文献翻译 (2)
英文文献翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿Sodium Polyacrylate:Also known as super-absorbent or “SAP”(super absorbent polymer), Kimberly Clark used to call it SAM (super absorbent material). It is typically used in fine granular form (like table salt). It helps improve capacity for better retention in a disposable diaper, allowing the product to be thinner with improved performance and less usage of pine fluff pulp. The molecular structure of the polyacrylate has sodium carboxylate groups hanging off the main chain. When it comes in contact with water, the sodium detaches itself, leaving only carboxylions. Being negatively charged, these ions repel one another so that the polymer also has cross-links, which effectively leads to a three-dimensional structure. It has hige molecular weight of more than a million; thus, instead of getting dissolved, it solidifies into a gel. The Hydrogen in the water (H-O-H) is trapped by the acrylate due to the atomic bonds associated with the polarity forces between the atoms. Electrolytes in the liquid, such as salt minerals (urine contains 0.9% of minerals), reduce polarity, thereby affecting superabsorbent properties, especially with regard to the superabsorbent capacity for liquid retention. This is the main reason why diapers containing SAP should never be tested with plain water. Linear molecular configurations have less total capacity than non-linear molecules but, on the other hand, retention of liquid in a linear molecule is higher than in a non-linear molecule, due to improved polarity. For a list of SAP suppliers, please use this link: SAP, the superabsorbent can be designed to absorb higher amounts of liquids (with less retention) or very high retentions (but lower capacity). In addition, a surface cross linker can be added to the superabsorbent particle to help it move liquids while it is saturated. This helps avoid formation of "gel blocks", the phenomenon that describes the impossibility of moving liquids once a SAP particle gets saturated.History of Super Absorbent Polymer ChemistryUn til the 1980’s, water absorbing materials were cellulosic or fiber-based products. Choices were tissue paper, cotton, sponge, and fluff pulp. The water retention capacity of these types of materials is only 20 times their weight – at most.In the early 1960s, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was conducting work on materials to improve water conservation in soils. They developed a resin based on the grafting of acrylonitrile polymer onto the backbone of starch molecules (i.e. starch-grafting). The hydrolyzed product of the hydrolysis of this starch-acrylonitrile co-polymer gave water absorption greater than 400 times its weight. Also, the gel did not release liquid water the way that fiber-based absorbents do.The polymer came to be known as “Super Slurper”.The USDA gave the technical know how several USA companies for further development of the basic technology. A wide range of grating combinations were attempted including work with acrylic acid, acrylamide and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).Since Japanese companies were excluded by the USDA, they started independent research using starch, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), acrylic acid, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and isobutylene maleic anhydride (IMA).Early global participants in the development of super absorbent chemistry included Dow Chemical, Hercules, General Mills Chemical, DuPont, National Starch & Chemical, Enka (Akzo), Sanyo Chemical, Sumitomo Chemical, Kao, Nihon Starch and Japan Exlan.In the early 1970s, super absorbent polymer was used commercially for the first time –not for soil amendment applications as originally intended –but for disposable hygienic products. The first product markets were feminine sanitary napkins and adult incontinence products.In 1978, Park Davis (d.b.a. Professional Medical Products) used super absorbent polymers in sanitary napkins.Super absorbent polymer was first used in Europe in a baby diaper in 1982 when Schickendanz and Beghin-Say added the material to the absorbent core. Shortly thereafter, UniCharm introduced super absorbent baby diapers in Japan while Proctor & Gamble and Kimberly-Clark in the USA began to use the material.The development of super absorbent technology and performance has been largely led by demands in the disposable hygiene segment. Strides in absorption performance have allowed the development of the ultra-thin baby diaper which uses a fraction of the materials – particularly fluff pulp – which earlier disposable diapers consumed.Over the years, technology has progressed so that there is little if any starch-grafted super absorbent polymer used in disposable hygienic products. These super absorbents typically are cross-linked acrylic homo-polymers (usually Sodium neutralized).Super absorbents used in soil amendments applications tend to be cross-linked acrylic-acrylamide co-polymers (usually Potassium neutralized).Besides granular super absorbent polymers, ARCO Chemical developed a super absorbent fiber technology in the early 1990s. This technology was eventually sold to Camelot Absorbents. There are super absorbent fibers commercially available today. While significantly more expensive than the granular polymers, the super absorbent fibers offer technical advantages in certain niche markets including cable wrap, medical devices and food packaging.Sodium polyacrylate, also known as waterlock, is a polymer with the chemical formula [-CH2-CH(COONa)-]n widely used in consumer products. It has the ability to absorb as much as 200 to 300 times its mass in water. Acrylate polymers generally are considered to possess an anionic charge. While sodium neutralized polyacrylates are the most common form used in industry, there are also other salts available including potassium, lithium and ammonium.ApplicationsAcrylates and acrylic chemistry have a wide variety of industrial uses that include: ∙Sequestering agents in detergents. (By binding hard water elements such as calcium and magnesium, the surfactants in detergents work more efficiently.) ∙Thickening agents∙Coatings∙Fake snowSuper absorbent polymers. These cross-linked acrylic polymers are referred to as "Super Absorbents" and "Water Crystals", and are used in baby diapers. Copolymerversions are used in agriculture and other specialty absorbent applications. The origins of super absorbent polymer chemistry trace back to the early 1960s when the U.S. Department of Agriculture developed the first super absorbent polymer materials. This chemical is featured in the Maximum Absorbency Garment used by NASA.译文聚丙烯酸钠聚丙烯酸钠，又可以称为超级吸收剂或者又叫高吸水性树脂，凯博利克拉克教授曾经称它为SAM即：超级吸收性物质。
Unit2文献阅读与翻译第二章
Eg.1:Tension is building up.
形势紧张起来。 张力在增大。 电压在增加。 压力在增强。 ……
Eg.2: the English word of story
This war is becoming the most important story of this generation. (事件) It is quite another story now, for the leadership has changed. (情况) Some reporters who were not included in the session broke the story. (内情) A young man came to a police officer’s office with a story.
(3)Judging from the Context and Collocation
2篇英文文献翻译
On some of the design aspects of wind energy conversion systemsAbstractIn the overall process of utilizing wind power, two essential components of technical data, i.e. one related to the engineering or performance characteristics of commercially available wind turbine generators, and the other related to the availability of wind resources ,are need .The performance of wind energy conversion systems(WECs) depends upon subsystems like wind turbine (aaerodynamic),gears(mechanical), and generator (electrical), The availability of wind resources is governed by the climatic conditions of the region ,for which the wind survey is extremely important to exploit wind energy .In this paper, design aspects, such as factor affecting wind power, siting requirements for WECs, problems related with grid connections, classification of wind electric generation schemes, criteria for selection of equipment for WECs, choice of generators, three basic design philosophies , main considerations in wind turbine design ,choice between two and three blade rotors, weight and size considerations and environmental aspects related with WECs have been presented.1. IntroductionWind powered systems have widely used since the tenth century for water pumping, grinding and other low power application. There were several early attempts to build large scale wind powered systems to generate electricity. In 1931,the Russians built a large windmill with a 100 ft(30.5 m) diameter blade, but it had a very low conversion efficiency and was abandoned. In 1945,a Vermount utility built a large wind powered generator to produce electricity. This system costed $1.25 million and had an electrical power output of 1.25 MW. This unit lasted for 23 days before one of the blades failed due to fatigue, and the project was abandoned.The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), in conjunction with the Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), has built andtested a large number of large wind powered generators .The first machine was a100KW unit built at Sandusky, Ohio, for around a million dollars. A number of other machines with power up to 2.5 MW and rotor diameter up to 350 ft(107m) have been constructed. During the 1980s, it became popular to invest money in wind systems because of the tax benefits. Consequently, a number of wind farms were built, particularly