter3Ⅱ.Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M is the smallest meaningful unit of language. (Morpheme)12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g meaning.13. B morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d affixes.15. D affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. As can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.21. Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the of words and the by which words are formed.22. Morphology can be subdivided into two branches: morphology andor morphology.23. The phonological and orthographical realizations of a morpheme are termed .24. [-t]、[-d]、[-id] are of the morpheme {-ed}.25. “Careless” is the of the word “carelessness”.26. “Gentle” is the of the word “gentlemanliness”.27. A morpheme can convey two kinds of meanings: meaning andmeaning.28. affixes, ffixes, and roots are all bound morphemes.29. Compared with a free phrase, a compound has differentfeatures.30. The allomorphs [-s] and [-iz] of the morpheme {plural} indicates the applications of therule and rule.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound__________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of__________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes28. _______ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root31. Morphology is the study of _______.A. the internal structure of words and the rules that govern their formationB. the uses of different types of utterances in different contextsC. the differences between sounds used inhuman languages and sounds in natureD. the rules that pertain to all languages throughout the world32. Which of the following does NOT belong to “open c lass words”?A. NounsB. AdjectivesC. ConjunctionsD. Adverbs33. What is the minimal unit of meaning?A. PhonemeB. MorphemeC. AllophoneD. Allomorph34. There are ______ morphemes in the word “undesirableity”.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six35. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?A. RainbowB. InactionC. Icy-coldD. Unpleasant36. ______ are bound morphemes because they cannot be used a separate words.A. RootsB. StemsC. AffixesD. Compounds37. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because they ______.A. are complex wordsB. are technical wordsC. refer to the commonest things in lifeD. denote the most important concepts38. All the following words contain the inflectional affixes except _______.A. caresB. carefulC. fasterD. books39. The word “irresistible” is _______.A. a compound oneB. a clipped oneC. a blended oneD. a derived one40. Which of the following is not a free morpheme?A. bedB. treeC. danceD. children41. Which of the following affix differs from others?A. –lyB. –nessC. –ingD. –ful42. Of the following word-formation processes,_______ is the most productive.A. clippingB. blendingC. initialismD. derivation43. Morpheme that can occur “unattached” are called ______.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivational morphemes44. The word “motherboard” is _______.A. a clipped oneB. a blended oneC. a compound oneD. an acronym45. The word “kung-fu” is _______.A. a clipped oneB. a blended oneC. a compound oneD. a borrowed one。
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ClosedClosed-class vs. Open-class Words: OpenClosedClosed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries. auxiliaries. OpenOpen-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. adverbs.
Phonological: Orthographic: It is wonderful. Three words are recognized.
However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes:
Phonological: Orthographic: It’s wonderful. It’ Are they two words or three?
Pre all all
Central her her her
Post many many
Modifier Noun
many all what a the one a few both my father’s
good good good good good good good good
ideas ideas ideas ideas ideas ideas idea idea ideas parents
Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, friend+- write+possibility+possibility+-es. Inflection: grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc. Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, eg friend+-ly > friend+friendly.
Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-third, onethreethree-quarters …; double, twice, three times …; such, what (exclamative) Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; PossP; we, us; you; which, what (relative), what (interrogative); a, another,
*their all trouble *five the all boys *all this boy *all both girls
2. Morphology
Morphology: the study of word-formation, or wordthe internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components – morphemes. morphemes.
2.2 Types of morphemes
Free vs. Bound morphemes:
Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-. dis- un-
Some new terms in word class:
Particle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc. Auxiliary: do, have Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.
Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into
prefix (dis-, un-) and dissuffix (-en, -ify).
A grammatical unit: unit: sentence clause phrase word morpheme Problem: blackboard
1.2 Identification of words
Stability: stable linguistic units.
chairman, but not *manchair
ProPro-forms: substitutes for other terms.
Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone ProPro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his. ProPro-verb: He speaks English better than he did. ProPro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too. ProPro-locative: He went there.
Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness. Roots may be
free: those that can stand by themselves, eg black+board; nation+-al; or nation+bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.
—Is Jane coming tonight? —Possibly. Hi. Wonderful.
1.3 Classification of words
Variable vs. Invariable Words:
Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.
Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.
As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.
Base: a morpheme tog
friend friendly unfriendly unfriendliness
root > base root/base + suffix > base prefix + base > base base + suffix > base?
A set of forms: walk, walks, walking, walked How many words are there?
I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven.
How many times did the word “have” occur?
Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:
Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns. Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
Relative uninterruptibility: though we recognize three components in the word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between, as in *disinterestappointment.
Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.
Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.
Chapter Three Lexicon
1. What is word?
A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. – A vague definition.