文体学复习资料
实用文体写作知识总复习
《实用文体写作知识》总复习一、填空〔每空一分，共18分〕1、按照行文关系和行文方向的不同，可将公文分为、和三种。
2、按其内容和功用的不同，可将常用的通知分为以下几种：〔1〕性通知；〔2〕性通知；〔3〕性通知；〔4〕性通知。
3、报告和请示的区别主要表达为：〔1〕不同；〔2〕不同；〔3〕不同。
4、消息的开头部分通常被称作。
5、与是民事起诉状的核心内容。
6、书信的内文主要包括、、、和等几个部分。
7、函的种类8、经济活动分析报告的正文一般要写入、、、等几部分内容。
9、合同的特点〔1〕；〔2〕；〔3〕；〔4〕。
10、民事起诉状通常由、、几部分组成。
11、主旨、材料、结构和语言是一切文章的构成要素12、按照行文关系和行文方向的不同，可将公分分为上行文、下行文、平行文三种13、公布社会各有关方面应当遵守或者周知的事项，要用通告；批转下级机关的公文、转发上级机关和不相隶属机关的公文，传达要求下级机关办理和需要有关单位周知或者执行的事项，任免人员，要用通知；表彰现金，批评错误，转达重要精神或者情况，要用通报。
14、从不同的角度，可将总结划分为不同的类型，比较常用的分类方法是按其性质和内容和不同，将总结分为综合性总结和专题性总结两类15、经济活动分析报告的功能主要包括：〔1〕诊断功能；〔2〕建议功能；〔3〕反馈功能；〔4〕预测功能。
16、事实与理由是民事起诉状的核心内容17、向上级机关汇报工作，反映情况，答复上级机关的询问，要有；向上级机关请求指示、批准，要用。
18、会议纪要的两大特点是：〔1〕性；〔2〕性。
19、常见的规章制度有：、、、和守则等。
20、经济活动分析报告的作用主要包括：〔1〕功能；〔2〕功能；〔3〕功能；〔4〕功能。
21、民事起诉状通常是由、和三个部分组成。
22、启事的种类很多，按其用途和内容的不同，可将启事分为三类：一是类启事；二是类启事；三是类启事。
和等几个部分。
二、名词解释〔每个4 分，共12分〕1、条例是对某一方面的工作或某一重大事项的处理方式即某一组织的宗旨、任务及其成员的职责权限等作出规定的指令性文书。
文体学复习材料汇总
文体学复习材料汇总Part 1 Stylistics: Definitions―Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of Style.―Simply defined, Stylistics is a discipline that studies the ways in which language is used: it is a discipline that studies the styles of language in use.‖―The stylistics we are discussing here is Modern Stylistics, a discipline that applies concepts and techniques of modern linguistics to the study of styles of language use.‖General stylistics concentrates solely on the general features of various types of language use. It studies the stylistic features of the main varieties of language, covering the functional varieties from the dimension of fields of discourse (different social activities), formal vs informal varieties from the dimension of tenors of discourse (different addresser-addressee relationships), and the spoken vs written varieties from the dimension of modes of discourse (different mediums). ?Meanwhile, general stylistics covers the various genres of literature (fiction, drama, poetry) in its study. But it focuses on the interpretation of the overall characteristics of respective genres, with selected extracts of literary texts as samples. Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature. （考点）Part 2: Views on Language/doc/7411926710.html,nguage as a social activity. Language is also a social phenomenon, or institution, whereby people communicate and interact with each other.2.The philosophical view of Language or A language is related to the actual occurrence of language in society –what are called language activities. All utterances (whether a word, a sentence, or several sentences) can be thought of as goal-directed actions. (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969) Such actions as carried out through language are Speech Acts. Social activities in which language (either spoken or written) plays an important role such as conversation, discussion, lecture, etc., are Speech Events.‖/doc/7411926710.html,nguage is often compared to a Code, a system of signals or symbols used for sending a Message, a piece of information. In any act of verbal communication (both spoken and written, primarily spoken), language has been regarded as a system for translating meanings in the Addresser‘s (the speaker‘s / writer‘s) mind into sounds / letters, i.e., Encoding (meaning-to-sound/letter), or conversely, for translating sounds/letters into meanings in the Addressee‘s (the hear‘s / reader‘s mind, ie Decoding.(sound / letter-to-meaning), with lexis and grammar as the formal code mediating between meanin g and sound / letter.‖―But we must keep in mind that, unlike other signaling codes, language code does not operate in a fixed way – it is open-ended in that it permits generation of new meanings and new forms (such as metaphorical meanings, and neologisms); ie it is in a way creatively extendibl e.‖―Text, then, is verbal communication (either spoken or written) seen as a message coded in a linear pattern of sound waves, or in a linear sequence of visible marks on paper.‖Part 3: Text―A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length,that forms a unified whole. It may be the product of a single speaker/writer (e.g. a sign, a letter, a news report, a statute, a novel), or that of several speakers (e.g. a piece of conversation, a debate).‖A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not. The connection among parts of a text is achieved by various cohesive devices, and by semantic and pragmatic implication.‖材料Examine the following conversation, find out whether linguistic units in it are overtly cohesive or not.A: See who that is. B: I‘m in pyjamas. A: OK.Linguistic units in the conversation are not overtly cohesive. In this text, the relevance of B‘s remar k to A‘s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. ―I‘m in pyjamas‖ implies an excuse for not complying with A‘s command (= ―No, I can‘t, because I‘m in pyjamas.‖) A‘s second remark implies that he accepts B‘s excuse and undertakes to do himself w hat he originally asked B to do (= OK. I‘ll go myself and see.‖ Texts are therefore recognized as appropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.Part 4: Aspects of the Speech Event―Language is transmitted, patterned, and embedded in the human social experience. So it is both possible and useful to discern three crucial aspects of a speech event: the substantial, the formal, and the situational.‖Contextual factors that are socially, regionally or situa-tionally relevant to the production and interpretation of texts fall into the two following categories:1) Characteristics of the User of language: a. Age; b. Sex; c.Socio-regional or ethnic background; d. Education2) Characteristics of the Use of language in situation: a. Medium of communication –speech or writing; b. Setting –private or public; c. Role-relationship between addresser and addressee – the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance;d. Purpose for which language is used,e.g. to inform, to command, to express feelings, to establish social relations, etc.; e. Subject matter (of limited stylistic significance.Practice 4. Analyze the following conversation(Jenny comes to Alan‘s house. She is conducting a survey for the government.)Alan: Won‘t you come in, Miss-er-.Jenny: Cartwright, Jenny Cartwright.Alan: I‘m Alan Marlow. (Alan shows Jenny into the living room.)Alan: Oh won‘t you make yourself comfortable, Jenny?(After some minutes of talk, which is omitted here)Jenny: Mr. Marlow … Alan: Call me Alan. (The Marlows, Episode 11)The context shows clearly that Alan and Jenny are total strangers. The conven-tional address form between strangers is Title + Sur-name (Mr./Miss So-and-so). But Alan addresses the girl by her first name and later asks her to do the same. His adoption of first-naming is an example of the manipulation of language. It is a move towards a friendlier relationship, indicating that Alan does not want their encounter to be formal and distant, as it is customary between strangers. In contrast, Jenny chooses to remain formal and distant by addressing Alan as ―Mr. Marlow‖.Part 5: Language varieties and function1.影响文体变化的因素多种多样，主要可以归为三个方面：第一方面是讲话内容(field of discourse)，第二是讲话方式(mode of discourse), 第三是讲话人和听话人的地位关系(tenor of discourse)2.The Ideational / Referential function serves for expressing the speaker‘s/writer‘s experience of thereal world, including the inner world of his/her own consciousness.The Interpersonal or Expressive/Social function serves to establish and maintain social relations, for the expression of social roles, and also for getting things done by means of interaction between one person and another.The Textual function provides means for making links within the text itself and with features of its immediate situation.Part 6: StyleDefinition:*Style may refer to a person‘s distinctive language habits, or the set of individual characteristics of language use.