2020年12月13日托福阅读答案解析
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文TPO13--3 Methods of Studying Infant
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Methods of Studying Infant Perception托福阅读原文In thestudy of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used todetermine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalizeor fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation areused as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, andso forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to theintroduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following thestimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher withan indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. Forexample, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visualfield of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur.The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving patternis perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant'sgeneral level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, andso forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant'sperceptual abilities.Suchtechniques, however, have limitations. First, the observation may be unreliablein that two or more observers may not agree that the particular responseoccurred, or to what degree it occurred. Second, responses are difficult toquantify. Often the rapid and diffuse movements of the infant make it difficultto get an accurate record of the number of responses. The third, and mostpotent, limitation is that it is not possible to be certain that the infant'sresponse was due to the stimulus presented or to a change from no stimulus to astimulus. The infant may be responding to aspects of the stimulus differentthan those identified by the investigator. Therefore, when observationalassessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities,care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or twostudies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of theinfant.Observationalassessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing thelimitations just presented. Film analysis of the infant's responses, heart andrespiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effectivetools in understanding infant perception. Film analysis permits researchers tocarefully study the infant's responses over and over and in slow motion.Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant'sattention between two stimuli. Heart and respiration monitors provide theinvestigator withthe number of heartbeats or breaths taken when a new stimulusis presented. Numerical increases are used as quantifiable indicators ofheightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases in nonnutritive sucking werefirst used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969. They devised anapparatus that connected a baby's pacifier to a counting device. As stimuliwere presented, changes in the infant's sucking behavior were recorded. Increasesin the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant's attention toor preference for a given visual display.Twoadditional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. Thefirst is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulusis presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline(habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point anew stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsivenessis recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to showhabituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable toperceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigmhas been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactoryperception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, whichare electrical brain responses that maybe related to a particular stimulus because ofwhere they originate. Changes inthe electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is gettingthrough to the infant's central nervous system and eliciting some form ofresponse.Each ofthe preceding techniques provides the researcher with evidence that the infantcan detect or discriminate between stimuli. With these sophisticatedobservational assessment and electro-physiological measures, we know that theneonate of only a few days is far more perceptive than previously suspected.However, these measures are only "indirect" indicators of theinfant's perceptual abilities.托福阅读试题1.Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe theA.range of motor activity in neonatesB.frequency and duration of various stimuliC.change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulusD.range of an infant's visual field2.The word uniformly in the passage (Paragraph 1)is closest in meaning toA.clearlyC.consistentlyD.occasionally3.Why does the author mention repetitive following movements of the eye(Paragraph 1)?A.To identify a response that indicates a neonate's perception of a stimulusB.To explain why a neonate is capable of responding to stimuli only through repetitive movementsC.To argue that motor activity in a neonate may be random and unrelated to stimuliD.To emphasize that responses to stimuli vary in infants according to age4.