in the mountain passes of California. In 1985 ,about half of the world’s wind generated electricity was produced in the Altamount Passe area of California. This area has 6700 turbines with a total rated capacity of 630 MW. Among the renewable sources off energy available today for generation of electrical power, wind energy stands foremost because of the relatively low capital cost involved and the short gestation period required. The world has obtained the installed wind capacity of 13400MW by the end of 1992.The design and successful operation of large scale wind powered generators face a number of formidable problems. If the system is designed to produce a.c power, a constant angular velocity and force problems. Unfortunately, the wind velocity is neither constant in magnitude or direction nor is it constant from the top to bottom of a large rotor. This imposes severe cyclic loads on the turbine blades, creating fatigue problems. This problem is compounded if a downwind rotor system is used because the shadow of the support tower unloads the blade. This effect also produces a noticeable noise, which can be objectionable.The available wind resource is governed by the climatology of the region concerned and has a large variability from one location to the other and also from season to season at any fixed location. A lot of development has taken place in the design of wind energy conversion systems. Modern wind turbines are highly sophisticated machines built, on the aerodynamic principles developed from the aerospace industry, incorporating advanced materials and electronics and are designed to deliver energy across a wide range of speeds. In this paper, WECs related aspects, such as factors affecting wind power, siting requirements for WECs, criteria for selection of equipment for WECs, choice of generators, three basic design philosophies, main considerations in wind turbine design, choice between two and three blade rotors, weight and size considerations and environmental aspects related with WECs have been presented.2. Factors affecting wind powerOne of the most important tools in working with the wind, whether designing a wind turbine or using one, is the firm understanding of the factors affecting the wind power. Following are the important factors that must be considered:2.1. Wind statisticsWind is a highly variable power source, and there are several methods of characterizing this variability. The most common method is the power duration curve. This is a good concept but is not easily used to select Vc and Vr for a given wind site, which is an important design requirement. Another method is to use a statistical representation, particularly a Weibull function.2.2. Load factorThere are at least two major objectives in wind turbine design. One is to maximize the average power output. The other is to meet the necessary load (which is the ratio of average electrical power to the rated electrical power) requirement of the load. Load factor is not of major concern if the wind electric generator (WEG) is acting as a fuel saver on the electric network. But if the generator is pumping irrigation water in asynchronous mode, for example, the load factor is very important.2.3. Seasonal and diurnal variation of wind powerSeasonal and diurnal variations have significant effects in wind. Load duration data are required to judge the appropriate effects. Diurnal variation is less with increased height. Average power may vary from about 80% of the long term annual average power in the early morning hour to about 120% of the long term average power in the early afternoon hours.2.4. Variation with timeFor most applications of wind power, it is more important to know about the continuity of supply than the total amount of energy available in a year. In practice, when the wind blows strongly, e.g. more than 12 m/s, there is no shortage if power, and often, the generated power has to be dumped. Difficulties appear, however, ifthere are extended periods of light or zero winds. A rule of thumb for electricity generation is that sites with average wind speed less than 5 m/s will have unacceptably long periods without generation, and the sites of average 8 m/s or above will be considered very good. In all the cases it will be necessary to match carefully the machine characteristic to the local wind regime to give the type of supply required.3. Siting requirements for WECsIn addition to adequate availability of wind resources (a minimum of 18 km/h or 5 km/h wind speed ) the following factors have to be considered while locating a WEG :a. availability of land,b. availability of power grid (for a grid connected system),c. accessibility of site,d. terrain and soil,f. frequency of lightning strokes.Once the wind resource at a particular site has been established, the next factor to be considered is the availability of land. The area of land required depends upon the size of wind farm. The optimum spacing in a row is 8-12 times the rotor diameter in the wind directions and 1.5-3 times the rotor diameter in cross wind directions. As a rule of thumb, 10 ha/MW can be taken as the land requirement of wind farms, including infrastructure. In order to optimize the power output from a given site, additional information is needed, such as wind rose, wind speeds, vegetation, topography, ground roughness etc., besides the configuration of a set of wind turbines, which can be altered for reaching best array efficiencies and highest generation. Factors such as convenient access to the wind farm site, load bearing capacity of the soil, frequency of cyclones, earthquakes etc., also require consideration before siting the wind farm.4. Choice of generatorsThere are mainly the following three classes of generators:4.1. DC generatorsDC generators are relatively unusual wind/micro-hydro turbine applications because they are expensive and require regular maintenance. Nowadays, for most d.c. applications, for example, it is more common to employ an a.c. generator to generate a.c., which is then converted to d.c. with simple solid state rectifiers.4.2. Synchronous generatorThe major advantage of synchronous generator is that its reactive power characteristic can be controlled, and therefore such machines can be used to supply reactive power to other items of power systems that require reactive power. It is normal for a stand alone wind-Diesel system to have a synchronous generator, usually connected to the Diesel engine. Synchronous generators, when fitted to a wind turbine, must be controlled carefully to prevent the rotor speed accelerating through synchronous speed especially during turbulent winds. Moreover, it requires a flexible coupling in the drive train, or to mount the gearbox assembly on springs or dampers to absorb turbulence. Synchronous generators are costlier than induction generators, particularly in smaller size ranges. Synchronous generators are more prone to failures.4.3. Induction generatorsAn induction generator offers many advantages over a conventional synchronous generator as a source of isolated power supply. Reduced unit cost, ruggedness, brushless (in squirrel cage construction), reduced size, absence of separate DC source and ease of maintenance, self-protection against severe overloads and short circuits are the main advantages. Further, induction generators are loosely coupled devices, i.e. they are heavily damped and, therefore, have the ability to absorb slight changes in rotor speed, and drive train transients to some extent, can, therefore, be absorbed, whereas synchronous generators are closely coupled devices and when used in windturbines, are subjected to turbulence and require additional damping devices, such as flexible couplings in the drive train or mounting the gearbox assembly on springs and dampers. Reactive power consumption and poor voltage regulation under varying speed are the major drawbacks of the induction generators, but the development of static power converters has facilitated control of the output of voltage of the induction generator, within limits.5. Environmental aspects5.1. Audible noiseThe wind turbine is generally quiet. It poses no objectionable noise disturbance in the surrounding area. The wind turbine manufacturers generally supply the noise level data in dB versus the distance from the tower. A typical 600 kW wind turbine may produce 55 dB noise at 50 m distance from the turbine and 40 dB at a 250 m distance. This noise is, however, a steady state noise. The wind turbine makes loud noise while yawing under changing wind direction. Local noise ordinances must be satisfied before installing wind turbines.5.2. Electromagnetic interferenceAny stationary or moving structure in the proximity of a radio or TV station interferes with the signals. The wind turbine towers can cause objectionable electromagnetic interference (EMI) on the performance of the nearby transmitters or receivers.In other aspects, the visual impact of the wind farm can be of concern to some one. The breeding and feeding patterns of birds may be disturbed. They may even be injured and even killed if they collide with the blades.6. ConclusionsThe design of wind energy conversion systems is a very complex task and requires interdisciplinary skills, e.g. civil, mechanical, electrical and electronics, geography, aerospace, environmental etc. An attempt has been made to discuss theimportant design aspects of WECs. In this paper, design aspects, such as factors affecting wind power, siting requirements for WECs, problems related with grid connections, classification of wind electric generation schemes, criteria for selection of equipment for WECs, choice of generators, three basic design philosophies, main considerations and environmentally related aspects with WECs, have been critically discussed.风能转换系统方面的设计摘要要在整个过程中利用风能,需要有两个主要的技术指标，也就是说一个在市场可以买到的符合产品设计或运行特性的风力发电机，另一个是满足要求的风力资源。