*Style may refer to a set of collective characteristics of language use.To be exact, we shall regard Style as the language habits of a person or group of persons in a given situation.Part 8: The Concern of Stylistic StudyStylistics: It is a discipline that studies the sum of stylistic features characteristic of the different varieties of language.Stylistic study concerns itself with the situational features that influence variations in language use, the criterion for the classification of language variety, and the description and interpretation of the linguistic features and functions of the main varieties (both literary and non-literary) of a language – here, of the Modern English language.*The Need for Stylistic Study1) Style is an integral part of meaning.Practice 5. Analyze the following text.Policeman: What‘s your name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. I‘m a physician.Poli ceman: What‘s your first name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Alvin.The word ?boy‘ may be used to address a male inferior. In above conversation, the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as ?Dr. So-and-so‘ (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form ?boy‘, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people.2) Stylistics may help us to acquire a ?sense of style‘.3) Stylistics prepares the way to the intrinsic study of literature.Session 5 Varieties of Language5.1 Two kinds of varieties: Dialectal varieties, Diatypic varieties (语言变体或语域) DIALECTAL VARIETIES, commonly called DIALECTs, are language varieties that areassociated with different users of the language. As users in a society can be defined in terms of their individual, temporal, regional, and social affiliations, and their range of intelligibility, there are individual, temporal, regional, social and standard varieties respectively. These are relatively permanent features of the language user in a speech event.DIATYPIC VARIETIES, commonly called REGISTERs, are language variations that are associated with the different use to which they are put. Such varieties do not depend on the people who use the language, but on the occasion when it is used.Different types of language are selected as appropriate to different types of occasion. The choice is determined by the convention that a certain kind of language is appropriate to a certain use. The occasions can be classified along three dimensions, each presenting an aspect of the situation and the part played by the language in them. In this way, registers may be distinguished according to field of discourse, mode of discourse and tenor of discourse.Temporal Dialect: A variety which correlates with the various periods of the development of language.Social Dialect: A variety associated with certain social group.1) Socioeconomic status varieties 2) Ethnic varieties3) Gender varieties 4) Age varieties 5) Standard Dialect5.3 Registers语域1) Field of Discourse语场is the linguistic reflection of the purposive role of the language user, --the type of social activity the language user is engaged in doing in the situation in which the text has occurred.a. Some roles are non-specialist in nature and relate to non-specialist fields such as 'establishing personal contact' or 'phatic communion'. They are likely to have related topics: weather, health, news, etc.b. Field of discourse can be more or less restricted in language.c. The language of legal documents and the language of religious observance are also highly situation-tied.d. Technical fields have their own special vocabulary and favorite grammatical patterns.e. More radical grammatical differences are found in thelanguage of legal documents.2) Mode of Discourse 语式is the linguistic reflection of the relationship that the language user has to the medium of communication.3) Tenor of Discourse 语旨is the linguistic reflection of the personal relationships between speaker/writer and hearer/reader—called personal tenor, and of what the user is trying to do with language for/to his or her addressee (s) -- called functional tenor.*Personal tenor is concerned with the degrees of formality of the language used.*Functional tenor is concerned with the intention of the user in using the language.4) The Notion of RegisterThe concurrence of instances of contextual categories: field, mode, tenors of discourse-produces text varieties called registers, which can be defined in terms of phonological, lexical, and grammatical features.Registers are distinctive varieties of language used in different types of situation.5.5 The Social Meaning of Language Varietiesl) the period of development of the language in which the speaker/ writer spoke or wrote it (temporal dialect);2) the geographical area he or she is from (regional dialect);3) the social group he or she belongs to (social dialect);4) the range of intelligibility of his or her language (standard or non-standard dialect);5) the activity he or she is engaged in (field);6) the medium he or she is using (mode);7) the social relationship existing between him or her and hisor her addressee (s) (personal tenor);8) the intention in his or her mind in conveying the message (functional tenor);9) the distinctive language habits he or she has shown (idiolect).Session 6 Linguistic Description* The level of lexis and grammar1) Morphology and syntaxGrammar studies the sentence structures in a language, and the way they function in sequences. Traditionally, grammar consists of two parts: morphology (the internal structure of words and word-formation rules) and syntax (external relationships of words in a sentence).2) Lexicology studies the choice of specific lexical items in a text, their distribution in relation to one another, and their meanings.* The levels of semanticsSemantics (here) studies the overall meaning of a text, the meaning derived not from the formal properties of words and structures but from the way sentences / utterances are used and the way they are related to the context in which they are used / uttered.6.4 Procedure of linguistic description1) Work systematically through the text and note down points we feel of some stylistic significance respectively under the various headings.2) Quantify the frequency of a linguistic feature.3) Assess the importance of stylistic features.4) Make statements about the overall linguistic picture of the text in question, bringing together diverse features to show howthey form a coherent, integrated pattern, and making judgments about or interpreting the significance of such patterns in relation to the context of the text as a whole.Session 9 Formal vs Informal Language9.3 Functional tenor and degrees of formality1.Functional tenor tells us the addresser‘s intention of using the langua ge.2.Certain functional tenors can hit any point on the personal tenor formality continuum.*an expository speech: formal, with many passive constructions and a technical vocabulary; or, informal, in an ad-lib manner, with personal anecdotes, reference to the audience.*an insult: formal (formal structure and vocabulary, calm or deliberate delivery) or informal. 