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a problem in using the technique of direct observation?A.It is impossible to be certain of the actual cause of an infant's response.B.Infants' responses, which occur quickly and diffusely, are often difficult to measure.C.Infants do not respond well to stimuli presented in an unnatural laboratory setting.D.It may be difficult for observers to agree on the presence or the degree of a response.5.The word potent in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning toB.powerfulmonD.similar6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage(paragraph 2)? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must not overgeneralize and must base their conclusions on data from many studies.B.On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others.C.To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence.D.When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their observed data is often inconclusive.7.What is the author's primary purpose in paragraph 3?A.To explain why researchers must conduct more than one type of study when they are attempting to understand infant perceptionB.To describe new techniques for observing infant perception that overcome problems identified in the previous paragraphC.To present and evaluate the conclusions of various studies on infant perceptionD.To point out the strengths and weaknesses of three new methods for quantifying an infant's reaction to stimuli8.The word quantifiable in the passage(Paragraph 3)is closest in meaning toA.visualB.permanentC.meaningfulD.measurable9.Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following as indications of an infant's heightened interest in a new stimulus EXCEPT an increase inA.sucking behaviorB. heart rateC.the number of breaths takenD.eye movements10.According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in a habituation-dishabituation study?A.Dishabituation occurs with the introduction of a new stimulus.B.Electrical responses in the infant's brain decline with each new stimulus.C.Habituation is continued with the introduction of a new stimulus.D.The infant displays little change in electrical brain responses.11.In paragraph 4, what does the author suggest about the way an infant's brain perceives stimuli?A.An infant's potential to respond to a stimulus may be related to the size of its brain.B.Changes in the electrical patterns of an infant's brain are difficult to detect.C.Different areas of an infant's brain respond to different types of stimuli.D.An infant is unable to perceive more than one stimulus at a time.12.Paragraph 5 indicates that researchers who used the techniques described in the passage discovered thatA.infants find it difficult to perceive some types of stimuliB.neonates of only a few days cannot yet discriminate between stimuliC.observational assessment is less useful for studying infant perception than researchers previously believedD.a neonate is able to perceive stimuli better than researchers once thought13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? The repetition allows researchers to observe the infant's behavior until they reach agreement about the presence and the degree of the infant's response.Observational assessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented. Film analysis of the infant's responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception. ■【A】Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant's responses over and over and in slow motion. ■【B】Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant's attention between two stimuli. ■【C】Heart and respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or breaths taken when a new stimulus is presented. ■【D】Numerical increases are used as quantifiable indicators of heightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases in nonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969. They devised an apparatus that connected a baby's pacifier to a counting device. As stimuli were presented, changes in the infant's sucking behavior were recorded. Increases in the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant's attention to or preference for a given visual display.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth 2 points.Researchers use a number of techniques to determine how infants respond to changes in their environmentA.Data from observational methods must be confirmed through multiple studies.B.New techniques for studying infant perception have improved the accuracy with which researchers observe and quantify infant responsesC.Indirect observation is most accurate when researchers use it to test auditory and olfactory perception in neonates.D.Visual indicators such as turning the head, blinking the eyes, or crying remain the best evidence of an infant’s perceptual abilities.E.Pacifiers are commonly used in studies to calm an infant who has been presented with excessive stimuli.F.Sophisticated techniques that have aided new discoveries about perception in the neonate continue to be indirect measures.托福阅读答案1.以indirect methods做关键词定位至第二句，说用间接方法来观察婴儿能看到什么听到什么，接下来又说与stimulus引入之前的状态进行对比，所以答案是C，不管是hear还是see都是婴儿的state，而且只有引入之后的state才能与之前的state对比得出变化2.uniformly统一地，一致地，持续地，所以答案C的consistently正确。
托福阅读真题第108篇Earthquake_Prediction（答案文章最后）