文献翻译(二次电流层)
激光等离子体相互作用中磁重联引起的等离子体与二次电流层生成的研究摘要:以尼尔逊[物理学家、列托人，97，255001，（2006）]为代表的科学家首次对等离子体相互作用引起的磁重联进行了研究，该研究在固体等离子体层上进行，在两个激光脉冲中间设置一定间隔，在两个激光斑点之间可以发现一条细长的电流层（CS），为了更加贴切的模拟磁重联过程，我们应该设置两个并列的目标薄层。
实验过程中发现，细长的电流层的一端出现一个折叠的电子流出区域，该区域中含有三条平行的电子喷射线，电子射线末端能量分布符合幂律法则。
电子主导磁重联区域强烈的感应电场增强了电子加速，当感应电场处于快速移动的等离子体状态时还会进一步加速，另外弹射过程会引起一个二级电流层。
正文:等离子体的磁重联与爆炸过程磁能量进入等离子体动能和热能能量的相互转换有关。
发生磁重联的薄层区域加速并释放等离子体[1-5]。
实验中磁重联速度与太阳能的观察结果大于Sweet-Parker与相关模型[4-6]的标准值，这是由霍尔电流和湍流[7-12]引起的。
二级磁岛以及该区域释放的等离子体可以提高磁重联速度，当伦德奎斯特数S﹥104[13]时二级磁导很不稳定。
这些理论预测值与近地磁尾离子扩散区域中心附近的二级磁岛观察值相符[14]，激光束与物质的相互作用的过程中，正压机制激发兆高斯磁场（▽ne×▽Te）生成[15-16]。
以尼尔逊[17]为代表的科学家首次运用两个类似的的激光产生的等离子体模拟磁重联过程。
尼尔逊[17]与Li[18]等人实验测量数据为磁重联的存在提供了决定性的证据，他们运用了随时间推移的质子偏转技术来研究磁拓扑变化，除此之外尼尔逊[17]等人观察到高度平行双向等离子喷射线与预期的磁重联平面成40°夹角。
本次研究调查了自发磁场的无碰撞重联，激光等离子体相互作用产生等离子体，为了防止磁场与等离子体连接在一起实验过程使用了两个共面有一定间隔的等离子体。
知云文献翻译使用教程
知云文献翻译使用教程摘要：一、知云文献翻译使用教程简介1.知云文献翻译的背景与功能2.教程的目的与适用对象二、知云文献翻译使用教程步骤1.安装与注册2.登录与使用2.1 导入文献2.2 选择翻译语言2.3 翻译与校对2.4 导出翻译结果三、知云文献翻译使用教程注意事项1.准确性保障2.术语库与机器翻译的结合3.持续更新与优化四、总结与展望1.教程的总结2.知云文献翻译的未来展望正文：一、知云文献翻译使用教程简介随着全球化的加速，学术交流和合作变得越来越频繁，对文献翻译的需求也日益增加。
知云文献翻译是一款专业的文献翻译工具，旨在帮助用户快速、准确地翻译外语文献。
本教程将详细介绍知云文献翻译的使用方法，旨在帮助用户更好地掌握该工具，提高文献翻译效率。
二、知云文献翻译使用教程步骤1.安装与注册首先，用户需要在官方网站下载并安装知云文献翻译软件。
安装完成后，用户需要注册一个账号，以便登录并使用软件。
2.登录与使用2.1 导入文献在登录后，用户可以通过点击“导入文献”按钮，将需要翻译的文献导入到软件中。
支持的文件格式包括PDF、Word、PPT等。
2.2 选择翻译语言在导入文献后，用户需要选择翻译的目标语言。
软件支持多种语言互译，用户可以根据需要选择合适的翻译语言。
2.3 翻译与校对选择好翻译语言后，点击“翻译”按钮，软件将自动进行翻译。
翻译完成后，用户可以对翻译结果进行校对，以确保翻译的准确性。
2.4 导出翻译结果校对完成后，用户可以导出翻译结果。
软件支持多种文件格式，用户可以根据需要选择导出格式。
三、知云文献翻译使用教程注意事项1.准确性保障知云文献翻译采用了先进的翻译技术，并结合了术语库，力求翻译结果的准确性。
然而，机器翻译仍然存在一定的局限性，用户在使用过程中应结合自己的专业知识进行校对，以确保翻译结果的准确性。
2.术语库与机器翻译的结合知云文献翻译采用了术语库与机器翻译相结合的方式，既保证了翻译的准确性，又提高了翻译的速度。
外文文献及翻译
外文文献及翻译1. 文献："The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health"翻译：运动对心理健康的影响Abstract: This article explores the effects of exercise on mental health. The author discusses various studies that have been conducted on this topic, and presents evidence to support the claim that exercise can have positive impacts on mental well-being. The article also examines the mechanisms through which exercise affects mental health, such as the release of endorphins and the reduction of stress hormones. Overall, the author concludes that exercise is an effective strategy for improving mental health and recommends incorporating physical activity into daily routines.摘要：本文探讨了运动对心理健康的影响。
作者讨论了在这个主题上进行的各种研究，并提出证据支持运动对心理健康有积极影响的观点。
该文章还探讨了运动如何影响心理健康的机制，如内啡肽的释放和压力激素的减少。
总的来说，作者得出结论，运动是改善心理健康的有效策略，并建议将体育活动纳入日常生活。
2. 文献： "The Benefits of Bilingualism"翻译：双语能力的好处Abstract: This paper examines the benefits of bilingualism. The author presents research findings that demonstrate the cognitiveadvantages of being bilingual, such as enhanced problem-solving skills and improved attention control. The article also explores the social and cultural benefits of bilingualism, such as increased cultural awareness and the ability to communicate with people from different backgrounds. Additionally, the author discusses the positive effects of bilingualism on mental health, highlighting its role in delaying the onset of cognitive decline and in providing a buffer against age-related memory loss. Overall, the author concludes that bilingualism offers a range of advantages and recommends promoting bilingual education and language learning. 摘要：本文研究了双语能力的好处。
文献翻译参考
毕业设计（论文）译文及原稿译文题目一贸易能带来经济增长？原稿题目一Does Trade Cause Growth？原稿出处一Frankel J , and Romer D .Does Trade Cause Growth ? [J] . American Economic Review . 1999,89 (3): 379 -399.贸易能带来经济增长？1.构建模型A背景我们基本的想法可以表述为使用三个简单的等式模型。
首先，国家i的平均收入的函数包括：与其他国家经济交往（简称“国际贸易”），国内经济交往（“国内贸易”）和其他相关因素。
（1）.这里是个人收入，是国际贸易，是国内贸易，是与收入相关的其他影响因素。
已正如大量的文献对贸易描述的那样，贸易可以通过很多途径影响收入，贸易通过比较优势，开发来自大市场的递增收益，通过交流和旅游交换思想，通过投资和开发新产品传播科技，从而使得专业分工更加显著。
因为各种因素相互作用共同促进，我们的方法不能确定具体是哪种贸易方式影响收入。
另外两个方程式包含了国际贸易和国内贸易的决定因素。
国际贸易的函数包括，是一个国家与另一个国家的接近度和其他因素。
（2）类似的，国内贸易的函数包括国家大小，和其他因素。
（3）三个等式中的剩余因素，和，很有可能相互关联。
比如说，那些拥有良好的交通系统或者政府的政策的国家，能够促进竞争并能够依赖市场分配资源，具有地理优势给他们带来大量的国际和国内贸易，贸易又给他们带来了大量的收入。
我们假设分析的关键是判定国家的地理特征（他们的和）与另外的等式（1）和（3）是没有关联的。
相似度和规模不会被收入或者其他因素影响，而政府政策可以影响收入。
我们回顾引言，除了作用于该国居民人数与外国人或者其他人之间的相互影响，我们很难想出有效的方法证明相似度和规模可以影响收入。
给出P和S与不相关联的假设。
通过变量Y,T,W,P和S，我们可以计算公式（1）：P，S与T，W有关[通过公式(2)和公式 (3)] ，并且与无关（通过鉴别假设）。
毕业论文英文翻译文献
毕业论文英文翻译文献随着全球化的发展，英语在全球的运用越来越广泛。
下文是店铺为大家整理的关于毕业论文英文翻译文献的内容，欢迎大家阅读参考! 毕业论文英文翻译文献(一)1. 谢天振主编. 《当代国外翻译理论导读》. 天津：南开大学出版社，2008.2. 包惠南、包昂. 《中国文化与汉英翻译》. 北京：外文出版社, 2004.3. 包惠南. 《文化语境与语言翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 2001.4. 毕继万. 《世界文化史故事大系——英国卷》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2003.5. 蔡基刚. 《英汉汉英段落翻译与实践》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2001.6. 蔡基刚. 《英汉写作对比研究》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2001.7. 蔡基刚. 《英语写作与抽象名词表达》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2003.8. 曹雪芹、高鄂. 《红楼梦》.9. 陈定安. 《英汉比较与翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 1991.10. 陈福康. 《中国译学理论史稿》(修订本). 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2000.11. 陈生保. 《英汉翻译津指》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998.12. 陈廷祐. 《英文汉译技巧》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 2001.13. 陈望道. 《修辞学发凡》. 上海：上海教育出版社, 1979.14. 陈文伯. 《英汉翻译技法与练习》. 北京：世界知识出版社. 1998.15. 陈中绳、吴娟. 《英汉新词新义佳译》. 上海：上海翻译出版公司. 1990.16. 陈忠诚. 《词语翻译丛谈》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 1983.17. 程希岚. 《修辞学新编》. 吉林：吉林人民出版社, 1984.18. 程镇球. 《翻译论文集》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 2002.19. 程镇球. 《翻译问题探索》. 北京：商务印书馆, 1980.20. 崔刚. 《广告英语》. 北京：北京理工大学出版社, 1993.21. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译技巧》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1990.22. 单其昌. 《汉英翻译讲评》. 北京：对外贸易教育出版社. 1989.23. 邓炎昌、刘润清. 《语言与文化——英汉语言文化对比》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1989.24. 丁树德. 《英汉汉英翻译教学综合指导》. 天津：天津大学出版社, 1996.25. 杜承南等，《中国当代翻译百论》. 重庆：重庆大学出版社, 1994.26. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集(1894-1948)》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1984.27. 《翻译通讯》编辑部. 《翻译研究论文集(1949-1983)》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 1984. .28. 范勇主编. 《新编汉英翻译教程》. 天津：南开大学出版社. 2006.29. 方梦之、马秉义(编选). 《汉译英实践与技巧》. 北京：旅游教育出版社. 1996.30. 方梦之. 《英语汉译实践与技巧》. 天津：天津科技翻译出版公司. 1994.31. 方梦之主编. 《译学辞典》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2004.32. 冯翠华. 《英语修辞大全》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.33. 冯庆华. 《文体与翻译》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2002.34. 冯庆华主编. 《文体翻译论》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 2002.35. 冯胜利. 《汉语的韵律、词法与句法》. 北京：北京大学出版社, 1997.36. 冯志杰. 《汉英科技翻译指要》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998.37. 耿占春. 《隐喻》. 北京：东方出版社, 1993.38. 郭建中. 《当代美国翻译理论》. 武汉：湖北教育出版社. 2000.39. 郭建中. 《文化与翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 2000.40. 何炳威. 《容易误译的英语》. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社. 2002.41. 何刚强. 《现代英汉翻译操作》. 北京：北京大学出版社. 1998.42. 何刚强. 《现代英语表达与汉语对应》. 上海：复旦大学出版社. 1994.43. 何刚强. 《英汉口笔译技艺》. 上海：复旦大学出版社, 2003. 毕业论文英文翻译文献(二)1. 何自然、张达三、杨伟钧等译. 《现代英语语法教程》. 北京：商务印书馆, 1990.2. 何自然. 《语用学概论》. 长沙: 湖南教育出版社, 1988.3. 侯维瑞. 《英语语体》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 1988.4. 胡庚申. 《怎样起草与翻译合同协议》. 合肥：中国科技大学出版社, 1993.5. 胡曙中. 《英汉修辞比较研究》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 1993.6. 胡晓吉. 《实用英汉对比翻译》. 北京：中国人民大学出版社. 1990.7. 胡燕平，张容建. 《实用英汉翻译类典》. 重庆：重庆出版社, 1997.8. 胡裕树. 《现代汉语》. 上海：上海教育出版社, 1987.9. 胡兆云. 《美学理论视野中的文学翻译研究》(第2版). 北京：现代教育出版社. 2009.10. 胡兆云. 《语言接触与英汉借词研究》. 济南：山东大学出版社. 2001.11. 胡壮麟. 《语篇的衔接与连贯》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 1994.12. 胡壮麟. 《语言学教程》. 北京：北京大学出版社, 1988.13. 黄伯荣, 廖序东. 《现代汉语》. 兰州：甘肃人民出版社, 1981.14. 黄国文. 《语篇分析概要》. 长沙：湖南教育出版社, 1988.15. 黄龙. 《翻译技巧指导》. 沈阳：辽宁人民出版社, 1986.16. 黄任. 《英语修辞与写作》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 1996.17. 黄雨石. 《英汉文学翻译探索》. 西安：陕西人民出版社. 1988.18. 黄振定. 《翻译学：艺术论与科学论的统一》. 长沙：湖南教育出版社. 1998.19. 黄振定. 《翻译学的语言哲学基础》. 上海：上海交通大学出版社. 2007.20. 黄忠廉. 《变译理论》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 2002.21. 贾尔斯英译. 《孙子兵法》. 长沙：湖南出版社, 1993.22. 贾文波. 《汉英时文翻译: 政治经济汉译英300句析》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 1999.23. 贾玉新. 《跨文化交际学》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 1997.24. 金隄. 《等效翻译探索》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司. 1998.25. 金惠康. 《汉英跨文化交际翻译》. 贵阳：贵州教育出版社. 1998.26. 金惠康. 《跨文华交际翻译》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2003.27. 金惠康. 《跨文华交际翻译续编》. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司, 2004.28. 金立鑫. 《语法的多视角研究》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2000.29. 居祖纯. 《新编汉英语篇翻译》. 北京：清华大学出版社, 2002.30. 柯平. 《对比语言学》. 南京：南京师范大学出版社, 1999.31. 孔慧怡. 《翻译·文学·文化》. 北京：北京大学出版社. 1999.32. 李定坤. 《汉英辞格对比与翻译》. 武汉：华中师范大学出版社, 1994.33. 李国南. 《辞格与词汇》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2002.34. 李国南. 《英汉修辞格对比研究》. 福州：福建人民出版社, 1999.35. 李明编著. 《英汉互动翻译教程》. 武汉：武汉大学出版社. 2006.36. 李瑞华(主编). 《英汉语言文化对比研究》. 上海：上海外语教育出版社. 1996.。
医学英语文献阅读二翻译
Unit OneText A： Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal1.Perhaps the most enduring --- certainly the most quoted --- tradition in thehistory of medicine is the Hippocratic Oath. Named after the famous Greek physicianHippocrates, this oath was written as a guideline for the medical ethics of doctors.Although the exact words have changed over time, the general content is the same- an oath to respect those who have imparted their knowledge upon the science ofmedicine, and respect to the patients as well as the promise to treat them to thebest of the physicians' ability.或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人，尊重病人，尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。