9.4 Martin Joos‘ classi fication (Martin Joos, 1967) The range of formality:frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.The frozen level: In Joos' analysis, the frozen level is used for written legal documents or highly solemn speech which consists of memorized sentences that must be repeated verbatim. These might include quotations from proverbs or ritual expressions which are part of a formal ceremony.The formal level is used for public addresses such as lectures or speeches where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. This level requires much attention to form (with well-planned thematic structure and phonological, lexical and syntactical coherence), and allows little or no interaction. It is typically marked with the use of may place of might , can (in 'May I present Mr Smith ?'). The speaker is usually considered to be an authority and, therefore, has higher status than the hearers for thatparticular event.The consultative level is used at less formal gatherings such as committee meetings where status is still fairly clearly designated, but where participants interact. There is still considerable attention to form (with rather clear pronunciation, accurate wording and complete sentences), andparticipants may not know each other well. It may be necessary for speakers to elaborate and givea significant amount of background material.In contrast, the casual level is used among friends, or peers who know each other well enough that little elaboration is necessary. Participants pay very little attention to form (shown by the use of slang and ellipsis as in 'Been a good thing if...') and concentrate totally on content and relationship. One of the markers of this level is the use of 'Come on' with the implication 'Consider yourself among friends'.The final level identified by Joos is 'intimate', language used between people who see each other daily (family members for instance) and share the majority of their daily life experiences. As a result, language is unelaborated and conversation may be meaningless to outsiders because of its telegraphic quality. No attention is paid to form.e.g.1) My beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward.2) My dear father has just expired.3) My father has just passed away.4) My dad has died.5) My old man just kicked the bucket. --- by Martin JoosJoos' categories present an efficient way of looking at degrees of formality. It is fairly easy to distinguish the frozen styleof (written) legal documents with their Latinate diction and impersonal syntax, from the intimate style of (spoken) interchanges between close friends, with their slang and elliptical syntax. But it is not easy to categorize the intervening degrees, or relate them to linguistic features. So most linguists agree that the situation is more complex than Joos imagined and see the range as a continuum from the most formal to the most Situation and Formality informal/intimate, with an infinite number of stopping places in between.Session 10 Spoken vs Written Language10.1 Striking differences1) Hearer/Reader involvement.*Generally most speeches assume the presence of the hearer *Non-verbal signals like facial expressions of incomprehension or boredom, feedback in the way of laughter, applause and even booing (feedback from audience attening a lecture and the like).* A written text normally presumes the absence of the reader, and direct feedback from the reader is not possible.2) Linguistic explicitness*In speech, the participants rely heavily on their common background knowledge and the immediate context for much of their information.*The immediate context can eliminate the ambiguity or dark information carried by implicit linguistic structures, bring some words with concrete referents, and recrysta-lize the denotations of some otherwise abstract words.*Writing, generally, does not rely on the immediate context for understanding. Nor can the writer normally hope that his /her readers share with him/her much of the personal backgroundknowledge needed for the understanding of the written text. On the contrary he/she must give great explicitness to whatever he/she is trying to say on paper.3) Preparedness*Writing is on the whole more ?careful‘ than speaking.*Permanent record, a clear idea about the subject matter and logical arrangement of thought, compact and self-contained.*Speech, esp. conversation, is often spontaneous. Random shift of topic, a general lack of conscious planning, features of hesitation, slips of the tongue, overlapping or simultaneous speech.10.2 Stylistic differencesSpoken texts contrast with written texts in terms of grammatical, lexical and phonological/ graphological features.Gregory(19107):1) Distinctions amongst speechSpeech can be spontaneous (such as casual conversation) or non-spontaneous (as what actors and teachers are doing).*Within spontaneous speech, there is conversing (with the participation of others) versus monologuing (with no interruption from others). The latter kind of sustained spontaneous speech is found in classroom teaching, TV interviewing, radio commenting, and the talking between scholars.*Non-spontaneous speech can be sub-categorized as reciting (such as story telling, poem recitation and singing) and as the speaking of what is written. In literate cultures, most non-spontaneous speech is the speaking of what has been written.2) Distinctions amongst writingThe text that has been written may be written to be spokenas if not written, or written to be spoken, or even written not necessarily to be spoken.a) Texts written to be spoken as if not written such as the lines in a drama, sound like real speech. But they are speeches that have been planned and prepared, whereas ordinary speech is spontaneous; and their situations are more compact and self-contained than those of conversing and monologuing.b) Texts written to be spoken with no effort to conceal their written origin such as scripts for sermons, speeches, lectures, news bulletins and commentaries, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation of prosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode.c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with no relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read.d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard); and the interior monologue related to such texts may be categorized as written to be read as if thought (as if overheard).10.5 Mode, field, and tenors●The mode of discourse is primarily related to the textual function of language. Yet it has some relations with the ideational function of language by way of field of discourse: some fields such as legal statutes and dictionaries tend to occur in the written mode; some fields such as telephone conversation and spontaneous speech tend to occur in the spoken mode.●Mode also has relations with the interpersonal function of language by way of personal and functional tenors of discourse: the written texts tend to be formal and the spoken tend to be informal; the phatic function is common in the spoken as is the descriptive function in the written.。
语文总复习文体知识归类
语文总复习文体知识归类1 记叙文文体知识要点(1) 以记叙文为主要表达方式的文章叫记叙文.语言特点,生动,形象.(2) 作品中所反映的生活和作者对生活的看法,就是记叙文的中心,也叫中心思想.中心思想是依靠人,事,景,物这些材料来表的.因而记叙文的材料必须为中心思想服务,做到中心明确,集中.(3) 记叙文的顺序主要有几种:顺叙,倒叙,插叙.顺叙:按事件的发生,发展结局的过程记叙.倒叙:把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提到文章的开头写,然后再按时间顺序写事件的经过.插叙:在记叙过程中,有时需要插入另一些有关的情节,然后再按着记叙原来的事情.(4) 记叙文中的详略安排应该是能突出中心的材料应该详写;与中心有关系,但是不很重要的材料,应该略写;与中心无关的材料应该舍弃.这样,才能使记叙的中心集中,鲜明,突出.(5) 记叙文的样式常见有:对现实生活中典型人物和事迹作具体报道的通讯.用文字语言和文学手法描述真人真事的特写.记叙山川景物,旅途见闻为主的游记. 追忆本人或生活经历和社会活动的回忆录,传记,访问记等.它们共同特点是:所写内容必须真实,不容许随意夸大或缩小事实,更不能编造虚构,即要有真实性;对所写的内容又要求作必要的加工.力求文章中心突出,形象鲜明,构思精巧(6) 特写是报告文学的一种样式,它截取人物或事件的某个片断,细致地加以描述.(7) 传记一般分两类:一类记叙自己的生平；一类记叙他人的生平.传记的主要特点是实录,要求实事求是,不允许虚构夸张.传记在表达上以记叙为主,也可以适当插入议论,描写.传记记叙的顺序一般以时间为序. 人物和人物故事的区别在于人物故事只要具体写出人物的某个事件或某几件事就行了.小传则要求写出人物的出生地,出生年月,主要经历等.人物自传的繁简区别在于自传可以根据需要采用不同写法,可以写自己全部经历,也可以写自己某个时期的经历.2 说明文文体知识要点（1）以说明为主要表达方式,按一定的要求解说事物或事理的文章称为说明文.说明文的语言特点：准确,平实,简洁.（2）说明事物的前提是抓住事物的特征.所谓特征就是事物间相互区别的标志.（3）说明文的说明顺序有：空间顺序,时间顺序,逻辑顺序,（有总说后分说,先主要后次要,先原因后结果,由现象到本质,由性能到功用等）（4）常用的说明方法有：分类别,作解释,举例子,打比方,作比较,用数字,列图表.（5）说明文按说明对象和内容分有：说明实体事物和说明抽象事理两大类.说明文按写作方法和表达方式分有：平实性说明文和文艺性说明文.（6）平实性说明文和文艺性说明文的区别在于：平实性说明文纯用说明的表达方式,语言朴实简明,内容具体,切实使人读了就能明白.如自然科学的各类教科书.科技信息资料,实验报告,说明书等.文艺性说明文以说明为主,辅以叙述,描写,抒情等多种表达方式,并常用借助一些修辞方法,形象化地介绍事物或阐述事理,使读者在获得知识的同时,还能得到艺术的享受,这类说明文通常称知识小品或科学小品.（7）说明文的描写和记叙文中的描写区别：a 目的不同：记叙文中的描写是为了“使人有所感,”；说明文的描写是为了“使人有所知”.b 记叙文可以根据中心思想的需要,使用各种描写方法起到多方面的作用.说明文的描写则只能在说明事物的过程中,借助某钟形象化的手法,对事物的特征作一些必要的描绘,主要是起到使说明的事物特征更具体,更形象.c 记叙文中的描写可以发挥艺术想象,可以夸张,渲染,而说明文中的描写在务真求实的前提下进行语言加工,做到既形象生动,又真实可信.3 议论文文体的知识要点（1）生活中少不了议论,讲道理,发表意见就是议论.以议论为主要表达方式的文章就是议论文.（2）议论总要提出看法或主张,这种看法或主张就是论点,用来证明论点的材料就为论据,用论据来证明论点的过程即为论证过程.（3）用以证明论点的材料有两大类：事实材料（事实论据）即确凿的事例；史实；统计数字等.理论材料（道理论据）即名人名言；警句；格言；科学原理；自然定律；马列毛泽东思想.（4）议论文的基本结构：提出问题；分析问题；解决问题.议论文的基本论证方法：摆事实,讲道理.论证方式：立论,驳论.所谓立论就是正面阐述自己的观点.驳论就是批驳错误的观点. （5）一事一议议论文的写作特点：借事发表议论,就事说明道理.而从“事”到议.又必须理出并把握两者的联系点,才可顺理成章地展开议论,这事“一事一议”的关键.（6）议论文常见的有几种样式：社论,评论,学术论文,专题讨论,杂感,随笔以及侧重1于议论性的讲演词,书信等.在以上样式中,有理论性较强的,有文艺性较强的.4 小说散文戏剧诗歌的知识要点（1）就文章的样式（体裁）分,有小说,散文,戏剧,诗歌并列的四种文学样式.（2）小说以塑造人物现象为中心,通过具体的故事情节,环境描写来反映社会生活.人物,故事情节,环境称为小说的三要素.（3）小说中描写人物的方法多种多样,主要有：外貌,行动,语言,心理描写.