托福阅读真题第108篇Earthquake_Prediction（答案文章最后）Accurate prediction of earthquakes is not currently possible, although intensive research is proceeding in many areas.Two types of earthquake prediction are theoretically possible. The first type is long-term forecasting, in which the probability of an earthquake along a particular segment of a within a certain time interval is calculated by studying seismic gaps and historical records of earthquakes that have occurred along that fault segment. By plotting the number of earthquakes within specific time intervals against their magnitudes, diagrams can be constructed for a local area. From this plot it is possible to determine the recurrence interval, or the average time interval between earthquakes of a specific magnitude. Predictions can then be made that an earthquake of that magnitude has a high probability of occurrence within a specified time interval if the date of the last earthquake is known.Research leading to short-term forecasting, which involves a shorter time interval, has been focused on precursors observed prior to previous earthquakes. Precursors are physical or chemical phenomena that occur in a typical pattern before an earthquake. These phenomena include changes in the velocity of seismic waves, the electrical resistance of rocks, the frequency of the usually minor preliminary earthquakes (foreshocks), the deformation of the land surface, and the water level or water chemistry of wells in the area. Many of these precursors can be explained by a theory called the dilatancy model. Under this hypothesis, rocks in the process of strain along a fault show significant dilation or swelling before rupture. This volumeincrease is caused by the opening of microcracks, which are minute failure zones in weaker mineral grains in the rock and along grain boundaries. Groundwater flows into the highly stressed areas during the formation of microcracks. These changes in density and water content affect the ability of the rock to transmit seismic waves and conduct electricity. Therefore, seismic-wave velocity and electrical resistance progressively change as the overall rupture along the fault draws near. Localized changes in land-surface elevation are also related to volume changes at depth. An area of recent uplift along the San Andreas Fault near Los Angeles, which has been named the Palmdale Bulge, is being monitored in great detail as a possible indicator of a future earthquake.Volume changes and groundwater movement may be reflected by changes in water levels in wells and also by changes in the chemical composition of groundwater. Radon gas has been observed to increase in wells prior to earthquakes. These increases are perhaps related to the release of radon gas from rocks during the formation of microcracks. The pattern of seismic activity is also significant in the vicinity of a fault area where rupture is imminent. This pattern consists of an initial rise in the number of small events, followed by a decline in foreshocks just prior to the major earthquake. The decline may represent a temporary increase in rock strength before the newly formed microcracks are filled with water.The precursor phenomena can be grouped into stages according to the dilatancy model. Stage I consists of a gradual stress buildup along the fault. Stages II and III are correlated with dilatancy and water influx. Stage IV is the major earthquake, and stage V is the aftermath of the event. If every earthquakefollowed the sequence with uniform stage duration, earthquake prediction would be a simple matter. Instead of following the same patterns, each earthquake is unique in terms of specific precursor behavior patterns and length of precursor stages. A magnitude 6.9 North American earthquake in 1989 was preceded by a substantially smaller magnitude 5 earthquake fifteen months before the event. Another foreshock of similar size occurred two months before the event. In each case, a public advisory was issued stating that those smaller earthquakes could be foreshocks to a stronger earthquake within five days. However, the fault did not cooperate, and those predictions were not successful. Continued research and study of future earthquakes will certainly lead to refinement of the dilatancy model or to a replacement model with more accurate predictive capabilities.【Paragraph 2】Two types of earthquake prediction are theoretically possible. The first type is long-term forecasting, in which the probability of an earthquake along a particular segment of a within a certain time interval is calculated by studying seismic gaps and historical records of earthquakes that have occurred along that fault segment. By plotting the number of earthquakes within specific time intervals against their magnitudes, diagrams can be constructed for a local area. From this plot it is possible to determine the recurrence interval, or the average time interval between earthquakes of a specific magnitude. Predictions can then be made that an earthquake of that magnitude has a high probability of occurrence within a specified time interval if the date of the last earthquake is known.1. According to paragraph 2, all of the following information is used in the process of long-term earthquake prediction EXCEPT theA. analysis of seismic gapsB. record of past earthquakes in the fault areaC. date of the last recorded earthquake in the areaD. pattern of earthquake activity in other nearby fault segments2. According to paragraph 2, long-term forecasting can be used to predict which of the followingA. The influence of earthquake activity in one segment of the fault area on other segmentsB. The frequency with which earthquakes of a certain size will occurC. The possible date of the next earthquakeD. The magnitude of the next earthquake【Paragraph 3】Research leading to short-term forecasting, which involves a shorter time interval, has been focused on