Who was Hippocrates, and Did he Write the Oath?2.For a man considered by many to be the 'Father of Medicine', little is known aboutHippocrates of Cos. He lived circa 460-380 BC, and was the contemporary of Socratesas well as a practising physician. He was certainly held to be the most famousphysician and teacher of medicine in his time. Over 60 treatises of medicine, calledthe Hippocratic Corpus have been attributed to him; however, these treatises hadconflicting contents and were written some time between 510 and 300 BC, and thereforecould not all have been written by him.作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.3.The Oath was named after Hippocrates, certainly, although its penmanship is stillin question. According to authorities in medical history, the contents of the oath suggest that it was penned during the 4th Century BC, whichmakes it possible that Hippocrates had himself written it. Anyway, regardless ofwhether or not Hippocrates himself had written the Hippocratic Oath, the contentsof the oath reflect his views on medical ethics.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的，虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。
英文文献全文翻译
英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：LeGuin, Ursula K. (December 18, 2002). "Dancing at the Edge of the World: Thoughts on Words, Women, Places".《世界边缘的舞蹈：关于语言、女性和地方的思考》Introduction:In "Dancing at the Edge of the World," Ursula K. LeGuin explores the intersection of language, women, and places. She writes about the power of words, the role of women in society, and the importance of our connection to the places we inhabit. Through a series of essays, LeGuin invites readers to think critically about these topics and consider how they shape our understanding of the world.Chapter 1: LanguageConclusion:第二篇示例：IntroductionEnglish literature translation is an important field in the study of language and culture. The translation of English literature involves not only the linguistic translation of words or sentences but also the transfer of cultural meaning and emotional resonance. This article will discuss the challenges and techniques of translating English literature, as well as the importance of preserving the original author's voice and style in the translated text.Challenges in translating English literature第三篇示例：Title: The Importance of Translation of Full English TextsTranslation plays a crucial role in bringing different languages and cultures together. More specifically, translating full English texts into different languages allows for access to valuable information and insights that may otherwise be inaccessible to those who do not speak English. In this article, we will explore the importance of translating full English texts and the benefits it brings.第四篇示例：Abstract: This article discusses the importance of translating English literature and the challenges translators face when putting together a full-text translation. It highlights the skills and knowledge needed to accurately convey the meaning and tone of the original text while preserving its cultural and literary nuances. Through a detailed analysis of the translation process, this article emphasizes the crucial role translators play in bridging the gap between languages and making English literature accessible to a global audience.IntroductionEnglish literature is a rich and diverse field encompassing a wide range of genres, styles, and themes. From classic works by Shakespeare and Dickens to contemporary novels by authors like J.K. Rowling and Philip Pullman, English literature offers something for everyone. However, for non-English speakers, accessing and understanding these works can be a challenge. This is where translation comes in.Translation is the process of rendering a text from one language into another, while striving to preserve the original meaning, tone, and style of the original work. Translating afull-length English text requires a deep understanding of both languages, as well as a keen awareness of the cultural andhistorical context in which the work was written. Additionally, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to convey the beauty and complexity of the original text in a new language.Challenges of Full-text TranslationTranslating a full-length English text poses several challenges for translators. One of the most significant challenges is capturing the nuances and subtleties of the original work. English literature is known for its rich and layered language, with intricate wordplay, metaphors, and symbolism that can be difficult to convey in another language. Translators must carefully consider each word and phrase in order to accurately convey the author's intended meaning.Another challenge of full-text translation is maintaining the author's unique voice and style. Each writer has a distinct way of expressing themselves, and a good translator must be able to replicate this voice in the translated text. This requires a deep understanding of the author's writing style, as well as the ability to adapt it to the conventions of the target language.Additionally, translators must be mindful of the cultural and historical context of the original work. English literature is deeply rooted in the history and traditions of the English-speaking world, and translators must be aware of these influences in orderto accurately convey the author's intended message. This requires thorough research and a nuanced understanding of the social, political, and economic factors that shaped the work.Skills and Knowledge RequiredTo successfully translate a full-length English text, translators must possess a wide range of skills and knowledge. First and foremost, translators must be fluent in both the source language (English) and the target language. This includes a strong grasp of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary in both languages, as well as an understanding of the cultural and historical context of the works being translated.Translators must also have a keen eye for detail and a meticulous approach to their work. Every word, sentence, and paragraph must be carefully considered and translated with precision in order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text. This requires strong analytical skills and a deep understanding of the nuances and complexities of language.Furthermore, translators must possess strong writing skills in order to craft a compelling and engaging translation. Translating a full-length English text is not simply a matter of substituting one word for another; it requires creativity, imagination, and a deep appreciation for the beauty of language. Translators mustbe able to capture the rhythm, cadence, and tone of the original work in their translation, while also adapting it to the conventions of the target language.ConclusionIn conclusion, translating a full-length English text is a complex and challenging task that requires a high level of skill, knowledge, and creativity. Translators must possess a deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural and historical context of the work being translated. Through their careful and meticulous work, translators play a crucial role in making English literature accessible to a global audience, bridging the gap between languages and cultures. By preserving the beauty and complexity of the original text in their translations, translators enrich our understanding of literature and bring the works of English authors to readers around the world.。
外文文献及翻译
Yunnan Ethnic pattern in Packaging DesignAbstract: Art is a folk Mother of the arts，is the source of the new art, From which to draw a strong tradition of high—grade Nutrition。
The persons belonging to national folk arts Ethnic patterns，are folk arts Intraoperative a gem, its development Research，and with the means of modern art，art wind Grid，professional skills combine to form a unique Style and features a modern design There are important applications，this paper focuses on Minority Folk pattern in modern packaging design Meter applications are discussed.Keywords: Yunnan Ethnic. Pattern。
Packaging Design.IntroductionYunnan is a multi-ethnic province, Here multiply survive the Han, Yi, Bai More than twenty families， Zhuang, Miao， Dai, etc。
Nation. Long history of various ethnic groups in Yunnan Province， the source is far Long, creating a rich and colorful Folk art。
文献翻译译文
北京建筑工程学院电信学院电气工程系文献翻译(译文）指导教师刘静纨学生姓名于琦专业电气工程及其自动化班级 08级2班学号 2107170812101建筑系统消防报警及联动系统作者:迈克尔。
波斯纳和鲍勃。
卡彭特摘要：“电梯从住宅的10层抵达25层。
浓烟和火焰在22层。
我们的人被困在第23和第24层的阳台上。
这支部队准备就绪.”我们都听到说：“灭火要去第一线。
”还有另一个方面,这将有助于确保一个积极的和安全的这种类型的事件中有一个全面的工作知识建立系统，了解控制类型，并且知道如何建立它.让我们开始用各种建筑系统的讨论。
火灾报警系统的面板(FAS）上面给出的初步报告包含了许多明显的信息相对于真正的抵达显示。
你如何抵达被报告的火场的时间是不是没有可见的证据?当今的现代高层建筑，能源节约经常将测量装置布置那么紧密以至于消耗一个或更多房间的能源和街道的显示无关,但消防系统却显示不出什么内容。
在这种情况下，消防报警系统（FAS）的面板是最重要的。
下面是一个例子：最近一次在迈阿密-戴德的报警，公司接到一个在现代住宅高楼第十楼抽烟的911来电者的报告.一个电梯管理员和一个物管公司人员前去调查,现场指挥官（IC）也派出消防队员去找火灾报警装置，以确定是否有其他情况.也有人指出电梯已经失控。
最早到达的物管公司人员向现场指挥官转达了这一结论并建议对电梯进行检查，如果可能的话.而阶梯公司开始上升。
物管公司的第三个高级人员抵达火灾报警面板，能够通过命令获得情况，在第九层电表房，这里显示面板上的烟雾探测器已激活。
这与从通过在楼梯间的大厦居住者得到的信息相符了。
虽然这结果是一个小警报,更加明确的情况可能发生在第九楼，因为队员是无保护推进并未察觉地板上的火。
大厦维修人员，如果有的话，可以直接说出火灾报警面板的位置。
他们也应该能够帮助找得到建筑系统其余的楼梯和电梯.他们可能是锁定火灾位置的关键。
请记住，由于该建筑物维修人员是不会明白的消防部门的优先次序，因此，决策时要小心，在了解居民的资料基础上决定战术。
英文文献翻译2.