（4）小说中的“我”并非作者自己,一般是由作者虚构的.并经过艺术加工而成的人物现象.（5）小说中的环境描写分自然环境和社会环境.环境描写的作用是小说不可缺少的组成部分,在烘托人物性格,交代作品的时代背景,推动情节方面有重要的作用.、（6）由人物的相互关系而产生的生活事件的发展过程,构成小说的情节,而连贯这一过程就是小说的线索.（7）小说中的情节线索对生活矛盾的揭示,对人物性格的形成,起着积极作用.（8）诗歌的语言特点：凝练.所谓凝练,就是用精练而优美的语言,表现尽可能丰富的思想感情.（9）诗歌的押韵,韵脚：诗句的末一个字的韵母相同或相近,就为押韵；句末押韵的字就称为韵脚.（10）词是古代韵文的一种形式,每一种词牌都有固定的格式和调子,可以唱；词的句式有长有短,因而又叫长短句.词有上下阕之分.（11）散文的特征；形散而神不散.散文的形式不拘一格,可以记人,叙事,也可以写景,状物.散文中无论抒情还是议论,都必须以所记叙或描写的人,事,景,物为依托.记叙,描写是抒情议论的基础,抒情,议论的记叙,描写的深化.散文中记叙,描写,抒情,议论几种表达方式常常是综合运用的.（12）戏剧是一种以表演艺术为中心的综合艺术,它借助文学,音乐,舞蹈,美术等艺术手段塑造人物形象,揭示社会矛盾,反映现实生活.戏剧包括话剧,歌剧,舞剧等.（13）供演出用的剧本,即戏剧作品.主要特点：有尖锐的矛盾冲突,在矛盾冲突中推动剧情发展,展示人物性格；人物,场景,情节高度集中,矛盾冲突要在短暂的时间内,不多的场次中反映出来；人物语言要求个性化,行动化,口语化.（14）剧本是舞台演出的依据和基础,是戏剧的重要组成部分,直接决定着戏剧的思想性和艺术性.由于演出的需要,剧本里有一些说明性的文字,叫做“舞台说明”又称“舞台提示”,内容包括人物表,时间,地点,服装,道具,布景以及人物的表情,动作,上下场等.舞台说明有助于人物性格的刻画,故事情节的展开.5 童话寓言民间故事神话知识要点（1）童话寓言都通过丰富的想象,采用夸张,拟人等表现手法,塑造种种具有象征意义的形象,反映多姿多彩的社会生活.两者不同点是童话更富于幻想,故事大都神奇曲折,语言生动浅显,富有儿童情趣.寓言则把深刻的道理寄托在简短的故事里面,语言简朴明快,借此喻彼,借小喻大,一般都含有讽刺或劝戒的教育意义.（2）民间故事是一种立足于现实而又富有幻想的口头文学作品.由于它反映劳动人民的要求和愿望,所以就广泛地流传在人民群众之中.民间故事一般有完整的故事情节,鲜明的人物性格,语言口语化,富有浓郁的生活气息和地方色彩.（3）神话反映古代人们对世界起源.自然现象和社会生活的原始理解.并通过超自然的形象和幻想的形式来表现的故事和传说,它借助想象来表达古代人民征服自然力的理想和追求.6 新闻通讯的知识要点（1）新闻和通信都是报道最近发生的新鲜而重要的信息,要求真实,及时.不同点：新闻比较简短,通信比较详尽.新闻以记叙为主,让事实本身说话,一般不作描写,议论,抒情等.通信具有一定的文学性,往往综和运用记叙,描写议论,抒情等表达方式；新闻的语言简明扼要,一般不展开情节,通信则要求具体生动,它往往根据表达的需要,对人,事作多方面的或全过程的具体报道.（2）新闻的结构包括标题,导语,主体三部分.标题通常是新闻内容的提要.导语是事件或事件中心的概述.主体则是介绍有关情况或进一步突出中心.（3）新闻一般应交代有关的时间,地点,人物,事件的起因经过结果,（符号记叙文的六要素）（4）新闻的标题有时不只一个,有正题（展示主要事实和中心思想）；引题（交代情况,烘托气氛）；副题（对正题作补充说明）7 书信有关知识要点（1）日常书信一般有六个部分：称谓,问候,正文,祝颂,具名,日期.（2）称谓应顶格写,单独一行,后面加上冒号.问候语是礼貌用语,应在称谓的下一行,空两格. （3）祝颂语分两截,前一截连接正文,或另起一行,空两格写；后一截必须另起一行,顶格写,以示尊重.（4）具名的位置,应在祝颂语后一截的下一行接近末尾的地方.日期在具名的下一行靠右一点.日期最好写全,即年、月、日.（5）专用书信,指的是生活书信以外的各种社交书信.这类书信除少数有特定的格式外,与生活书信大致相仿,只是不同的专用书信,有不同的习惯用语.专用书信的语言风格一般都比较庄重.（6）商务信函由事由、函号、受文者、正文、落款五部分组成.（7）申请书应有标题、称呼、正文、祝颂语、署名、日期几部分组成.8 广告的知识要点广告是向公众介绍商品,报道服务内容或文体节目的一种宣传方式.广告总是要宣传商品的优点和长处,但要注意实事求是.广告写作的结构,包括标题,正文、结尾三部分.标题是广告的眼睛,必须精心提炼.正文是提供商品信息细节的部分.目前常见并且宣传效果较好的广告文字有正书体、陈述体、问答体、证书体,幽默体.广告的结尾又叫落款,主要是交代厂商名称、地址、电话、电报挂号等,便于顾客购货或联系.9 计划和总结知识要点计划是一种应用文体.计划的种类很多,按内容分,有生产计划、工作计划、科研计划、学习计划等；按范围分,有国家计划、部门计划、单位计划、个人计划等；按性质分,有综和性计划、专门性计划等；按时限分,有年度计划、季度计划、月份计划等.另外,还有“短期计划”和“长期规划”：一般说来,凡适用时间较短、内容比较详细具体的称作“计划”；凡适用时间较长、范围较广、内容较概括的称作“规划”,如三年规划、五年规划、十年规划等.但不何种计划或规划,都必须具备以下三个要素：目标,措施,步骤.计划没有固定的格式,详细的计划多用条文形式,简要的计划多用表格形式,即按印的表格逐项填写,也可以两者合一,既有条文又有表格.用条文形式写成的计划,一般由标题、正文、结尾三部分组成.标题就是计划的名称,应写在第一行正中.内容包括计划种类的名称、计划的期限等,有的还写明订计划的单位名称.正文就是计划的具体内容,包括总的目标、具体的项目和指标、实施的步骤和措施等.结尾包括计划的制定单位的名称（或个人姓名）和制定日期两项,写在正文的右下方.总结的种类很多.按内容分,有生产总结、工作总结、学习总结、思想总结；按时间分,有年度总结、季度总结、月份总结、学期总结、阶段总结等；按范围分,有地区总结、部门总结、单位总结、个人总结等；按性质分,有全面总结和专题总结.小结也属于总结一类,只是在范围大小、时间长短和内容详略等方面和总结有所不同罢了.总结没有固定的格式,一般由标题、正文、署名和日期三部分组成.。
文体知识复习
议论文中的表达方式
• 1、议论文中的记叙，往往概括性很强，作 用：用事实证明某一观点或主张。 • 2、议论文中时而有生动形象的描写，作用： 更鲜明生动地证明了某一观点。 • 3、议论中的抒情，会使议论更有感染力， 更深入人心。
议论文开篇事例的作用
• 1、引出下文论述（引出下文论点） • 2、作为事实论据证明……观点 • 3、激发读者的阅读兴趣
记叙顺序
• • • • 顺叙、倒叙、插叙 插叙作用： 1、内容上：交代了……的来历 2、结构上：为下文情节的展开做铺垫
修辞手法分类及作用
• （1）比喻：把××比作××，形象生动地写出了事物的××特 点，表达了作者…… • （2） 拟人：使事物具有人的神态、动作、语言、心理等，形象 生动地写出了事物的××特点，表达了作者…… • （3）夸张：揭示事物的××本质，烘托××气氛，加强渲染力， 引起读者的强烈共鸣。 • （4）排比：可增强语言的气势。可把感情抒发得淋漓尽致。 • （5）对偶：使语言简练工整。形式上音节整齐匀称、节奏感强， 具有音律美；内容上凝练集中，概括力强。 • （6）引用：既增强了说服力，又使文章充满诗情画意，趣味盎 然。 • （7）设问：强调问题，引起人们注意，启发人们思考。用在一 段的开头或结尾处，除引起思考外，还有承上启下的过渡作用。 • （8）反问——起强调作用，增强肯定（否定）语气。 • （9）借代：以简代繁，以实代虚，以奇代凡，以事代情，能起 到突出形象，使之具体、生动的效果。
说明文语言
• 某个词能否去掉，为什么？
• 步骤：不能删去，× ×表示什么（表示限 制、频率、估计、猜测、程度……） ，为 什么用这个词，去掉与原意不符，体现说 明文语言的准确性。
说明文段落作用
• 1、开头引用事例： • （引出下文说明对象，增加读者阅读兴趣） • 2、结尾有时会作补充说明，使说明更完整、 更严密、更科学。
成人高考语文文体知识复习讲义
成人高考语文文体知识复习讲义成人高考语文文体知识复习讲义1、议论文议论文是指以议论说理为主的文章，包括论点、论据、论证三要素。
论点是作者的观点或主张;论据是证明论点的根据，可分为事实论据和理论论据;论证是用论据证明论点的过程，一般分为立论和驳论两大类型。
论证的方法有归纳论证(例证论证)、演绎论证、比较论证(类比论证、对比证论)、比喻论证等。
驳论的方法有驳论点、驳论据、驳论证等。
2、记叙文记叙文是指记人、叙事、写景、状物的文章。
它以叙述为主，往往间用描写、抒情、议论等多种手法。
3、诗、词、曲、赋诗、词、曲都属于诗歌的范畴。
诗歌以丰富的情感反映生活;对生活作高度集中的概括;语言凝练而富有形象性;富于节奏感和韵律美。
中国古代诗歌分为古体诗和近体诗。
词有词牌，写词必须受词调的限制，句式以长短句为主，押韵比较灵活。
曲可分为散曲和剧曲。
散曲有小令和套数之分。
散曲句句押韵，一韵到底。
赋是汉代形成的特殊文体，讲究铺叙、文采、对仗和韵律，一般采用主客问答、抑客伸主的结构方式。
4、小说小说一般具有三要素：人物、情节、环境。
小说要塑造典型环境中的典型人物。
小说的情节一般包括开端、发展、高潮和结局。
小说的环境包括自然环境、社会环境、人物活动的特定环境。
成考语文写作知识点1、主题和题材主题即文章的思想观点，要求正确、深刻、鲜明、集中。
题材即用于写作的材料，要求真实、典型、新颖。
2、结构结构即文章内部的组织构造，包括层次、段落、过渡、照应、开头、结尾等。
文章的结构要求完整、清晰、严谨。
3、表达方式(1)叙述叙述的方式有顺叙、倒叙、插叙、平叙和补叙。
叙述要线索清楚，详略得当，有变化，有波澜。
(2)描写描写大体可归纳为人物描写和环境描写两大类。
人物描写包括肖像描写、行为描写、语言描写、心理描写和细节描写等。
环境描写包括自然风光描写和社会环境描写等。
描写要有的放矢，突出特征，富于情感。
(3)抒情抒情的方式有直接抒情和间接抒情两大类。
电大实用文体写作知识复习题复习资料
实用文体写作知识》复习参考资料一、填空题练习⑴主旨、材料、结构和语言是一切文章的构成要素。
⑵按照行文关系和行文方向的不同，可将公文分为上行文、平行文和下行文三种。
上行文是指下级机关向所属上级机关呈送的公文，主要有报告、请示等；平行文是指想同级机关或不相隶属的机关送交的公文，主要有函等；下行文是指上级机关向下级机关发送的公文，主要有命令(令)、决定、通报、通知、批复、意见等。
按照秘密等级不同分绝密文件、机密文件、秘密文件⑶公布社会个有关方面应当遵守或者周知的事项，要用通告;批转下级机关的公文，转发上级机关和不相隶属机关的公文，传达下级机关办理和需要有关单位周知或者执行的事项，任免人员，要用通知；表彰先进，批评错误，传达重要精神和情况，要用通报。
⑷按性质和内容的不同，可将总结分为综合性总结和专题性总结两类。
⑸经济活动分析报告的功能主要包括：诊断功能、建议功能、反馈功能、预测功能。
⑹事实和理由是民事起诉状的核心内容。
⑺按其内容和功用的不同，可将常用的通知分为：批示性通知、指示性通知、告知性通知、任免性通知几种。
⑻报告和请示的区别主要体现为：具体功用不同、内容含量不同、行文时机不同。
⑼消息的开头部分通常被称作导语。
⑽书信的内文主要包括称谓、问候语、正文、祝颂语和落款等几个部分。
(11)向上级机关汇报工作，反映情况，答复上级机关的询问，要用报告；向上级机关请求指示、批准，要用请示。
(12)会议纪要所应具备的两大特点是：纪实性、提要性。
会议纪要分为指示性会议纪要，通报性会议纪要和消息性会议纪要三类。
(13)常见的规章制度主要有章程、条例、规定、办法、和守则几种。
(14)民事起诉状通常是由首部、正文和尾部三部分组成。
(15)按用途和内容的不同可以将启事问为征招类启事、寻觅类启事、声明类启事三种。
(16)在公文中表示公文内容特征和归属类别的关键性词语叫主题词，一般不能超过7个词。
(17)通告可以分为两类：法规性通告和事务性通告。
各种文体复习知识点
• 记叙文中的“叙”与议论文中的“叙” • 记叙文是以记叙表达方式为主的文章，使用事实 材料，目的是要通过对事件、人物的详细叙述，让 读者了解人物、时间、地点、事件的过程和前因后 果等，认识事件的意义和影响、人物的道德精神品 质，从这个意义上讲，记叙文叙事越详越好，让记 叙的表达方式得到充分体现，议论抒情比例不须多， 只起到画龙点睛的作用就行了。而议论文写作中， 对事实论据的叙写要求正好相反。因为议论文中使 用事实论据的目的是用来论证论点的正确性的，不 是让读者了解这个事件的具体情况的，所以叙事必 须高度概括，语言精炼，有些事实材料甚至用一句 话点到为止就可以了，尽量减少记叙成分，增加说 理成分，保证议论文以议论为主，做到以理服人， 让议论文一定姓“议”不能姓“记”。
• 文天祥被俘后，面对元朝统治者，他既不 屈服于酷刑拷打，更不被高官厚禄所诱惑， 而是以一首《正气歌》表明自己的坚定立 场，最终慷慨赴义。
多人多事的论据补充可这样来补充和分析： “文天祥拒绝高官厚禄慷慨赴义；邓世昌 怒撞敌舰视死如归；裴多菲捍卫‘自由’ 生命爱情皆可抛；孙天帅维护国格、人格 誓不屈膝……无论是古代现代，无论是中国 外国，只要国家的利益，民族的尊严被侵 犯、被践踏；只要真理被扭曲、被玷污； 只要国格、人格受到侮辱，他们无不毅然 舍弃生命或小利，捍卫正义和真理”。这 样运用排比句来举例简洁明确，语言更有 气势，而且能够同时列举多人事例对论点 进行论证，使论点更明确，论证更充分。
熟悉题型，了解考点
内容：形象的感知和理解 情感：情感的分析和把握 技巧：技巧的探索和欣赏 语言：语言的研读和品味
议论文段的作用——议论文开头的作用
• 一般的回答： 吸引读者，激发读者的阅读兴趣；引 出本文的论点（或者：引出本文论题）；为论点作 论据（或者：作论据证明了作者的观点） • 具体来说：开门见山，提出中心论点；针对现实中 某种现象（或事例或观点）进行分析，然后提出论 点（或提出论题），具有很强的针对性；引用名言 提出论点或论题，同时，名言又是证明论点的论据； 由某个故事或事例引出论点或论题，同时，故事和 事例又是证明论点的论据；摆出错误的论点和论据， 为下文的批驳树立靶子；用生动的比喻或故事（如 寓言）引出论点，既能激发读者的阅读兴趣，又能 把抽象的道理形象化，便于读者接受。
古代文体学
古代文体学1．先秦文学。
先秦文学有两源，现实主义和浪漫。
《诗经》分为风雅颂，反映现实三百篇；手法牢记赋比兴，名篇《硕鼠》与《伐檀》。
浪漫主义是《楚辞》，《离骚》作者叫屈原。
先秦散文有两派，“诸子”、史书要记全。
儒墨道法兵杂名，阴阳纵横小说农。
儒家《论语》及《孟子》，墨家《墨子》传世间。
道家《老子》及《庄子》，法家韩非著名篇。
历史散文有两体，分作“国别”和“编年”。
前者《国语》《战国策》，后者《春秋》与《左传》。
2．两汉魏晋南北朝文学。
两汉魏晋南北朝，诗歌成就比较高。
“乐府双璧”人称赞，建安文学推“三曹”。
田园鼻祖是陶潜，“采菊”遗风见节操。
《史记》首开纪传体，号称“无韵之离骚”。
班固承续司马意，《汉书》断代创新招。
贾谊雄文《过秦论》，气势酣畅冲云霄。
“出师”二表名后世，《桃花源记》乐逍遥。
辞赋盛行易空洞，张衡《二京》似惊涛。
文学批评也兴起，《文心雕龙》真高超。
骈文追求形式美，小说初起尚粗糙。
3．唐代文学。
唐诗鼎盛巍例如山，“初唐四杰”不理想,中考自学方法。
王杨卢骆溢华彩，律诗、绝句形已现。
唯美诗人发推李白，一路高歌《蜀道难》。
现实主义存有杜甫，“三吏三别”不通常。
乐天提倡新乐府，“琵琶”“长恨”领名篇。
田园诗派遣存有王孟，高岑诗歌演唱塞边。
中唐李贺多极秘，贾岛“斟酌”天下传。
晚唐兴起“小李杜”，此后衰落例如尘烟。
韩柳古文技术创新体，《阿房宫赋》演唱千年。
唐代传奇已明朗，名作当发推《柳毅传》。
4．宋代文学。
宋词如海甚汪洋，分成婉约与豪放。
柳永秦观李清照，风花雪月多柔肠。
苏轼首开豪放派，“大江东去”气昂昂。
磊落坦荡辛弃疾，“金戈铁马”势高扬。
三苏王曾欧阳修，继承韩柳作华章。
范公作品虽不多，《岳阳楼记》放光芒。
南宋诗人陆放翁，《示儿》犹念复家邦。
人生自古谁无死？后世感怀文天祥。
编年通史第一部，《资治通鉴》司马光。
《梦溪笔谈》小百科，沈括从此美名扬。
5．元明清文学。
元代散曲分后两种，小令、套数各相同。
杂剧代表四大家，成就首推关汉卿。
文体写作学复习提纲
文体写作学一、写作（1）写作的概念写作是运用语言文字符号表达思想和情感的创造性脑力劳动的活动过程。
（2）写作过程四个环节：社会、作品、作者、读者。
两个转化：内化（社会到作者）、外化（作者到作品）（3）写作主体的基本能力观察力、感受力、思维力、想象力（4）写作的两种逻辑诗性逻辑（感性思维）：比喻的、情感的、诗意的实证逻辑（科学理性思维）：概念的、判断的、自然科学实证逻辑（5）文体意识即人们在读写过程中对问题的适用范围、写作目的、社会功能、逻辑范畴、语体风格、表达方式等六要素的自觉认识与运用二、写作活动中思维能力的培养（1）写作活动中的语言与思维语言（包括文字）：各种表达符号思维：人的大脑对客观事物的反应语言是思维的物质外衣（2）思维的方法①形象思维运用具体可感的形象进行思维的能力。
例：火烧云②抽象思维（理性思维）对客观事物抽象的间接的概括的反映，是运用概念、判断、推理来得出结论的。
包括形式逻辑思维，如二元对立的善恶；辩证逻辑思维。
③灵感思维不受某种固定的逻辑规则约束，直接领悟事物真理的思维活动。
例：作家的神来之笔。
灵感的特征：长久思考的目的性，不期而至的随机性，稍纵即逝的瞬间性，存在某种诱发因素的激活作用。
（3）多种思维形式的优化和综合——创造①创造性思维在写作过程中，创造性思维引发的创造性活动。
特点：一次性完成、不可重复性、发前人所未发。
②创造性思维的方法·发散思维联想：由一事物想到另一事物。
想象：在原有的感性形象的基础上创造出新形象。
·聚合思维·逆向思维·纵深思维三、公文概述（1）公务文书概念广义上，公务文书是指一切公务活动中形成并使用的各类应用文狭义上，公务文书特指法定公文。
《党政机关公文处理条例》中明确规定的15个文种：决议、决定、命令、意见、公报、公告、通告、通知、通报、报告、请示、批复、议案、涵、纪要。
（2）特点政治性、特定性、权威性、实用性、规范性（3）种类·根据行文方向分：上行文、下行文、平行文·根据机密程度分：公布公文、机密公文、内部公文（4）公文的构成及格式①版头部分·份号：6位3号阿拉伯数字，顶格编排在版心左上角第一行·密级和保密期限：3号黑体字，顶格编排在版心左上角第二行；保密期限中的数字用阿拉伯数字标注，密级和保密期限用★隔开·紧急程度：一般用3号黑体字，顶格编排在版心左上角，在份号、密级和保密期限下一行·发文机关标志：由发文机关全称或规范简称加文件二字，居中，上边缘距版心上边缘35mm，小标宋体字，红色·发文序号：发文机关代字、年份和序号组成；发文机关标识下空2行，用3号仿宋体字，居中，年份应标全称，用六角括号﹝﹞扩入。