precursors observed prior to previous earthquakes. Precursors are physical or chemical phenomena that occur in a typical pattern before an earthquake. These phenomena include changes in the velocity of seismic waves, the electrical resistance of rocks, the frequency of the usually minor preliminary earthquakes (foreshocks), the deformation of the land surface, and the water level or water chemistry of wells in the area. Many of these precursors can be explained by a theory called the dilatancy model. Under this hypothesis, rocks in the process of strain along a fault show significant dilation or swelling before rupture. This volume increase is caused by the opening of microcracks, which are minute failure zones in weaker mineral grains in the rock and along grain boundaries. Groundwater flows into the highly stressed areas during the formation of microcracks. These changes in density and water content affectthe ability of the rock to transmit seismic waves and conduct electricity. Therefore, seismic-wave velocity and electrical resistance progressively change as the overall rupture along the fault draws near. Localized changes in land-surface elevation are also related to volume changes at depth. An area of recent uplift along the San Andreas Fault near Los Angeles, which has been named the Palmdale Bulge, is being monitored in great detail asa possible indicator of a future earthquake.3. Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following as examples of precursors EXCEPTA. changes in the speed of seismic wavesB. changes in the availability of electricityC. changes in the frequency of foreshocksD. changes in land surfaces4. According to the dilatancy model, what happens to rocks shortly before an earthquake?A. They lose significant amounts of moisture.B. They show signs of expanding.C. They move downward at great speed.D. They increase in temperature.5. According to paragraph 3, the groundwater that flows into microcracks before an earthquake causesA. changes in seismic waves and electrical activityB. increases in the mineral content of rocksC. the disappearance of grain boundaries in rocksD. a release in the tension of highly stressed areas of rocks6. The author discusses the San Andreas Fault near Los Angeles in order toA. contrast past and future patterns of earthquake activity in the areaB. give an example of an area where underground earthquake activity is apparent from land changes above the groundC. explain why recent earthquake predictions have increased accuracyD. suggest that some areas of earthquake activity are easier to monitor than others【Paragraph 4】Volume changes and groundwater movement may be reflected by changes in water levels in wells and also by changes in the chemical composition of groundwater. Radon gas has been observed to increase in wells prior to earthquakes. These increases are perhaps related to the release of radon gas from rocks during the formation of microcracks. The pattern of seismic activity is also significant in the vicinity of a fault area where rupture is imminent. This pattern consists of an initial rise in the number of small events, followed by a decline in foreshocks just prior to the major earthquake. The decline may represent a temporary increase in rock strength before the newly formed microcracks are filled with water.7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following occurs just before an earthquakeA. The chemical content of groundwater drops.B. The rocks weaken as they fill with water.C. Seismic activity decreases.D. Radon gas causes microcracks to form.【Paragraph 5】The precursor phenomena can be grouped into stages according to the dilatancy model. Stage I consists of a gradual stress buildup along the fault. ■Stages II and III are correlated with dilatancy and water influx. Stage IV is the major earthquake, and stage V is the aftermath of the event. ■If everyearthquake followed the sequence with uniform stage duration, earthquake prediction would be a simple matter. ■Instead of following the same patterns, each earthquake is unique in terms of specific precursor behavior patterns and length of precursor stages. ■A magnitude 6.9 North American earthquake in 1989 was preceded by a substantially smaller magnitude 5 earthquake fifteen months before the event. Another foreshock of similar size occurred two months before the event. In each case, a public advisory was issued stating that those smaller earthquakes could be foreshocks to a stronger earthquake within five days. However, the fault did not cooperate, and those predictions were not successful. Continued research and study of future earthquakes will certainly lead to refinement of the dilatancy model or to a replacement model with more accurate predictive capabilities.8. How is paragraph 5 organized?A. The sequence of earthquake stages is given, and the effect of variable stage length on earthquake prediction is explained.B. The earthquake stages are named, and the most important stage is illustrated with a specific earthquake event.C. The sequence of earthquake stages is given, and evidence is presented that the intervals between stages are roughly equal in length.D. The earthquake stages are first named, and each is then described in greater detail.9. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. But the reality of earthquake forecasting is considerably more complex.Where would the sentence best fit?10.