3.Mobile word-of-mouth – A grounded theory of mobile viral marketing病毒式营销移动网络口碑——基于扎根理论的移动病毒式营销Wolfgang Palka, Key Pousttchi, Dietmar G WiedemannJournal of Information Technology (2009) 24, 172–185基于现有的社交网络，移动设备这种个人沟通工具是病毒式营销的有效平台。
消费者参与这种营销工具的动机、态度和行为很少被研究，本文运用扎根理论，阐述了移动营销内容接受、使用和传播的决定性因素。
接受模型变量：安全条件（感知风险、信任），社会条件（发送者识别、感知亲和），资源条件（自我效能、感知成本）；使用模型变量：社会条件（感知亲和、发送者专业性、主观规范、可表达性）；态度条件（感知有用、感知易用、感知娱乐性、使用态度）；资源条件（自我效能、感知成本）；传播模型：社会条件，（接受者兴趣的坚持、连接强度、主观规范、可表达性）；态度条件（传播者的感知有用性、感知用户友好性、感知娱乐性、传播态度）；资源条件（感知成本）；消费条件（客户满意度、传播者涉入度）；个人条件（Market mavenism、理他主义）。
具体见下面图。
6. Electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) generation in new media platforms: The role of regulatory focus and collective dissonance 文章较新，新的理论的引入和运用。
基于新一代媒体平台的网络口碑：焦点调节和集体失调的作用2013摘要：本研究探讨了与网络口碑形成相关的两个动力因素：焦点调节、集体失调。
研究表明网络口碑的形成受调节性匹配影响。
相比较于正面经验，预防定向的消费者传播负面服务经验网络口碑的意愿更强；拥有独立自我构建的促进定向消费者更有可能发布正面服务体验的口碑；由于集体失调，当消费者的经验与其他帖子不一致时，他们更愿意去生成网络口碑。
英文文献翻译
Preparation and characterization of Ag-TiO2 hybrid clusters powders[1]（Ag-TiO2混合团簇粉末的制备和表征）Abstract：液相电弧放电法被用于制备纳米Ag-TiO2复合超细粉末。
XRD和TEM图表明颗粒呈葫芦状形态，分布狭窄。
我们讨论了实验条件对产品的影响，比较了这种方法制备的粉末和其他γ射线辐照法制备的粉末。
Introduction：材料合成技术，提高了研究特定电子和光学特性的能力。
这也导致了设备和不同效应的快速发展，如集成光学型偏振器[1]和量子霍耳效应。
所需的长度尺度对于这些结构的控制是在纳米级别的[ 2 ]。
科学家面临的一个新的挑战是半导体量子点的生长，它具有新的光学响应，引起了对其基础物理方面和三阶非线性光致发光的应用等的研究兴趣。
这方面的一个例子是Ag-TiO2复合材料通过胶体方法合成[ 3 ]或由γ射线辐照法合成[ 4 ]。
对比其他制备超细金属颗粒的方法，γ射线辐照法能在室温的环境压力下产生粉末。
在这封信中，我们开发了一种新的方法，即液相电弧放电法，用以制备纳米复合材料，当它经水热处理可以得到纳米级别的超细粉。
Preparation and photocatalytic activity of immobilized composite photocatalyst (titania nanoparticle/activated carbon)[2]固定化复合光催化剂（TiO2纳米颗粒/活性炭）的制备和光催化活性研究Abstract：制备了一种固定化复合光催化剂——TiO2纳米颗粒/活性炭（AC），并研究了它在降解纺织染料的光催化活性。
AC通过油菜籽壳制备。
碱性红18（BR18）和碱性红46（BR46）被用来作为模型染料。
并采用了傅里叶变换红外（FTIR），波长色散X射线光谱（WDX），扫描电子显微镜（SEM），紫外可见分光光度法，化学需氧量（COD）和离子色谱（IC）分析。
外文翻译要求
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译要求
根据《普通高等学校本科毕业设计（论文）指导》的内容，特对外文文献翻译提出以下要求：
一、翻译的外文文献的字符要求不少于1.5万（或翻译成中文后至少在3000字以上）。
字数达到的文献一篇即可。
二、翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关著作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文（设计）主题相关，并作为外文参考文献列入毕业论文（设计）的参考文献。
并在每篇中文译文首页用“脚注”形式注明原文作者及出处，中文译文后应附外文原文。
三、需认真研读和查阅术语完成翻译，不得采用翻译软件翻译。
四、中文译文的编排结构与原文同，撰写格式参照毕业论文的格式要求。
参考文献不必翻译，直接使用原文的（字体，字号，标点符号等与毕业论文中的参考文献要求同），参考文献的序号应标注在译文中相应的地方。
具体可参考毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译模板。
五、封面统一制作，封面格式请勿自行改动，学号请写完整（注：封面上的“翻译题目”指中文译文的题目）。
按“封面、译文一、外文原文一、译文二、外文原文二”的顺序统一装订。
如果只有一篇译文，则可以删除“翻译（2）题目”这一行。
杭州电子科技大学
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译
毕业设计（论文）题目
翻译（1）题目
翻译（2）题目
学院
专业
姓名
班级
学号
指导教师。
文献翻译 王懿川 final2
4 主机功能· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 199 4.1 介绍· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 199 4.2 主机控制器驱动· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 201 4.3 主机控制器驱动定义· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 203 4.4 主机控制器的驱动程序· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 217 4.5 主机控制器的驱动程序定义· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 225 4.6 主机设备接口· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 246 4.7 主机设备接口定义· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 248 4.8 主机编程实例· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 253
中英文文献以及翻译(化工类)
Foreign material：Chemical Industry1.Origins of the Chemical IndustryAlthough the use of chemicals dates back to the ancient civilizations, the evolution of what we know as the modern chemical industry started much more recently. It may be considered to have begun during the Industrial Revolution, about 1800, and developed to provide chemicals roe use by other industries. Examples are alkali for soapmaking, bleaching powder for cotton, and silica and sodium carbonate for glassmaking. It will be noted that these are all inorganic chemicals. The organic chemicals industry started in the 1860s with the exploitation of William Henry Perkin’s discovery if the first synthetic dyestuff—mauve. At the start of the twentieth century the emphasis on research on the applied aspects of chemistry in Germany had paid off handsomely, and by 1914 had resulted in the German chemical industry having 75% of the world market in chemicals. This was based on the discovery of new dyestuffs plus the development of both the contact process for sulphuric acid and the Haber process for ammonia. The later required a major technological breakthrough that of being able to carry out chemical reactions under conditions of very high pressure for the first time. The experience gained with this was to stand Germany in good stead, particularly with the rapidly increased demand for nitrogen-based compounds (ammonium salts for fertilizers and nitric acid for explosives manufacture) with the outbreak of world warⅠin 1914. This initiated profound changes which continued during the inter-war years (1918-1939).Since 1940 the chemical industry has grown at a remarkable rate, although this has slowed significantly in recent years. The lion’s share of this growth has been in the organic chemicals sector due to the development and growth of the petrochemicals area since 1950s. The explosives growth in petrochemicals in the 1960s and 1970s was largely due to the enormous increase in demand for synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon, polyesters and epoxy resins.The chemical industry today is a very diverse sector of manufacturing industry, within which it plays a central role. It makes thousands of different chemicals whichthe general public only usually encounter as end or consumer products. These products are purchased because they have the required properties which make them suitable for some particular application, e.g. a non-stick coating for pans or a weedkiller. Thus chemicals are ultimately sold for the effects that they produce.2. Definition of the Chemical IndustryAt the turn of the century there would have been little difficulty in defining what constituted the chemical industry since only a very limited range of products was manufactured and these were clearly chemicals, e.g., alkali, sulphuric acid. At present, however, many intermediates to products produced, from raw materials like crude oil through (in some cases) many intermediates to products which may be used directly as consumer goods, or readily converted into them. The difficulty cones in deciding at which point in this sequence the particular operation ceases to be part of the chemical industry’s sphere of activities. To consider a specific example to illustrate this dilemma, emulsion paints may contain poly (vinyl chloride) / poly (vinyl acetate). Clearly, synthesis of vinyl chloride (or acetate) and its polymerization are chemical activities. However, if formulation and mixing of the paint, including the polymer, is carried out by a branch of the multinational chemical company which manufactured the ingredients, is this still part of the chemical industry of does it mow belong in the decorating industry?It is therefore apparent that, because of its diversity of operations and close links in many areas with other industries, there is no simple definition of the chemical industry. Instead each official body which collects and publishes statistics on manufacturing industry will have its definition as to which operations are classified as the chemical industry. It is important to bear this in mind when comparing statistical information which is derived from several sources.3. The Need for Chemical IndustryThe chemical industry is concerned with converting raw materials, such as crude oil, firstly into chemical intermediates and then into a tremendous variety of other chemicals. These are then used to produce consumer products, which make our livesmore comfortable or, in some cases such as pharmaceutical produces, help to maintain our well-being or even life itself. At each stage of these operations value is added to the produce and provided this added exceeds the raw material plus processing costs then a profit will be made on the operation. It is the aim of chemical industry to achieve this.It may seem strange in textbook this one to pose the question “do we need a chemical industry?” However trying to answer this question will provide(ⅰ) an indication of the range of the chemical industry’s activities, (ⅱ) its influence on our lives in everyday terms, and (ⅲ) how great is society’s need for a chemical industry. Our approach in answering the question will be to consider the industry’s co ntribution to meeting and satisfying our major needs. What are these? Clearly food (and drink) and health are paramount. Other which we shall consider in their turn are clothing and (briefly) shelter, leisure and transport.(1)Food. The chemical industry makes a major contribution to food production in at least three ways. Firstly, by making available large quantities of artificial fertilizers which are used to replace the elements (mainly nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) which are removed as nutrients by the growing crops during modern intensive farming. Secondly, by manufacturing crop protection chemicals, i.e., pesticides, which markedly reduce the proportion of the crops consumed by pests. Thirdly, by producing veterinary products which protect livestock from disease or cure their infections.(2)Health. We are all aware of the major contribution which the pharmaceutical sector of the industry has made to help keep us all healthy, e.g. by curing bacterial infections with antibiotics, and even extending life itself, e.g. ß–blockers to lower blood pressure.(3)Clothing. The improvement in properties of modern synthetic fibers over the traditional clothing materials (e.g. cotton and wool) has been quite remarkable. Thus shirts, dresses and suits made from polyesters like Terylene and polyamides like Nylon are crease-resistant, machine-washable, and drip-dry or non-iron. They are also cheaper than natural materials.Parallel developments in the discovery of modern synthetic dyes and the technology to “bond” th em to the fiber has resulted in a tremendous increase in the variety of colors available to the fashion designer. Indeed they now span almost every color and hue of the visible spectrum. Indeed if a suitable shade is not available, structural modification of an existing dye to achieve this canreadily be carried out, provided there is a satisfactory market for the product.Other major advances in this sphere have been in color-fastness, i.e., resistance to the dye being washed out when the garment is cleaned.(4)Shelter, leisure and transport. In terms of shelter the contribution of modern synthetic polymers has been substantial. Plastics are tending to replace traditional building materials like wood because they are lighter, maintenance-free (i.e. they are resistant to weathering and do not need painting). Other polymers, e.g. urea-formaldehyde and polyurethanes, are important insulating materials f or reducing heat losses and hence reducing energy usage.Plastics and polymers have made a considerable impact on leisure activities with applications ranging from all-weather artificial surfaces for athletic tracks, football pitches and tennis courts to nylon strings for racquets and items like golf balls and footballs made entirely from synthetic materials.Like wise the chemical industry’s contribution to transport over the years has led to major improvements. Thus development of improved additives like anti-oxidants and viscosity index improves for engine oil has enabled routine servicing intervals to increase from 3000 to 6000 to 12000 miles. Research and development work has also resulted in improved lubricating oils and greases, and better brake fluids. Yet again the contribution of polymers and plastics has been very striking with the proportion of the total automobile derived from these materials—dashboard, steering wheel, seat padding and covering etc.