高考语文复习：文体知识课件
1.举例子:晕能预示天气。比如，在新疆地区， 出现晕就代表将要下雨。
(根据大的范围列举相应的例子） 2.列数字：鳕鱼一次产卵竟达千万粒， 真正能变成幼鱼的卵可能还不到1%。 (列举数字进行说明） 3.作比较： 春天的雨细腻柔媚，夏天的雨粗犷热烈。
4.打比方:天上的星星像一颗颗宝石。 5.分类别：通常情况下，我们将云分为预示晴朗 的
一事、一物为线索
c\关于环境描写： 1、语言上判断修辞方法； 2、分析渲染的气氛； 3、烘托人物的心情（或性情特征）； 4、结构上起到了引起下文的作用。 答题思路： 本段文字在语言上运用了------的修辞方法，描 写景物……的特点。渲染了------的气氛；烘托 人物------的心情（或性情特征）；同时在结构 上起到了引起下文的作用。(或为下文作好铺垫。
（八）、谈谈对句子或文章中心的理解和感悟。 1、结合文章中心谈理解（把体现中心的句子用 自己的话说出来）； 2、结合人生谈拥有此种情感（或精神）的意义。 答题思路： 我的理解是------；我的感悟是------。 （十一）、写作手法：对照、烘托。 1对照、烘托作用： 通过写------的------，反衬出----的------。 2、借景抒情（或托物言志）3、欲扬先抑 5、象征6、夸张、想像、联想 （十二）、小说的主题思想： 1、要从人物、情节、环境的分析中深入理解；
1 前后呼应作用;前文交代--------------，后文 用-------交代，与之呼应，使文章结构严谨， 同时表达----------情感。
2 欲扬先抑 作用 1写出-------的情感变化过 程，突出------（“扬 ”）2使文章波涛起伏， 形成鲜明的对照。
四、修辞手法：
1.比喻：把 比作
文体知识
文体学复习(一)
文体学复习1、Style: Manners indicating prominent linguistic features, devices or patterns, most(or least) frequently occur in a particular text of a particular variety of language.(有许多种，此为in this book, general, linguistic-oriented), P52、Stylistics:is a branch of linguistics which studies in a scientific and systematicway concerning the manners/linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels.•Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature. （考点）★★The development of stylisticsThe scope of studyThree crucial aspects of speech:①Substances [sounds and symbols]; ②Form; ③Situation3、Stylistic analysis: is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text (what ispeculiar to the use of language in a given text for delivering the message). This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse. Stylisticians may also wish to characterize the style of a given text by systematically comparing the language uses in that text with those in another. Thus, we may conclude that stylistic analysis is an activity which is highly comparative in nature.Practice 5. Analyze the following text.Policeman: What’s your name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. I’m a physician.Policeman: What’s your first name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Alvin.•The word ‘boy’ may be used to address a male inferior. In above conversation, the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as ‘Dr. So-and-so’ (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form ‘boy’, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people.4、Linguistic description:refers to the exploration and classification of linguisticfeatures of a given text.★每个category下面的各个分类(1) The Phonology Category:Phonology here is used to refer to the system of speech sounds in a language.(2) The Lexical Category:Lexis is used here to refer to the choice of words.(3) The Syntactic/Grammatical /Category:Syntax is used here to refer to rules for ordering and connecting words into sentences.(4) Semantic Category:Semantics is used here to refer to the meaning of words, expressions, etc. and by what means the meaning is conveyed from the addresser to the addressee.Procedure of linguistic description1) Work systematically through the text and note down points we feel of some stylistic significance respectively under the various headings.2) Quantify the frequency of a linguistic feature.3) Assess the importance of stylistic features.4) Make statements about the overall linguistic picture of the text in question, bringing together diverse features to show how they form a coherent, integrated pattern, and making judgments about or interpreting the significance of such patterns in relation to the context of the text as a whole.5、（1）Text: A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole. A text is then a semantic unit, a unit not only of form, but also of meaning.A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not. Cohesive devices:Implicit connectivityExplicit connectivity1) Transitional words/phrases2) Grammatical device①Ellipsis ②Substitution ③Coreference3) Lexical reiteration材料Examine the following conversation, find out whether linguistic units in it are overtly cohesive or not.A: See who that is.B: I’m in pyjamas.A: OK.•Linguistic units in the conversation are not overtly cohesive. In this text, the relevance of B’s remark to A’s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. “I’m in pyjamas” implies an excuse for not complying with A’s command (= “No, I can’t, because I’m in pyjamas.”) A’s second remark implies that he accepts B’s excuse and undertakes to do himself what he originally asked B to do (= OK. I’ll go myself and see.” Texts are therefore recognized as appropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.（2）Context:Context refers to all elements of a communicative situation. (One is “linguistic context”, referring to the linguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text. The other is “extra-linguistic context” or “context of situation”, referring to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning. )Contextual factors:★①Field of discourse(语场)：the institutional setting, private or public, in which a piece of language occurs, embracing not only the subject matter in hand(正在进行中的主要的事情), but the whole activity of the speaker or participant in a setting, which corresponds to Halliday’s “ideational function” of language.②Tenor(语旨)：The participants, their education, social status, the role-relationshipbetween the addresser and the addressee; the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance. (I t’s concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning ----the relationship between the speaker and the listener, their relative status, their attitude, and their role relations.)③Mode(语式)：the medium of communication——the graphic signs [visual] or sound waves [auditory] by means of which a message is conveyed from one person to anther; Channel; channel limitation; other detailed choices, the functions of language in the particular situation.•Practice 4. Analyze the following conversation(Jenny comes to Alan’s house. She is conducting a survey for the government.)Alan: Won’t you come in, Miss-er-.Jenny: Cartwright, Jenny Cartwright.Alan: I’m Alan Marlow. (Alan shows Jenny into the living room.)(After some minutes of talk, which is omitted here)The context shows clearly that Alan and Jenny are total strangers. The conven-tional address form between strangers is Title + Sur-name (Mr./Miss So-and-so). But Alan addresses the girl by her first name and later asks her to do the same. His adoption of first-naming is an example of the manipulation of language. It is a move towards a friendlier relationship, indicating that Alan does not want their encounter to be formal and distant, as it is customary between strangers. In contrast, Jenny chooses to remain formal and distant by addressing Alan as “Mr. Marlow”.Linguistic Items6、Speech sounds:★(1) Stress:Stress refers to the prominence of sounds. It is the result of extra force used in pronouncing a particular word or syllable. a) To show emphasis; b) To show surprise, anger, doubt, horror or excitement; c) To distinguish meaning of identical words or phrases. P23(2) Pause: Pause refers to the brief interruption of the articulatory process between consecutive linguistic units such as sounds, syllables, words, phrases and sentences.a) voiced pause or filled pause; b) silent pauseFunction: P23(3) Pitch:This relative height of speech sounds as perceived by a listener is called “pitch”and to indicate different feelings or attitudes, such as agreement, doubt, surprise, delight, scorn, abhorrence, or hatred. a) The falling pitch; b) The rising pitch; c) The fall-rise pitch; d) The rise-fall pitch; e) The level pitch; f) The fall-plus-rise pitch. (各用在什么情境下，有什么作用P24~25)(4) Tempo:Tempo refers to the speed of speaking. Tempo reflected in monosyllables:a) quick and clipped syllables; b) loose and drawled syllables; c) slow and held syllables. Tempo reflected in sentences:a) the quick “allegro”; b) the slow “lendo”; c) the increasing “accelerando”; d) the decreasing “rallentando”.Function:Generally speaking, a quick tempo indicates excitement, surprise, agreement, happiness, indignation, whereas a slow tempo usually indicates confusion, emphasis,disagreement, hesitation, sadness, tiredness, low spirit or disappointment, etc.7、Graphological Items ——the study of writing system of a language Graphological level——the expression or realization of language in its writing system(1)Punctuation( the dash破折号, the colon冒号, the exclamation mark感叹号)；各自用处效果(2)Capitalization(3)Italics 斜体(4)Paragraphing（分段）：Paragraphing refers to the way in which a text isdivided into paragraphs. It is a device to reveal the relational structure in a text, the organization of the content.