【Directions】Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas inthe passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Two types of earthquake prediction are theoretically possible: long-term forecasting and short-term forecasting.●●●Answer ChoicesA. Short-term forecasting has been used more widely than long-term forecasting in the prediction of earthquakes.B. Long-term forecasting of earthquakes uses data on past seismic activity to determine the likelihood that an earthquake will occur in a certain area within a certain time period.C. Short-term forecasting research has studied earthquake precursors such as volume increases in rocks and unusual movements in underground water that occur shortly before an earthquake takes place.D. The dilatancy model has been used to successfully forecast some recent earthquakes.E. Attempts to improve forecasting by using five stages of earthquake predictors have been unsuccessful because each earthquake has unique precursor patterns and durations.F. The magnitude 6.9 North American earthquake in 1989 was not successfully predicted because the many foreshocks before the event were too small to measure.。
老托福阅读试题及答案：PASSAGE12
老托福阅读试题及答案：PASSAGE12为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，提高成绩，下面小编给大家带来老托福阅读真题及答案:passage 12，希望大家喜欢!老托福阅读试题及答案：PASSAGE 12Among the species of seabirds that use the windswept cliffs of the Atlantic coast of Canada in the summer to mate, lay eggs, and rear their young are common murres, Atlantic puffins, black-legged kittiwakes, and northern gannets. Of all the birds on these cliffs, the black-legged kittiwake gull is the best suited for nesting on narrow ledges. Although its nesting habits are similar to those of gulls that nest on flat ground, there are a number of important differences related to the cliff-nesting habit.The advantage of nesting on cliffs is the immunity it gives from foxes, which cannot scale the sheer rocks, and from ravens and other species of gulls, which have difficulty in landing on narrow ledges to steal eggs. This immunity has been followed by a relaxation of the defenses, and kittiwakes do not react to predators nearly as fiercely as do ground-nesting gulls. A colony of Bonaparte's gulls responds to the appearance of a predatory herring gull by flying up as a group with a clamor of alarm calls, followed by concerted mobbing, but kittiwakes simply ignore herring gulls, since they pose little threat to nests on cliffs. Neither do kittiwakes attempt to conceal their nest. Most gulls keep the nest area clear of droppings, and remove empty eggshells after the chicks have hatched, so that the location of the nest is not given away. Kittiwakes defecate over the edge of the nest, which keeps it clean, but this practice, as well as their tendency to leave the nest littered with eggshells, makes its location very conspicuous.On the other hand, nesting on a narrow ledge has its own peculiar problems, and kittiwake behavior has become adapted to overcome them. The female kittiwake sits when mating, whereas other gulls stand, so the pair will not overbalance and fall off the ledge. The nest is a deep cup, made of mud or seaweed, to hold the eggs safely, compared with the shallow scrape of other gulls, and the chicks are remarkably immobile until fully grown. They do not run from their nests when approached, and if they should come near to the cliff edge, they instinctively turn back.1. What aspect of the kittiwake gull does the passage mainly discuss?(A) Its defensive behavior(B) It interactions with other gull species(C) Its nesting habits(D) Its physical difference from other gull species2. The word "rear" in line 2 is closest in meaning to(A) visit(B) watch(C) reverse(D) raise3. The word "scale" in line 8 is closest in meaning to(A) climb(B) avoid(C) approach(D) measure4. The word "immunity" in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) distance(B) transition(C) protection(D) reminder5. Why is it difficult for ravens to steal the kittiwakes' eggs?(A) The kittiwakes can see the ravens approaching the nest.(B) The ravens cannot land on the narrow ledges where kittiwakes nest.(C) The kittiwakes' eggs are too big for the ravens to carry.(D) The female kittiwakes rarely leave the nest.6. The author mentions that eggshells litter around the nests of kittiwakes in order to(A) demonstrate that kittiwakes are not concerned about predators(B) prove how busy kittiwakes are in caring for their offspring(C) show a similarity to other types of gulls(D) illustrate kittiwakes' lack of concern for their chicks7. According to the passage , it can be inferred that which of the following birds conceal their nest?(A) Bonaparte's gulls(B) Atlantic puffins(C) Kittiwake gulls(D) Northern gannets8. The word "it" in line 17 refers to(A) location(B) edge(C) nest(D) practice9. The word "conspicuous" in line 18 is closest in meaning to(A) disordered(B) suspicious(C) noticeable(D) appealing10. The phrase "On the other hand" in line 19 is closest in meaning to(A) therefore(B) however(C) for example(D) by no means正确答案： CDACB AACCB如何提高托福阅读理解能力?一、学会概括主旨大意任何一篇文章都有一个主题思想。
托福阅读笔记之TPO13 婴儿的感知能力
托福阅读笔记之TPO13 婴儿的感知能力说到托福阅读备考，TPO是必不可少的备考神器，通过TPO练习来更好的适应阅读考试的节奏。
本文小编带来的托福阅读笔记是TPO13 Methods of Studying Infant Perception的内容，希望能够与正在备考的大家一起进步。