—now exceeding 40%.So it is quite apparent even from a brief look at the chemical industry’s contribution to meeting our major needs that life in the world would be very different without the products of the industry. Indeed the level of a country’s development may be judged by the production level and sophistication of its chemical industry4. Research and Development (R&D) in Chemical IndustriesOne of the main reasons for the rapid growth of the chemical industry in the developed world has been its great commitment to, and investment in research and development (R&D). A typical figure is 5% of sales income, with this figure being almost doubled for the most research intensive sector, pharmaceuticals. It is important to emphasize that we are quoting percentages here not of profits but of sales income, i.e. the total money received, which has to pay for raw materials, overheads, staff salaries, etc. as well. In the past this tremendous investment has paid off well, leading to many useful and valuable products being introduced to the market. Examplesinclude synthetic polymers like nylons and polyesters, and drugs and pesticides. Although the number of new products introduced to the market has declined significantly in recent years, and in times of recession the research department is usually one of the first to suffer cutbacks, the commitment to R&D remains at a very high level.The chemical industry is a very high technology industry which takes full advantage of the latest advances in electronics and engineering. Computers are very widely used for all sorts of applications, from automatic control of chemical plants, to molecular modeling of structures of new compounds, to the control of analytical instruments in the laboratory.Individual manufacturing plants have capacities ranging from just a few tones per year in the fine chemicals area to the real giants in the fertilizer and petrochemical sectors which range up to 500,000 tonnes. The latter requires enormous capital investment, since a single plant of this size can now cost $520 million! This, coupled with the widespread use of automatic control equipment, helps to explain why the chemical industry is capital-rather than labor-intensive.The major chemical companies are truly multinational and operate their sales and marketing activities in most of the countries of the world, and they also have manufacturing units in a number of countries. This international outlook for operations, or globalization, is a growing trend within the chemical industry, with companies expanding their activities either by erecting manufacturing units in other countries or by taking over companies which are already operating there.化学工业1.化学工业的起源尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。
英文文献翻译
Lathe and TurningThe Lathe and Its ConstructionA lathe is a machine tool used primarily for producing surfaces of revolutionand flat edges.Based on their purpose, construction, number of tools that can simultaneously be mounted, and degree of automation, lathes-or, more accurately, lathe-type machine tools can be classified as follows:(1)Engine lathes(2)Toolroom lathes(3)Turret lathes(4)Vertical turning and boring mills(5)Automatic lathes(6)Special-purpose lathesIn spite of that diversity of lathe-type machine tools, they all have common features with respect to construction and principle of operation. These features can best be illustrated by considering the commonly used representative type, the engine lathe. Following is a description of each of the main elements of an engine lathe, which is shown in Fig.11.1.Lathe bed.The lathe bed is the main frame, involving a horizontal beam on two vertical supports. It is usually made of grey or nodular cast iron to damp vibrations and is made by casting. It has guideways to allow the carriage to slide easily lengthwise. The height of the lathe bed should be appropriate to enable the technician to do his or her job easily and comfortably.Headstock.The headstock is fixed at the left hand side of the lathe bed and includes the spindle whose axis is parallel to the guideways (the slide surface of the bed). The spindle is driven through the gearbox, which is housed within the headstock. The function of the gearbox is to provide a number of different spindle speeds (usually 6 up to 18 speeds). Some modern lathes have headstocks with infinitely variable spindle speeds, which employ frictional ,electrical ,or hydraulic drives.The spindle is always hollow, i. e., it has a through hole extending lengthwise. Bar stocks can be fed through that hole if continuous production is adopted. Also, that hole has a tapered surface to allow mounting a plain lathe center. The outer surface of the spindle is threaded to allow mounting of a chuck, a face plate, or the like. Tailstock.The tailstock assembly consists basically of three parts, its lower base, an intermediate part, and the quill. The lower base is a casting that can slide on the lathe bed along the guideways, and it has a clamping device to enable locking the entire tailstock at any desired location, depending upon the length of the workpiece. The intermediate part is a casting that can be moved transversely to enable alignment of the axis of the tailstock with that of the headstock. The third part, the quill, is a hardened steel tube, which can be moved longitudinally in and out of the intermediate part as required. This is achieved through the use of a handwheel and a screw, around which a nut fixed to the quill is engaged. The hole in the open side of the quill is tapered to enable mounting of lathe centers or other tools like twist drills or boring bars. The quill can be locked at any point along its travel path by means of a clampingdevice.The carriage.The main function of the carriage is mounting of the cutting tools and generating longitudinal and/or cross feeds. It is actually an H-shaped block that slides on the lathe bed between the headstock and tailstock while being guided by the V-shaped guideways of the bed. The carriage can be moved either manually or mechanically by means of the apron and either the feed rod or the lead screw.When cutting screw threads, power is provided to the gearbox of the apron by the lead screw. In all other turning operations, it is the feed rod that drives the carriage. The lead screw goes through a pair of half nuts, which are fixed to the rear of the apron.When actuating a certain lever, the half nuts are clamped together and engage with the rotating lead screw as a single nut, which is fed, together with the carriage, along the bed. When the lever is disengaged, the half nuts are released and the carriage stops.On the other hand, when the feed rod is used, it supplies power to the apron through a worm gear. The latter is keyed to the feed rod and travels with the apron along the feed rod, which has a keyway extending to cover its whole length.A modern lathe usually has a quick-change gearbox located under the headstock and driven from the spindle through a train of gears. It is connected to both the feed rod and the lead screw and enables selecting a variety of feeds easily and rapidly by simply shifting the appropriate levers. The quick-change gearbox is employed in plain turning, facing and thread cutting operations. Since that gearbox is linked to the spindle, the distance that the apron (and the cuttingtool) travels for each revolution of the spindle can be controlled and is referred to as the feed.Lathe Cutting ToolsThe shape and geometry of the lathe tools depend upon the purpose for which they are employed.Turning tools can be classified into two main groups, namely, external cutting tools and internal cutting tools. Each of these two groups include the following types of tools:Turning tools.Turning tools can be either finishing or rough turning tools. Rough turning tools have small nose radii and are employed when deep cuts are made. On the other hand, finishing tools have larger nose radii and are used for obtaining the final required dimensions with good surface finish by making slight depths of cut. Rough turning tools can be right-hand or left-hand types, depending upon the direction of feed. They can have straight, bent, or offset shanks.Facing tools.Facing tools are employed in facing operations for machining plane side or end surfaces. There are tools for machining left-hand-side surfaces and tools for right-hand-side surfaces. Those side surfaces are generated through the use of the cross feed, contrary to turning operations, where the usual longitudinal feed is used. Cutoff tools.Cutoff tools, which are sometimes called parting tools, serve to separate the workpiece into parts and/or machine external annular grooves.Thread-cutting tools.Thread-cutting tools have either triangular, square, or trapezoidal cutting edges, depending upon the cross section of the desired thread. Also, the plane angles of these tools must always be identical to those of the thread forms. Thread-cutting tools have straight shanks for external thread cutting and are of the bent-shank type when cuttinginternal threads.Form tools.Form tools have edges especially manufactured to take a certain form, which is opposite to the desired shape of the machined workpiece.An HSS tool is usually made in the form of a single piece, contrary to cemented carbides or ceramic, which are made in the form of tips. The latter are brazed or mechanically fastened to steel shanks．