各自用处效果8、Lexical Items(1) General or Specific(2) Anglo-Saxon or Latinate(3) Other Lexical Items9、Syntactic/Grammatical Items(1) Clause TypesClause:A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence. It is a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contains a subject and a finite verb, often functioning as a noun, adjective or adverb.1) In terms of the clause constituents, there are 5 basic types:2) In terms of the structure of the verb phrases (if any) in a clause:①Finite clauses are clauses in which the first or the only verb phrase is a finite form.E.g. He finished his work before leaving the classroom.②Nonfinite clauses（非限定从句）are clauses whose verb phrase is non-finite,e.g. an –ing participle. He finished his work before leaving the classroom.③Verbless clauses（无动词分句）are clauses which contain no verb element, e.g.: Hundreds of people were killed in the fire, many of them children.3) In terms of functions in a sentence:①Independent clause, not subordinate to another clause.E.g. I am a teacher.②Subordinate clause is a clause which forms part of another clause as its element, or as constituent of a phrase within a clause.a)nominal clause（名词性从句）e.g. What he said is true.b)relative clause（关系从句）functioning as post modifiers of a noun phrase. E.g. People who smoke annoy me.c)comparative clause,than, asd)adverbial clauses denoting time, place, reason, etc.(2) Sentence TypesSentence:A sentence is, grammatically, the largest unit of grammatical organizationwithin which parts of speech and grammatical classes are to function.1)In terms of complexity or the number of constituent clauses:①Simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.②Multiple sentence consists of more than one clause.a) Compound sentence（复合句）consists of two or more independent clauses with no dependent clauses.E.g.: The storm is over, but the ground is still wet.b) Complex sentence（复杂句）consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clause,e.g.: Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet.c) Compound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses, one being compound, and at least one complex dependent clause, e.g.:Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet, and we cannot go out for a walk.2)In terms of grammaticality:①Major sentence is a sentence (simple or multiple) which conforms to the regular patterns of clause structures. (formal in style)②Minor sentence does not conform to the regular clause patterns,e.g.: Oh, if I were you!All aboard!3)In terms of function:①Declarative sentence（陈述句）②Interrogative sentence（疑问句）a)General questionb)Special questionc)Alternative questiond)Disjunctive question（反义疑问句）③Imperative sentence（命令、祈使、要求）④Exclamatory sentence（感叹句）4)In terms of sentence length:①Short sentence（casual, easy, informal, emphatic, eye-catching, to the point, effective, express a concept）②long sentence5)In terms of the beauty of structure or emphasis:①Periodic sentence（圆周句）is a sentence which suspends the completion of themain thought until(near) the end,e.g.:Every time a Cooper person is in peril, and absolute silence is worth four dollars a minute, he is sure to step on a dry twig.②Loose sentence（松散句）in contrast completes the main thought well before the end.③Balanced sentence contains two distinct halves or parts, each of about thesame length and importance,e.g.:In Plato’s opinion man was made for philosophy; in Bacon’s opinion philosophy wasmade for man.(beautiful in form, impressive in meaning; formal writings, expository and argumentative prose, public speech)10、British/American EnglishBritish English范围：EFL（mother tongue）: Britain; The Irish Republic；Australia；New Zealand；South Africa；The West Indian IslandESL：Singapore；MalaysiaThree periods: Old English, Middle English, Modern EnglishAmerican English范围：EFL：（mother tongue）The United States of America; CanadaESL：Mexico；The Philippines; Samoa（萨摩亚）History of AmE:Differences between BrE & AmE: 每项具体例子要看(1)In Vocabulary(2)In Grammar①The use of present perfect (BrE) or past tense (AmE)②The use of “have” or “have got” to indicate possession③The use of “got” (BrE) or “gotten” (AmE)④The use of different prepositions⑤The use of different expressions(3)In Spelling(4)In Pronunciation(RP=Received Pronunciation GA=General American)11、Spoken English & Written English（口头语和书面语）（1）Medium:Medium refers to graphic signs (visual medium) or sound waves (auditory medium) by means of which a message is conveyed from one person (addresser) to another (addressee).Martin Joos’ classification（2）区别：①At the lexical level②At the syntactical/grammatical level③At the phonological/graphological level④Semantically补充：Striking differences1) Hearer/Reader involvement.*Generally most speeches assume the presence of the hearer*Non-verbal signals like facial expressions of incomprehension or boredom, feedback in the way of laughter, applause and even booing (feedback from audience attening a lecture and the like).* A written text normally presumes the absence of the reader, and direct feedback from the reader is not possible.2) Linguistic explicitness*In speech, the participants rely heavily on their common background knowledge and the immediate context for much of their information.*The immediate context can eliminate the ambiguity or dark information carried by implicit linguistic structures, bring some words with concrete referents, and recrysta-lize the denotations of some otherwise abstract words.*Writing, generally, does not rely on the immediate context for understanding. Nor can the writer normally hope that his /her readers share with him/her much of the personal background knowledge needed for the understanding of the written text. On the contrary he/she must give great explicitness to whatever he/she is trying to say on paper.3) Preparedness*Writing is on the whole more ‘careful’ than speaking.*Permanent record, a clear idea about the subject matter and logical arrangement of thought, compact and self-contained.*Speech, esp. conversation, is often spontaneous. Random shift of topic, a general lack of conscious planning, features of hesitation, slips of the tongue, overlapping or simultaneous speech.Stylistic differencesSpoken texts contrast with written texts in terms of grammatical, lexical and phonological/ graphological features.Gregory(19107):1) Distinctions amongst speechSpeech can be spontaneous (such as casual conversation) or non-spontaneous (as what actors and teachers are doing).*Within spontaneous speech, there is conversing (with the participation of others) versus monologuing (with no interruption from others). The latter kind of sustained spontaneous speech is found in classroom teaching, TV interviewing, radio commenting, and the talking between scholars.