TPO13 Methods of Studying Infant Perception文章题材：生命学科——婴儿的感知能力常见词汇：quantifiableadj. 可以计量的indication[.indi'keiʃən]n. 表示，指示，象征overcome[.əuvə'kʌm]vt. 战胜，克服，(感情等)压倒，使受不了display[di'splei]n. 显示，陈列，炫耀vt. 显示，表现describe[dis'kraib]vt. 描述，画(尤指几何图形)，说成multiple['mʌltipl]adj. 许多，多种多样的n. 倍数，并联respond[ris'pɔnd]v. 回答，答复，反应，反响，响应preference['prefərəns]n. 偏爱，优先，喜爱物measurable['meʒərəbəl]adj. 可测量的technique[tek'ni:k]n. 技术，技巧，技能易错题解析：Paragraph 1: In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between thetwo measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth —have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.1. Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe the○range of motor activity in neonates○frequency and duration of various stimuli○change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulus○range of an infant's visual field题型：推论题。
2020年12月12日托福阅读真题
2020年12月12日托福阅读真题12月12日托福阅读第一篇主要内容：讲learning standard test set，就是如何测试不同种类动物的intelligence。
不同物种的智商不一样。
人们很想知道动物的智商和人类有什么不同，遇事通过动物学习水平来检测。
前三段都是讲的这个test是怎么操作的。
最先举的例子好像是猴子和什么，做的对比实验。
第一次让它从三角形和长方形里选，选三角形就给奖励，选正方形就不给;第二次从圆形和多边形里选，依旧是选圆形给奖励，选择多边形不给。
后面持续变化通过大量实验来看这种动物的improvements，就比如这种动物在实行第几十次测试时准确率增加了多少。
一种猴子经过了三十次测试准确率就达到百分之九十了，然后这个测试的结果表明智商高的动物大脑也大。
于是大家都觉得能够参考。
后面三段都在反驳这个方法不可取。
又举了一个澳大利亚的mouse like的动物的例子，同样做类似上面的实验，第一次区分ab第二次区分黑白。
这种动物大脑很小但是测试结果很高，是因为他们生活在wide open areas，很容易被捕食者发现，他们要避免天地还要抓很敏捷的昆虫做实物，所以这方面水平很强。
然后这里有个句子简化题，大意是说动物的process different，不能说明学习水平，也不能用之前的实验来测试。
然后还说了海豚虽然做这个实验成绩很低，但是如果把visual的图形换成auditory的声音就会很好，所欲这个实验不可取是因为首先实验produce中很小的difference都会造成result的很大不同，而且这些difference都是不可避免的。
其次，对某些动物不适用。
12月12日托福阅读第二篇主要内容：中世纪欧洲政府的变革。
宗教变得影响力越来越小，政府的管辖范围越来越大。
法国葡萄牙等一些国家创造了nation这个定义。
国家边界变得更清晰了。
荷兰和英国建立了parliament，具有立法权。
托福TPO13阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析
托福TPO13阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO13阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
▉托福TPO13阅读Passage1原文文本：Types of Social GroupsLife places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance.Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their ownright. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions.A number of conditions enhance the likelihood that primary groups will arise. First, group size is important. We find it difficult to get to know people personally when they are milling about and dispersed in large groups. In small groups we have a better chance to initiate contact and establish rapport with them. Second, face-to-face contact allows us to size up others. Seeing and talking with one another in close physical proximity makes possible a subtle exchange of ideas and feelings. And third, the probability that we will develop primary group bonds increases as we have frequent and continuous contact. Our ties with people often deepen as we interact with them across time and gradually evolve interlocking habits and interests.Primary groups are fundamental to us and to society. First, primary groups are critical to the socialization process. Within them, infants and children are introduced to the ways of their society. Such groups are the breeding grounds in which we acquire the norms and values that equip us for social life. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is.Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them.Paragraph 1: Life places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.▉托福TPO13阅读Passage1题目：1. The word “complex” in the passage is closest in meaning to○ delicate○ elaborate○ private。
2020年托福阅读模拟试题及答案(卷四)
2020年托福阅读模拟试题及答案（卷四）托福阅读文本：Scientists have discovered that for the last 160,000 years, at least, there has been a consistentrelationship between the amount of carbon dioxide in the air and the average temperature of theplanet. The importance of carbon dioxide in regulating the Earth's temperature was confirmed byscientists working in eastern Antarctica. Drilling down into a glacier, they extracted a mile-longcylinder of ice from the hole. The glacier had formed as layer upon layer of snow accumulatedyear after year. Thus drilling into the ice was tantamount to drilling back through time.The deepest sections of the core are composed of water that fell as snow 160,000 years ago.Scientists in Grenoble, France, fractured portions of the core and measured the composition ofancient air released from bubbles in the ice. Instruments were used to measure the ratio of certainisotopes in the frozen water to get an idea of the prevailing atmospheric temperature at the timewhen that particular bit of water became locked in the glacier.The result is a remarkable unbroken record of temperature and of atmospheric levels of carbondioxide. Almost every time the chill of an ice age descended on the planet, carbon dioxide levelsdropped. When the global temperature dropped 9°F (5 °C), carbon dioxide levels dropped to 190parts per million or so. Generally, as each ice age ended and the Earth basked in a warminterglacial period, carbon dioxide levels were around 280 parts per million. Through the 160,000years of that ice record, the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere fluctuated between 190 and280 parts per million, but never rose much higher-until the Industrial Revolution beginning in theeighteenth century and continuing today.There is indirect evidence that the link between carbon dioxide levels and global temperaturechange goes back much further than the glacial record. Carbon dioxide levels may have beenmuch greater than the current concentration during the Carboniferous period, 360 to 285 millionyears ago. The period was named for a profusion of plant life whose buried remains produced alarge fraction of the coal deposits that are being brought to the surface and burned today.托福阅读题目：1. Which of the following does the passage mainly discuss?