Fig.11.2 indicates an arrangement of this latter type, which includes the carbide tip, the chip breaker, the pad, the clamping screw (with a washer and a nut), and the shank.As the name suggests, the function of the chip breaker is to break long chips every now and then, thus preventing the formation of very long twisted ribbons that may cause problems during the machining operation. The carbide tips (or ceramic tips) can have different shapes, depending upon the machining operations for which they are to be employed. The tips can either be solid or with a central through hole, depending on whether brazing or mechanical clamping is employed for mounting the tip on the shank.Lathe OperationsIn the following section, we discuss the various machining operations that can be performed on a conventional engine lathe.It must be borne in mind, however, that modern computerized numerically controlled lathes have more capabilities and can do other operations, such as contouring, for example. Following are conventional lathe operations.Cylindrical turning.Cylindrical turning is the simplest and the most common of all lathe operations.A single full turn of the workpiece generates a circle whose center falls on the lathe axis; this motion is then reproduced numerous times as a result of the axial feed motion of the tool. The resulting machining marks are, therefore, a helix having a very small pitch, which is equal to the feed. Consequently, the machined surface is always cylindrical.The axial feed is provided by the carriage or the compound rest, either manually or automatically, whereas the depth of cut is controlled by the cross slide.In roughing cuts, it is recommended that large depths of cuts (up to 0.25in. or 6mm, depending upon the workpiece material) and smaller feeds would be used. On the other hand, very fine feeds, smaller depths of cut (less than 0.05in, or 0.4mm), and high cutting speeds are preferred for finishing cuts.Facing.The result of a facing operation is a flat surface that is either the whole end surface of the workpiece or an annular intermediate surface like a shoulder. During a facing operation, feed is provided by the cross slide, whereas the depth of cut is controlled by the carriage or compound rest. Facing can be carried out either from the periphery inward or from the center of the workpiece outward. It is obvious that the machining marks in both cases take the form of a spiral.Usually, it is preferred to clamp the carriage during a facing operation, since the cutting force tends to push the tool (and, of course, the whole carriage) away from the workpiece. In most facing operations, the workpiece is held in a chuck or on a face plate.Groove cutting.In cut-off and groove-cutting operations, only cross feed of the tool is employed. The cut-off and grooving tools, which were previously discussed, are employed.Boring and internal turning.Boring and internal turning are performed on the internal surfaces by a boring bar or suitable internal cutting tools. If the initial workpiece is solid, a drilling operation must be performed first. The drilling tool is held in the tailstock, and the latter is then fed against the workpiece.Taper turning.Taper turning is achieved by driving the tool in a direction that is not parallel to the lathe axis but inclined to it with an angle that is equal to the desired angle of the taper. Following are the different methods used in taper-turning practice:(1) Rotating the disc of the compound rest with an angle equal to half the apex angle of the cone. Feed is manually provided by cranking the handle of the compound rest. This method is recommended for taper turning of external and internal surfaces when the taper angle is relatively large.(2) Employing special form tools for external, very short, conical surfaces. The width of the workpiece must be slightly smaller than that of the tool, and the workpiece is usually held in a chuck or clamped on a face plate. In this case, only the cross feed is used during the machining process and the carriage is clamped to the machine bed.(3) Offsetting the tailstock center. This method is employed for external taper turning of long workpieces that are required to have small taper angles (less than 8°). The workpiece is mounted between the two centers; then the tailstock center is shifted a distance S in the direction normal to the lathe axis.(4) Using the taper-turning attachment. This method is used for turning very long workpieces, when the length is larger than the whole stroke of the compound rest. The procedure followed in such cases involves complete disengagement of the cross slide from the carriage, which is then guided by the taper-turning attachment.During this process, the automatic axial feed can be used as usual. This method is recommended for very long workpieces with a small cone angle, i.e., 8°through 10°. Thread cutting.When performing thread cutting, the axial feed must be kept at a constant rate, which is dependent upon the rotational speed (rpm) of the workpiece. The relationship between both is determined primarily by the desired pitch of the thread to be cut.As previously mentioned, the axial feed is automatically generated when cutting a thread by means of the lead screw, which drives the carriage. When the lead screw rotates a single revolution, the carriage travels a distance equal to the pitch of the lead screw. Consequently, if the rotational speed of the lead screw is equal to that of the spindle (i.e., that of the workpiece), the pitch of the resulting cut thread is exactly equal to that of the lead screw. The pitch of the resulting thread being cut therefore always depends upon the ratio of the rotational speeds of the lead screw and the spindle:Pitch of the lead screw/ Desired pitch of workpiece=rpm of the workpiece/rpm of lead screw=spindle-to-carriage gearing ratio.This equation is useful in determining the kinematic linkage between the lathe spindle and the lead screw and enables proper selection of the gear train between them.In thread cutting operations, the workpiece can either be held in the chuck or mounted between the two lathe centers for relatively long workpieces. The form of the tool used must exactly coincide with the profile of the thread to be cut, i.e., triangular tools must be used for triangular threads, and so on.Knurling.Knurling is mainly a forming operation in which no chips are produced. It involvespressing two hardened rolls with rough filelike surfaces against the rotating workpiece to cause plastic deformation of the workpiece metal.Knurling is carried out to produce rough, cylindrical (or conical) surfaces, which are usually used as handles. Sometimes, surfaces are knurled just for the sake of decoration; there are different types of patterns of knurls from which to choose.Cutting Speeds and FeedThe cutting speed, which is usually given in surface feet per minute (SFM), is the number of feet traveled in the circumferential direction by a given point on the surface (being cut) of the workpiece in 1 minute.The relationship between the surface speed and rpm can be given by the following equation:SFM=πDNWhereD=the diameter of the workpiece in feetN=the rpmThe surface cutting speed is dependant primarily upon the material being machined as well as the material of the cutting tool and can be obtained from handbooks, information provided by cutting tool manufacturers, and the like. Generally, the SFM is taken as 100 when machining cold-rolled or mild steel, as 50 when machining tougher metals, and as 200 when machining softer materials. For aluminum, the SFM is usually taken as 400 or above. There are also other variables that affect the optimal value of the surface cutting speed. These include the tool geometry, the type of lubricant or coolant, the feed, and the depth of cut. As soon as the cutting speed is decided upon, the rotational speed (rpm) of the spindle can be obtained as follows:N=SFM/(πD)The selection of a suitable feed depends upon many factors, such as the required surface finish, the depth of cut, and the geometry of the tool used. Finer feeds produce better surface finish, whereas higher feeds reduce the machining time during which the tool is in direct contact with the workpiece.Therefore, it is generally recommended to use high feeds for roughing operations and finer feeds for finishing operations. Again, recommended values for feeds, which can be taken as guidelines, are found in handbooks and in information booklets provided by cutting tool manufacturers.车床和车削车床及车床是机床用于生产革命和平面边缘表面为主。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
对行销售人员激励机制分析1激励机制的描述1.1激励理论主要是研究激发人们行为动机的各种因素。
由于人类行为的原动力是需要，因此这种理论实际上就是围绕着人们的各种需要来进行研究。
主要包括马斯洛的赫茨伯格的双因素理论、奥尔德弗的“ERG”理论、需要层次理论和麦克利兰的成就需要激励理论。
1.2 过程型激励理论重点研究人从动机产生到采取行动的心理过程。
包括亚当斯的公平理论、佛隆的期望理论和斯金纳的强化理论。
二对行销售人员激励机制分析美国心理学家佛隆在1964年首先提出期望理论，人之所以能够完成某项工作并达成组织目标，因为这些组织目标和工作会帮助他们达成自己的目标。
根据期望理论，某一活动对某人的激发力量取决于他所能得到的结果的全部预期价值乘以他认为达成该结果的期望概率。
这就要求要处理好三个方面的关系：绩效与奖励的关系、努力与绩效的关系、奖励与个人需要的关系，任何一个环节都不能出现问题，否则都会导致无效激励。
从以期望理论为代表的过程型激励理论与内容型激励理论的观点来看，激励过程的科学性和合理性、激励手段对销售人员个性化需求的满足程度构成了激励的两要素。
由此看出，销售人员的激励机制确实有改进的必要。
三销售人员激励体制中不足原因3.1激励方式单一，过分依靠货币等物质激励手段而忽视精神激励的重要作用，销售人员没有归属感，缺少团队凝聚力。
即使在物质激励方面，也是“佣金制”和“提成制”的天下，收入的多少完全依据销售额或利润额的多少，无视死去差异和个人实际努力程度，激励不公现象十分普遍。
3.2晋升制度僵硬，论资排辈，讲资历而忽视能力，讲关系而忽视业务水平，人浮于事，优秀人才流失严重，已不再适应市场竞争的需要。
3.3多数企业没有完整的培训激励机制，企业只注重“挖人”而非培养，因而满足不了销售人员自我发展的需要。
3.4注重短期激励，缺少长期激励，在这种激励机制下，销售人员只能纯粹的打工者，缺少主人翁精神，在个人利益和短期激励的驱动下，难免会做出种种有损企业利益的事情。
3.5中国传统思想的影响。
思想具有传承性，中国几千年的封建制度和农业思想虽然随着新中国的成立已由最先进、最伟大的马列主义所取代，但其最本质的“论资排辈”、“官本位”、“不患寡而患不均”等思想依然存在并潜移默化地主导着部分人的思想，使现代激励机制很难发挥作用。
“大锅饭”、“官本位”在市场经济条件下依然存在于大多数企业中。
传统中薪酬往往是个人在组织中行政地位或行政等级的物质体现。
现在，有些企业推崇的所谓“一岗一薪”其实质也是根据岗位本身的价值来确定员工的薪酬待遇，而忽略了不同的员工在同样的岗位上所达到的实际绩效差异。
因此员工要想增加收入，必须升到更高职位上。
3.6现代薪酬管理理念、方法与技术导入不足。
就中国目前的营销环境，可以说营销理念可与世界发达国家相比，但营销行为与营销理念严重背离。
中国营销人员思维方式和行为模式是中国长期投机市场磨砺的产物，注重投机而非凭能力比拼，员工较低的素质同先进的营销理念不同步，理念不能指导行为，激励机制自然不能充分发挥作用。
与此同时，因为社会缺乏行之有效的评价机制和约束机制，因此未能形成企业和营销人员共同认可并自觉遵守的行为准则。
因此营销人员频繁变换公司，公司也不尽心为员工提供发展机会、为员工规划职业生涯，最终难以形成双赢局面。
4 企业营销人员现行主要激励手段4.1 一种就是物质激励为主，缺乏了精神激励方面。
马斯洛的需求层次理论提出，人的需求分为几个不同的层次，低层次的需求满足了以后，会有更高层次的需求出现，并且只有在需求得到满足以后，才会产生激励的效果，对于目前的营销人员，还处于供不应求状态，因此各企业都采取各种方式争夺营销人才，最主要的途径就是利用高薪来吸引营销人才。
但对于营销人员来说，他们不仅仅看重个人收入，而且同样注重职业前途发展及个人魅力的展示，需要企业为其提供展现的舞台。
4.2是以短期激励为主，缺乏长期有效的激励措施。
欺诈行为尤其中国发展的现阶段在经营领域并不罕见，处于当前体制转变的复杂时期，机会主义思想充斥着各个领域，当然也包括现在的营销领域，缺乏诚信是通病。
真正实行员工持股(Employee Stock Ownership)的企业非常少，缺乏了长期激励作用，即使企业实行年薪制，也会产生因追逐高额利润而大肆窜货、盲目承诺、不考虑企业长期利益而影响公司整体营销政策的短期行为。
4.3 薪酬激励规划。
建立合理的销售人员薪酬制度。
对于大多数企业，用高薪吸引营销人才已使企业工资结构线出现偏离，以致公司的薪酬政策不能体现科学合理性。
对于企业首先应确定本企业在行为中的地位，在参考本地区经济水平和发展状况的基础上制订本公司的工资结构线，依据工作岗位及其创造价值的大小支付工资。
薪酬的制订要兼顾长期激励和短期激励相结合的原则，薪酬设计可根据企业所处的成长阶段选择相应策略。
处于迅速发展阶段的企业可采用高弹性模式，以高奖金促发展；处于正常发展或成熟阶段的企业要增加持股比例，保证企业稳定发展。
因此薪酬设计可包括基本薪资、业务奖金、员工持股、保险和福利几部分，根据企业发展阶段调整各部分比例，实现短期激励与长期激励的有机结合。
4.4 非物质激励规划。
在非物质激励手段的选择上，应以研究需要的内容型激励理论为指导，充分考虑销售人员的个性化需求。
以成就需要作为主导需要的销售人员，其强烈的成就动机本身就是最大的激励。
给予他们富有挑战性高难度的工作任务，提供培训的机会来提高营销技能，拓宽视野，都是非常具有吸引力的激励手段。
以权力需要为主导需要的销售人员渴望得到上司和同事的认可与尊重，渴望自我管理权限的扩大，培养他们进入管理层，或进入参与管理的某种委员会，具有非常大的激励作用。
以关系需要为主导需要的销售人员更愿意维系老客户，能够为客户提供优质服务。
但由于自身成就动机并不强烈，相对来说是难以激励的。
更具弹性的薪酬制度、更短的考核周期、更高的考核指标会促使他们提高自己的工作积极性。
4.5 精神激励规划。
精神的激励是在把握销售人员内在心理需要及公平公正的基础上，构建积极向上的文化，加大情感投入。
企业文化是全体员工认同的共同的价值观，它具有较强的凝聚功能，对稳定员工起着重要的作用。
企业文化通过一系列管理行为来体现，如企业战略目标的透明性、分配制度的公平性、职业保障的安全性等，都能反映一个企业所倡导的价值观。
构建企业文化的目的就是增加员工的归属感，增加企业的凝聚力，最终实现员工与企业的交融。
但是企业文化不是一蹴而就的，它需要引导、灌输、示范、融入、传播等一系列过程。
有些公司虽然形成了企业文化，但并未很好的传播，使公司文化没能深入分公司或子公司，因此存在下属公司文化与总公司文化不一致现象。
还有公司因对营销职业的非正确理解，认为营销工作非正式性和短期性，因此不注意对营销人员进行企业文化的灌输和培养。
我们知道，企业文化通过企业精神、企业价值观的灌输，可使企业形成强大的凝聚力和向心力，缩短公司与员工的距离，并且通过营销人员，把企业文化传输给企业的合作伙伴和顾客，从而达到企业、员工双赢的目的。
5 激励方案的设计目标一致原则、公正公平原则、绩效关联原则、适时激励原则、物质激励与精神激励相结合原则、长期激励与短期激励原则。
有效的激励机制是吸引、留住人才的必要条件，它对于企业在竞争激励、变化迅速的全球市场定位中立于不败之地至关重要。
企业应在充分考虑营销人员特性的基础上制定科学合理的个性激励机制，尽最大努力迎合员工需求，提高营销人员满意度，调整员工行为，使员工发展目标与企业战略目标相吻合，在实现企业目标的同时，最大限度地实现员工价值。