*Non-spontaneous speech can be sub-categorized as reciting (such as story telling, poem recitation and singing) and as the speaking of what is written. In literate cultures, most non-spontaneous speech is the speaking of what has been written.2) Distinctions amongst writingThe text that has been written may be written to be spoken as if not written, or written to be spoken, or even written not necessarily to be spoken.a) Texts written to be spoken as if not written such as the lines in a drama, sound like real speech. But they are speeches that have been planned and prepared, whereas ordinary speech is spontaneous; and their situations are more compact and self-contained than those of conversing and monologuing.b) Texts written to be spoken with no effort to conceal their written origin such as scripts for sermons, speeches, lectures, news bulletins and commentaries, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation ofprosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode.c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with no relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read.d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard); and the interior monologue related to such texts may be categorized as written to be read as if thought (as if overheard).（3）①Electronic English (E-Discourse):Electronic English is a general term, and it is used to here to refer to the computer-mediated English, which can also be labeled by other names through slight differences exist.②Nature of Electronic English:E-English is interactive, electronic, communicative in nature, with the text presented on the screen.③Stylistic features:a) Lexicallyb) Syntactically12、Formal & Informal（会辨别formality）★(1) Formality:Formality refers to the way in which the style or tone of language will vary in appropriateness according to the social context: the occasion, the number of hearers, and the role-relationship——the relationship between the roles adopted by the addresser and the addressee in a given situation.Formal——Common core——Formal补充：Session 9 Formal vs Informal Language9.3 Functional tenor and degrees of formality1.Functional tenor tells us the addresser’s intention of using the language.2.Certain functional tenors can hit any point on the personal tenor formality continuum. *an expository speech: formal, with many passive constructions and a technical vocabulary; or, informal, in an ad-lib manner, with personal anecdotes, reference to the audience.*an insult: formal (formal structure and vocabulary, calm or deliberate delivery) or informal.9.4 Martin Joos’ classification(Martin Joos, 1967) The range of formality:5 levels: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.⏹The frozen level: In Joos' analysis, the frozen level is used for written legal documents or highly solemn speech which consists of memorized sentences that must be repeated verbatim. These might include quotations from proverbs or ritual expressions which are part of a formal ceremony.⏹The formal level is used for public addresses such as lectures or speeches where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. This level requires much attention to form (with well-planned thematic structure and phonological, lexical and syntactical coherence), and allows little or no interaction. It is typically marked with the use of may place of might , can (in 'May Ipresent Mr Smith ?'). The speaker is usually considered to be an authority and, therefore, has higher status than the hearers for that particular event.⏹The consultative level is used at less formal gatherings such as committee meetings where status is still fairly clearly designated, but where participants interact. There is still considerable attention to form (with rather clear pronunciation, accurate wording and complete sentences), and participants may not know each other well. It may be necessary for speakers to elaborate and give a significant amount of background material.⏹In contrast, the casual level is used among friends, or peers who know each other well enough that little elaboration is necessary. Participants pay very little attention to form (shown by the use of slang and ellipsis as in 'Been a good thing if...') and concentrate totally on content and relationship. One of the markers of this level is the use of 'Come on' with the implication 'Consider yourself among friends'.⏹The final level identified by Joos is 'intimate', language used between people who see each other daily (family members for instance) and share the majority of their daily life experiences. As a result, language is unelaborated and conversation may be meaningless to outsiders because of its telegraphic quality. No attention is paid to form.⏹第六种：The Gobbledygook 冗长的废话，官话e.g.1) My beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward.2) My dear father has just expired.3) My father has just passed away.4) My dad has died.5) My old man just kicked the bucket. --- by Martin JoosJoos' categories present an efficient way of looking at degrees of formality. It is fairly easy to distinguish the frozen style of (written) legal documents with their Latinate diction and impersonal syntax, from the intimate style of (spoken) interchanges between close friends, with their slang and elliptical syntax. But it is not easy to categorize the intervening degrees, or relate them to linguistic features. So most linguists agree that the situation is more complex than Joos imagined and see the range as a continuum from the most formal to the most Situation and Formality informal/intimate, with an infinite number of stopping places in between.(2) PolitenessPoliteness refers to a) how languages express the social distance between speakers and their different role-relationships; b) how face-work, that is, the attempt to establish, maintain, and save face during conversation, is carried out in a speech community. (3) Impersonality（非人格性，非人称性）Impersonality: Any discourse that is described as impersonal is marked by a distinct lack of the personal and informal mode.Language markers indicating degrees of impersonality include:①the generic pronoun one;②the third person nouns instead of personal pronouns;③the passive voice;④the introductory it as a sentence beginner;⑤abstract nouns or nominal groups.(5)Accessibility（可读性）Accessibility,synonymous with acceptability, or readability, refers to whether a piece of language is easy to understand by the addressee.Fog index（Robert Gunning）符合指数，可读性程度★Fog Index=0.4（L+H）L=the average sentence length in a passageH=the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words in the passageWhat should be known:①the total number of words;②the total number of sentences;③the total number of hard words( at least 3 syllables, not counting inflection orcompounding).Smaller=easierAn easily accessible text: about 10 or fewerAn casual conversation: about 5A legal document: more than 20Practice: 书P6913、Women & Men / Black English / Taboo & EuphemismTaboo:Taboo is often used to refer to a word or expression which is avoided by some people for religious, political, social, sexual, or other reasons and is usually replaced by a corresponding euphemism.Euphemism:A euphemism is often defined as substituting an inoffensive or pleasantword or expression for a more offensive one. Euphemism can even make the harsh reality appear neutral, which is why they are often employed by politicians in order to take the people in and endear themselves to the public.14、Conversation（定义，特征，各level 特征分析）Conversation refers to the act or an instance of talking together, for example, a familiar talk between friends; a verbal exchange of ideas, etc.Common features:①informality②inexplicitness③normal non-fluency④lexical banality⑤syntactic looseness⑥randomness of subject matter15、Public speaking（定义，特征，构成要素）(1) Public speeches are speeches delivered in public for a special purpose, such as open-class lectures or seminars in a university, religious preaches in the church, speeches delivered at a meeting or conference, the inaugural address of the president elect, etc.(2) General features:formal in style, clear and vivid in tone, persuasive in purpose(3) Types①The informative②The persuasive③The entertaining④The stimulating(4) Ways of delivery（效果，分别的优缺点）①Reading from a manuscript②Reciting from memory③Impromptu speaking④Extemporaneous speaking（outline）三四两种的区别16、News Reporting★(1) News reporting is the reporting of anything timely which has importance, use or interest to a considerable number of persons in a publication audience.