(A) Chemical causes of ice ages(B) Techniques for studying ancient layers of ice in glaciers(C) Evidence of a relationship between levels of carbon dioxide and global temperature(D) Effects of plant life on carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere2. The word "accumulated" in line 6 is closest in meaning to.(A) spread out(B) changed(C) became denser(D) built up3. According to the passage , the drilling of the glacier in eastern Antarctica was important becauseit(A) allowed scientists to experiment with new drilling techniques(B) permitted the study of surface temperatures in an ice-covered region of Earth(C) provided insight about climate conditions in earlier periods(D) confirmed earlier findings about how glaciers are formed4. The phrase "tantamount to" in line 7 is closest in meaning to(A) complementary to(B) practically the same as(C) especially well suited to(D) unlikely to be confused with5.According to the passage , Grenoble, France, is the place where(A) instruments were developed for measuring certain chemical elements(B) scientists first recorded atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide(C) scientists studied the contents of an ice core fromAntarctica(D) the relationship between carbon dioxide and temperature was discovered6. According to the passage , scientists used isotopes from the water of the ice core to determinewhich of following?(A) The amount of air that had bubbled to the surface since the ice had formed(B) The temperature of the atmosphere when the ice was formed(C) The date at which water had become locked in the glacier(D) The rate at which water had been frozen in the glacier7. The word "remarkable" in line 14 is closest in meaning to(A) genuine(B) permanent(C) extraordinary(D) continuous8. The word "link" in line 23 is closest in meaning to(A) tension(B) connection(C) attraction(D) distance9. The passage implies that the warmest temperatures among the periods mentioned occurred(A) in the early eighteenth century(B) 160,000 years ago(C) at the end of each ice age(D) between 360 and 285 million years ago10.According to the passage , the Carboniferous period was characterized by(A) a reduction in the number of coal deposits(B) the burning of a large amount of coal(C) an abundance of plants(D) an accelerated rate of glacier formation11. The passage explains the origin of which of the following terms?(A) glacier (line 5)(B) isotopes (line 11)(C) Industrial Revolution (line 21)(D) Carboniferous period (lines 26)托福阅读答案：CDCBC BCBAC D托福阅读文本：Of all modern instruments, the violin is apparently one of the simplest. It consists in essence ofa hollow, varnished wooden sound box, or resonator, and a long neck, covered with a fingerboard,along which four strings are stretched at high tension. The beauty of design, shape, and decorationis no accident: the proportions of the instrument are determined almost entirely by acousticalconsiderations. Its simplicity of appearance is deceptive. About 70 parts are involved in theconstruction of a violin. Its tone and its outstanding range of expressiveness make it an ideal soloinstrument. No less important, however, is its role as an orchestral and chamber instrument. Incombination with the larger and deeper-sounding members of the same family, the violins formthe nucleus of the modern symphony orchestra.The violin has been in existence since about 1550. Its importance as an instrument in its ownright dates from the early 1600's, when it first became standard in Italian opera orchestras. Itsstature as an orchestral instrument was raised further when in 1626 Louis XIII of Franceestablished at his court the orchestra known as Les vingt-quatre violins du Roy (The King's 24Violins), which was to become widely famous later in the century.In its early history, the violin had a dull and rather quiet tone resulting from the fact that thestrings were thick and were attached to the body of the instrument very loosely. During theeighteenth and nineteenth century, exciting technical changes were inspired by suchcomposer-violinists as Vivaldi and Tartini. Their instrumental compositions demanded a fuller,clearer, and more brilliant tone that was produced by using thinner strings and a far higher stringtension. Small changes had to be made to the violin's internal structure and to the fingerboard sothat they could withstand the extra strain. Accordingly, a higher standard of performance wasachieved, in terms of both facility and interpretation. Left-hand technique was considerablyelaborated, and new fingering patterns on the fingerboard were developed for very high notes.托福阅读题目：1. The word "standard" in line 12 is closest in meaning to(A) practical(B) customary(C) possible(D) unusual2. "The King's 24 Violins" is mentioned in line 15 to illustrate(A) how the violin became a renowned instrument(B) the competition in the 1600's between French and Italian orchestras(C) the superiority of French violins(D) why the violin was considered the only instrument suitable to be played by royalty3. What is the main idea presented in paragraph 3?(A) The violin has been modified to fit its evolving musical functions.(B) The violin is probably the best known and most widely distributed musical instrument in theworld.(C) The violin had reached the height of its popularity by the middle of the eighteenth century.