Line sales staff incentivesIncentives description 1.1 incentive theory study to stimulate people's motives. As the driving force of human behavior is needed, so this theory is actually around the various needs of the people to carry out the research. Including Maslow Herzberg's two-factor theory, Alderfer "ERG" theory, need hierarchy theory and McClelland's need for achievement motivation theory.1.2 process Incentive theory focuses on the psychological process from motivation to action. Adams equity theory the Buddha Long expectations theory and Skinner's reinforcement theory.Two pairs of line sales staff incentives analysis the American psychologist Buddha Long first proposed in 1964, expectations theory, people have been able to complete a work and achieve organizational goals, because the goals and work of these organizations will help them achieve their goals. According to expectancy theory, an activity he can get someone motivating force depends on the total expected value multiplied He believes that to achieve the results expected probability. This requires to properly handle the relationship between the three aspects: the relationship between performance and reward, the relationship between effort and performance, reward and personal relationship, any link can not be a problem, or will result in an invalid incentive. Incentive theory from theoretical expectations represented by process type and content type of incentive theory point of view, to stimulate the process of science and rationality, incentives on the individual needs of the sales staff to meet the degree of the two elements of the incentive. This shows that indeed there is a need for improvement in the sales staff incentives. Reasons of lack of three sales staff incentive system3.1 Incentives single currency other substances, over-dependence on incentives, while ignoring the important role of spiritual motivation, salespeople do not have a sense of belonging, a lack of team cohesion. Even if material incentives, but also how much "commission-based" and "commission system" in the world, income solely on the basis of how much of the sales or profits, ignoring the dead for actual differences and personal effort, incentive injustice is widespread.Stiff 3.2 system of promotion, seniority, speak qualifications and neglect the ability level of business and relations while ignoring the serious loss of overstaffing, talents, no longer meet the needs of market competition.3.3, most enterprises do not complete the training incentives, companies focus only on the "poaching" rather than culture, and thus meet the needs of self-development of the sales staff can not.3.4 to focus on short-term incentives, and the lack of long-term incentives, such incentives, sales staff only pure wage, lack of ownership, personal interests and driven by short-term incentives, will inevitably make things the various detrimental to the interests of enterprises .3.5 the influence of the traditional Chinese thinking. Thinking Inheritance China for thousands of years of feudal system and agricultural thinking greatest Marxist-Leninist replaced with the new China was established by the state-of-the-art, but the most essential "seniority", the "official position" No scarcity inequality "thinking still exists and imperceptibly to dominate the thinking of some people, to make difficult for Modern incentives to play a role. "Iron rice bowl", "official position" in the market economy under the conditions still exist in most enterprises. Traditional remuneration often is the material embodiment of the administrative status of individuals in the organization or the administrative level. Now, some companies respected the so-called "One Salary" and its essence is also based on the value of the job itself to determine the remuneration of its staff, while ignoring the actual performance differences reached by different employees in the same positions. Employees in order to increase revenue, must rise to higher positions.3.6 Modern remuneration management concepts, methods and technology import. China's current marketing environment, it can be said that the marketing concept can be compared with the developed countries in the world, but the marketing behavior is a serious departure from the marketing concept. Chinese marketers way of thinking and behavior patterns is a product of China's long-term speculative market tempered,focusing on speculation, rather than their ability Competition, the lower the quality of staff is not synchronized with the state-of-the-art marketing idea, the concept can not guide behavior, incentives can not give full play to the role of natural .At the same time, because the community lacks effective evaluation and restraint mechanisms, failed to form a business and marketing personnel to recognize and consciously abide by the code of conduct. Marketers frequently transform the company, the company is not dedicated to provide development opportunities for staff, staff planning career, and ultimately difficult to form a win-win situation.4 corporate marketing staff current incentives4.1 One is mainly material incentives, lack of mental stimulation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, human needs are divided into several different levels, low levels of demand to meet the future, there will be a higher level of demand, and only after the needs have been met, will produce incentives effect for the current marketing personnel, also in short supply, so companies have taken a variety of ways to compete for the marketing talent, the main way is to use a high salary to attract marketing talent. But for marketers, they not only value the personal income, and the same focus on career development and personal charm of the show, enterprises need to provide a show stage.4.2 is based on short-term incentives mainly to the lack of effective long-term incentives. Fraud, especially at this stage of China's development in the area of operation is not uncommon in a complex period of change in the system the opportunist ideas flooded with various fields, of course, including the areas of marketing, lack of good faith is a common problem. Real implementation of the Employee Stock Ownership (Employee Stock Ownership) is very small, and the lack of long-term incentives, even if the enterprise is the annual salary system, will produce the pursuitof high profits and big FALSIFYING blind commitment, without considering the long-term interests of the enterprise and impact the short-term behavior of the company's overall marketing policy.4.3 incentive compensation plan. Establish reasonable sales staff remuneration system. For most companies, the marketing talent with high salaries to attract the enterprise wage structure line deviations, so that the company's remuneration policy does not reflect the scientific rationality. Enterprises should first determine the behavior of the enterprise, in reference to the level of regional economic and development on the basis of the formulation of the company's wage structure in line, to be paid based on the size of jobs and create value. The remuneration formulation to take into account the principle of long-term incentive and a combination of short-term incentive compensation design according to the growth stage of the enterprise in which to select the appropriate strategy. The high elastic mode can be used in a stage of rapid development of enterprises, and to promote development of high bonuses; in normal development or mature stage companies to increase the stake to ensure the stable development of enterprises. Compensation design may include several parts of the basic salary, business bonuses, employee stock ownership, insurance and welfare, according to the enterprise development stage to adjust the proportion of the various parts of a combination of short-term incentives and long-term incentive.4.4 non-material incentives planning. The choice of the non-material incentives should be based on the content type of research needs motivation theory as a guide, take full account of the individual needs of the sales staff. Sales personnel, the need for achievement as the dominant need strong achievement motivation is the biggest incentive. Give them challenging difficult tasks, provide training opportunities to improve their marketing skills, broaden their horizons, are veryattractive incentives. The need for power-driven need sales staff is eager to get the recognition and respect of superiors and colleagues, the desire for self-management authority to expand and develop them into management or access to participate in the management of certain Commission, has a very big incentive. The relationship requires sales staff-led needs more willing to maintain existing customers, to be able to provide customers with quality service. However, due to their own achievement motivation is not strong, relatively speaking, is difficult to motivate. More flexible pay system, a shorter appraisal cycle, a higher level of assessment indicators will encourage them to improve their work enthusiasm.4.5 spirit incentive plan. The incentive of the spirit is in the grasp of salespeople inherent psychological needs and the fair and equitable basis, to build a positive culture to increase emotional investment. The corporate culture is the common values of all employees agree, it has a strong cohesion, and plays an important role in the stability of the staff. The corporate culture is embodied by a series of management behavior, such as corporate strategic goals of transparency and fairness of the distribution system, the job security of security, can reflect the values advocated by a business. The purpose of building a corporate culture is to increase employees' sense of belonging, to increase the cohesion of the enterprise, the ultimate blend of employees and enterprises. The corporate culture is not easy, it needs to boot, indoctrination, demonstration, integration, and dissemination of a series of processes. Although some companies to form the corporate culture, but not very good communication, company culture branches or subsidiaries did not in-depth, there is the inconsistency of the culture of the culture and the head office of the subsidiary companies. Also due to the correct understanding of the marketing profession, informal and short-term marketing efforts,and therefore do not pay attention to the marketing staff of indoctrination and training of the corporate culture. We know that the corporate culture through the inculcation of the spirit of enterprise, corporate values, enables enterprises to form strong cohesion and solidarity, to shorten the distance between company employees and marketing staff, transmitting the corporate culture to business partners and customers, so as to achieve businesses, employees win-win.The 5 incentive program designGoals consistent with the principle of fair and equitable principles of performance the associated principle, the principle of timely incentive, material incentives and mental stimulation combined the principles of long-term incentives and the principle of short-term incentives.Effective incentives to attract and retain qualified personnel necessary conditions for enterprises in the competitive and rapidly changing global market position in an invincible position is crucial. Enterprises should take full account of the characteristics of the marketing staff on the basis of the development of scientific and rational personality incentives to do its utmost to meet the needs of employees, improve marketing staff satisfaction and adjustment of employee behavior, employee development goals with corporate strategic objectives coincide in enterprise objectives, to maximize the value of employees.。