(2) Classification①Place：National & Provincial②Contents: Quality Papers（严肃性）& Popular Papers（大众性）③Time: Morning, noon, evening, Sunday④Nature: Hard news（纯新闻），Soft news(3) Field:politics, economy, military, culture, technology, etc.Tenor:the journalists and masses different purposesMode:radio, broadcast, TV broadcast, newspaper, and magazine.(4) Definition of news(5) News value:timeliness, freshness（时新性）；importance, prominence（显著性）；locality, proximity（接近性）；oddity, weirdness, novelty（新奇性）；interest(6) The Make-up of News Report★书上例子及课后习题一定要看3 parts: the headline, the lead, the body1> The Headline①Definition:the text in large bold type at the top of the newspaper article, indicating the nature of the article below it.②Function:a)to advertise or sell the newsb)to summarize the storyc)to beautify the page④Main features:a)The omission of articles and the link verbb)Frequent use of abbreviationsc)Present tense is often usedd)Short powerful words are often employede)The use of pre-modificationf)Frequent use of figures of speech⑤Lexical features:a) a cronym and shortened words（缩略词和截短词）b)colloquial and conversational words（口语化词）c)midget words（小词）d)the use of pre-modification⑥Formats of Headlinesa)The banner/streamer 通栏标题b)The flush left head 左对齐式（垂直式）标题c)The dropped line/indented headd)The centered heade)The cross-line/key line head单行标题f)The step head 齐头标题g)The pyramid headh)The inverted pyramid headi)The jump head2> The Lead导语①Definition:The lead is the first or the first few paragraphs of the newsreport, consisting of the newest, most important, or the most attractive facts.②Who, what, when, where, ,why③Features:succinct, informative and intriguing④Forms:a)The contrast lead对比式导语b)The question lead提问式导语c)The quotation lead引语式导语d)The blind lead 盲式导语e)The descriptive lead描写性导语f)The main fact lead 主要事实导语g)The anecdotal lead 轶事导语h)The personal lead3> The body①The body is the main part of the news report.②Writing method:a)The inverted pyramid methodb)The chronological methodc)The highlight method(7) Stylistic features17、Advertising书上例子要看①Advertising is the non-personal communication of information, usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about the products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through various media.②Function:a)Information giving functionb)Demand-creating functionc)Distribution stimulating functiond)New customer introducing functione)Get-action functionf)Good-will establishing function③Classification:a)By medium,newspaper ads, magazine ads, TV ads, radio ads, direct mail ads,outdoor ads, human body ads, Internet ads, etc.b)By audience,consumer ads, business ads(commercial ads); service ads, specifiedads, charity ads, etc.c)By writing methods, hard-sell ads(intellect, fact, reason, telling advantages, serious,factual, accurate, objective) and soft-sell ads(emotion, figures of speech)⑤Elements of adsHeadline, the illustrations, the body copy, the slogan, the trade-mark, and the standing details (supplementary items).⑥Writing methods of the body-copya)The straight-line copy(objective, industrial products, cars, camera, withcomplicated structures)b)The narrative copy(story-telling)c)The testimonial copy( use some VIPs or people in real life to introduce theproduct)⑦Stylistic features如有侵权请联系告知删除，感谢你们的配合！。
文体常识和文学常识汇总复习
文体常识和文学常识汇总复习一、知识要点复习：内容涉及面较广泛。
一是文体知识：记叙文(要素、人称、顺序、中心、详略)，说明文(对象、特征、顺序、方法)，议论文(论点、论据、论证)，应用文(书信、电报、规则、计划、总结)等常识。
二是文学常识：基本课文涉及的重要作家和作品，还有小说、散文、诗歌、戏剧的常识，还有教材中交代的主要文化知识，日常生活经常用到的一些文化常识。
（一）小说散文诗歌戏剧常识1、小说：是一种通过人物,情节和环境的具体描写来反映现实升活的文学体裁。
小说三要素：人物:典型的艺术形象情节：(序幕) 开端发展高潮结局 (尾声) 环境:自然环境,社会环境2、散文的含义和特征散文有广义和狭义之分。
广义的散文通常指除诗歌、小说、戏剧、曲艺等以外的其他所有文章。
狭义的散文是指同诗歌、小说、戏剧相并列的一种文章体裁。
近年来，杂文、报告文学、回忆录等已从散文中分离出来，成为新的文学体裁，散文这一概念的外延逐步缩小。
这里所说的散文就是狭义范围内的散文。
根据散文的表现内容和表达方式，散文一般可以分为三类：记叙性散文、抒情性散文和议论性散文，当然也有将记叙、抒情和议论融为一体的。
散文作为一种独立的文体样式，有以下特征：（1）取材广泛散文的题材包罗万象，大千世界中具有认识意义、思想价值、美学意蕴的人、事、物、景，都能成为散文的题材范围。
散文的这一特点使它能够迅速地表达作者的生活感受。
（2）形散神聚形散神聚又叫形散神不散，是大多数散文的基本的特征。
形散指取材广泛、形式自由、手法灵活、思路开阔，从内容到形式要散得开。
神聚指文章整体结构严谨，材料层次井然，有统一的主题。
散文贵散，但要散而不乱，思路清晰，首尾一贯，做到撒得开，收得拢。
(3)形式自由散文无定体，笔法无定格，凡写人、叙事、议论、抒情，兴之所至，挥洒自如，涉笔成趣。
这使得散文形式自由灵活，多种多样，随笔、游记、札记、访问记都是散文家族的成员。
只要能很好地表现内容，在形式上是不受任何限制的。
《实用文体写作知识》总复习
<实用文体写作知识>复习参考资料一、填空题练习⑴主旨、材料、结构和语言是一切文章的构成要素。
⑵按照行文关系和行文方向的不同，可将公文分为上行文、平行文和下行文三种。
上行文是指下级机关向所属上级机关呈送的公文，主要有报告、请示等；平行文是指想同级机关或不相隶属的机关送交的公文，主要有函等；下行文是指上级机关向下级机关发送的公文，主要有命令（令）、决定、通报、通知、批复、意见等。
按照秘密等级不同分绝密文件、机密文件、秘密文件⑶公布社会个有关方面应当遵守或者周知的事项，要用通告；批转下级机关的公文，转发上级机关和不相隶属机关的公文，传达下级机关办理和需要有关单位周知或者执行的事项，任免人员，要用通知；表彰先进，批评错误，传达重要精神和情况，要用通报。
⑷按性质和内容的不同，可将总结分为综合性总结和专题性总结两类。
⑸经济活动分析报告的功能主要包括：诊断功能、建议功能、反馈功能、预测功能。
⑹事实和理由是民事起诉状的核心内容。
⑺按其内容和功用的不同，可将常用的通知分为：批示性通知、指示性通知、告知性通知、任免性通知几种。
⑻报告和请示的区别主要体现为：具体功用不同、内容含量不同、行文时机不同。
⑼消息的开头部分通常被称作导语。
⑽书信的内文主要包括称谓、问候语、正文、祝颂语和落款等几个部分。
⑾向上级机关汇报工作，反映情况，答复上级机关的询问，要用报告；向上级机关请求指示、批准，要用请示。
⑿会议纪要所应具备的两大特点是：纪实性、提要性。
会议纪要分为指示性会议纪要，通报性会议纪要和消息性会议纪要三类。
⒀常见的规章制度主要有章程、条例、规定、办法、和守则几种。
⒁民事起诉状通常是由首部、正文和尾部三部分组成。
⒂按用途和内容的不同可以将启事问为征招类启事、寻觅类启事、声明类启事三种。
⒃在公文中表示公文内容特征和归属类别的关键性词语叫主题词，一般不能超过7个词。
⒄通告可以分为两类：法规性通告和事务性通告。
⒅经济新闻的特点主要体现在真、新、精几个方面。
文化文体文学常识
《论语》，记载孔子和他的弟子的言论和行动的典籍。
04
《战国策》，记载战国时代各国游说之士的策略，作者不可考，由西汉刘向整理而成
05
《楚辞》，西汉刘向收集屈原、宋玉等人的作品汇集而成 屈原《离骚》 《庄子》，庄周及其弟子所作 《孟子》，记录了孟子的言行，为孟子及其弟子所著。 王维的诗歌被苏轼称赞为“诗中有画，画中有诗”。 鲁迅先生在“五四”前夕写的第一篇白话小说是《_________》。
2
托人办事用“ ”；请人指点用“ ”；
3
赞人见解用“ ”；发表见解称“ ”
4
老人年龄问“ ”；客人来到用“ ”；
5
初次见面说“久仰”；等候客人用“恭候”；
求人原谅说“包涵”；请人帮忙说“劳驾”；
托人办事用“拜托”；请人指点用“赐教”；
特定称谓
单击此处添加文本具体内容
匹夫 丈夫 甫 布衣 黔首(泛指老百姓） 庶民
丹青世家 杏林世家 梨园世家 园丁世家 汗青 轩辕
风骚
01.
阴阳01.江河源自01.岁寒三友01.
折柳
01.
左迁
01.
贬谪
01.
擢升
01.
玉兔
01.
圆寂
01.
羽化
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仙逝
01.
婵娟
01.
谥号
01.
桑梓
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社稷
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江山
三顾茅庐（ ）
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2019
纸上谈兵（ ）
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2020
图穷匕见（ ）
04
2021
卧薪尝胆（ ）
05
2022
负荆请罪（ ）
06
请写出下列成语中的主角：
议论文文体知识复习
答题要把握三点：文章内容、实际生活、自己感受，三者缺一不可。 答题格式：找出中心论点或感受最深的一句话+生活中（实例或现象）+我认为（谈自己的看法）+我要怎么做
2、结合材料或生活实际谈谈获得的启示或表述自己的看法。
开放性试题：
【复习建议】
*
*
掌握议论文文体知识（在头脑中建构起议论文的知识框架（论点、中心论点、分论点、论题、论据、论证方法，论证思路、议论文结构、论证语言等）
1、举例论证：通过举具体的事例加以论证，从而使论证更具体、更有说服力。 答题格式： 使用了举例论证的论证方法， 举…… （概括事例） 证明了…… （如有分论点，则写出它证明的分论点，否则写中心论点），从而使论证更具体、更有有说服力。 2、道理论证：通过讲道理的方式证明论点，使论证更概括更深入。 答题格式：使用了道理论证的论证方法，论证了……了观点，从而使论证更概括更入。 注：如果引用名人名言、格言警句、权威数据，可以增强论证的说服力和权威 性；引用名人佚事、奇闻趣事，可以增强论证的趣味性，吸引读者。 答题格式：使用了引用论证的论证方法，通过引用……证明……的观 点，使论证更有说 服力和权威性（或更有趣味性，吸引读者）。 3、对比论证。作用就是突出强调。 答题格式：使用了对比论证的论证方法，将……和……加以比较，突出强调了……的观点。 4、比喻论证：可把道理讲得通俗易懂，容易被人接受，使论证更加生动形象，浅显易懂。 答题格式：使用了比喻论证的论证方法，将……比作……，证明了……的观点，从而把抽象深奥的道理阐述得生动形象、浅显易懂。
⑴引出论题⑵引起读者的阅读兴趣。
深化中心论点，提出……的结论；
强调……的中心论点；
发出……的号召或希望人们……；
文体知识梳理学习专用
1.
说明对象 （7年5考）
事物说明文通过对具体事物的形状、构造、性质等特点介绍，使人 了解事物，多以题目点明说明对象。
如《苏州园林》的标题正是它的说明对象。
事理说明文着重于说明抽象的事理，分析事物间的因果关系，揭示 事物的发展规律。可通过对首尾段及中心语句概括，得出说明对象。 如《花儿为什么这样红》文章可分为三个部分：第一部分（第①段）用设问的方式引出要说明的对象：花儿为什么这样红？第二部分（第 ②〜⑩段）说明“花儿为什么这样红”的原因。第三部分（第？段）总结全文，概括花儿红的原因。由此可知本文的说明对象是“花呈
间顺序的说明文。
递进式
事理说明文多用递进式结构，各层之间由浅入深、由表及里、由现 象到本质地剖析事理，把道理说深、说透。
文章各部分的内容没有主次之分，没有轻重之别，是平行式的结构。
并列式
多用于空间顺序的说明文。
如《巴东三峡》中，文章分别描写“西陵峡”“巫峡” “瞿塘峡”。
连贯式
各层之间按照事物的发展过程安排层次，前后互相承接。多用于时
如《苏州园林》中分别从东西方对园林不讲究对称的描写，说明园 林是美术画，美术画要求自然之趣，是不讲究对称的。
3.说明方法及其作用
列数字
错误！
判断标志
呈现具体数据。如确数、约数、小数、分数、百分比、 倍数等。
作用
用具体准确的数字科学准确地说明事物的特点，使说明 有说服力，体现说明文的准确性。
示例
《雨林的毁灭一一世界性灾难》中“据估计，需毁掉6平方米的巴西雨林方可换得100克汉堡包 用具体的 数字客观、准确地说明人类对雨林的消耗情况。
示例
《南州六月荔枝丹》中“唐代杜牧诗云：‘长安回望绣 成堆，山顶千门次第开。一骑红尘妃子笑，无人知是荔 枝来’就是对这件事的嘲讽。”引用古诗词说明荔枝不 耐贮藏的特点。
作文文体知识点
作文文体知识点第一篇：作文文体知识点（一）记叙性文体阅读（记叙文、散文、小说）：1、文体知识（记叙的要素、线索、顺序、人称、详略及作用、和语言的表达方式辨识及作用）（1）记叙的要素：一般应具有六要素，即人物、时间、地点、事件的起因、经过和结果。
某些要素是读者熟知的，或者不交代不影响表达效果的，是可以省略的。
（2）记叙的线索：是指自始至终贯穿全文的一条主线。
常见的线索有六种，即：物线（具体的实物）、事线、人线、时线（时间的推进）、地线（地点的转移）和感情线（人物思想感情的变化）等。
有的记叙文存在两条或两条以上的线索。
找线索的方法：①了解文章的题材和内容，②注意文章的题目，③注意文章反复出现的词语或事物，④注意议论、抒情的语句，⑤注意明、暗两条线索。
（3）记叙的顺序：主要有三种：顺叙、倒叙、插叙。
按照事件发生发展的过程的先后顺序进行叙述的叫顺叙；先写事件的结局，然后再按照时间顺序叙述事件的经过的，或把事件发展过程中最突出的片段提到前边来写，然后再用顺叙写出整个过程的叫倒叙；在叙述中心事件的过程中，由于某种需要暂时把叙述的线索中断一下，插进有关的另一件事情的叙述叫插叙。
（4）记叙的人称：有第一人称和第三人称。
采用第一人称，便于直抒胸臆，读起来有种亲切感和真实感。
采用第二人称，有利于直接抒发某种情感。
采用第三人称，不受时空限制，能从多方面自由表达。
有时二者单独使用，有时两种人称交叉使用。
（5）记叙的表达方式：常用的表达方式有叙述、描写、议论、抒情，以叙述和描写为主。
叙述：分概括叙述和详细叙述两种。
描写：是对人物、事件和环境等所作的绘声绘色、细致入微的描绘与刻画。
分为人物描写和环境描写两种。
人物描写方法有：外貌描写、动作描写、语言描写、心理描写、神态描写、细节描写；正面描写、侧面描写（描写角度）。
环境描写有：自然景物描写、社会环境描写。
议论：有两种方式：先叙后议和先议后叙。
前者可增强文章的思想深度，后者可使读者很快进入对将要叙述的事物的思考，引起对下文的密切注意。