(D) The technique of playing the violin has remained essentially the same since the 1600's.4. The author mentions Vivaldi and Tartini in line 19 as examples of composers whose music(A) inspired more people to play the violin(B) had to be adapted to the violin(C) demanded more sophisticated violins(D) could be played only by their students5. The word "they" in line 22 refers to(A) Civaldi and Tartini(B) thinner strings and a higher string tension(C) small changes(D) internal structure and fingerboard6. The word "strain" in line 22 is closest in meaning to(A) struggle(B) strength(C) strategy(D) stress7. The word "Accordingly" in line 23 is closest in meaning to(A) However(B) Consequently(C) Nevertheless(D) Ultimately8.According to the passage , early violins were different from modern violins in that early violins(A) were heavier(B) broke down more easily(C) produced softer tones(D) were easier to play9. According to the passage , which of the following contributes to a dull sound being produced bya violin?(A)A long fingerboard(B)A small body(C) High string tension(D) Thick strings10. Which of the following terms is defined in the passage ?(A) resonator (line 2)(B) solo (line 7)(C) left-hand technique (line 25)(D) fingering patterns (lines 24-25)11. All of the following are mentioned in the passage as contributing to the ability to play modernviolin music EXCEPT(A) more complicated techniques for the left hand(B) different ways to use the fingers to play very high notes(C) use of rare wood for the fingerboard and neck(D) minor alterations to the structure of the instrumentANSWER KEYS托福阅读答案：BAACD DBCAA C一、找关键词在托福阅读题目中找关键词，是解题的第一步。
2020年12月13日托福写作答案解析
2020年12月13日托福写作答案解析12月13日托福综合写作题目：Topic 议题：the special functions of the hammer-shaped head of a kind of a shark12月13日托福综合写作范文：Sample answer：The reading and listening discuss about the special functions of the hammer-shaped head of a kind of a shark. The passage mentions three functions. Whereas, the professor totally refutes the three points presented in the passage.Firstly, the professor rebuts the reading’s first point that sharks with such shaped head turn around quickly. The professor claims that this kind of shark does turn around quickly, but it is not because of the special head, but because of other factors such as skeleton. Besides young sharks were used in the previous experiment, thus the young also affected the result. Maybe the old ones with such special heads cannot turn around that quickly.Secondly, the professor contradicts reading’s second point that such head helps impr ove the shark’s sensitivity to electricity field. The professor mentions that an experiment proved that all sharks with and without this special head have similar sensitivity to artificial electric field.At last, the passage states the third view that the head can be used as a weapon to hunt prey. However, the professorexplains that Sharks’ eyes are located at both sides of the hammerhead, which is risky for them to use hammerheads as weapons. Besides, there’s no evidence to prove that sharks ever used heads as weapons.12月13日托福独立写作题目：作文题目：Some people believe older children should help parents to take care of younger siblings, while others believe this is parents' responsibility. Which do you prefer and why?12月13日托福独立写作解析：题型类别：价值判断类写作思路：本次的独立写作并不难，话题是我们日常生活中很常见的，(不由想起了前段时间的“二胎政策” two-child policy)。
2020年托福阅读模拟试题及答案(卷六)
2020年托福阅读模拟试题及答案（卷六）托福阅读文本：Prehistoric mammoths have been preserved in the famous tar pits of Rancho La Brea (Brea is the Spanish word for tar) in what is now the heart of Los Angeles, California. These tar pits have been known for centuries and were formerly mined for their natural asphalt, a black or brown petroleum-like substance. Thousands of tons were extracted before 1875, when it was first noticed that the tar contained fossil remains. Major excavations were undertaken that established the significance of this remarkable site. The tar pits were found to contain the remains of scores of species of animals from the last 30,000 years of the Ice Age.Since then, over 100 tons of fossils, 1.5 million from vertebrates, 2.5 million from invertebrates, have been recovered, often in densely concentrated and tangled masses. The creatures found range from insects and birds to giant ground sloth's, but a total of 17 proboscides (animals with a proboscis or long nose) —including mastodons and Columbian mammoths —have been recovered, most of them from Pit 9, the deepest bone-bearing deposit, which was excavated in 1914. Most of the fossils date to between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago.The asphalt at La Brea seeps to the surface, especially in the summer, and forms shallow puddles that would often have beenconcealed by leaves and dust. Unwary animals would become trapped on these thin sheets of liquid asphalt, which are extremely sticky in warm weather. Stuck, the unfortunate beasts would die of exhaustion and hunger or fall prey to predators that often also became stuck.As the animals decayed, more scavengers would be attracted and caught in their turn.Carnivores greatly outnumber herbivores in the collection: for every large herbivore, there is one saber-tooth cat, a coyote, and four wolves. The fact that some bones are heavily weathered shows that some bodies remained above the surface for weeks or months. Bacteria in the asphalt would have consumed some of the tissues other than bones, and the asphalt itself would dissolve what was left, at the same time impregnating and beautifully preserving the saturated bones, rendering them dark brown and shiny.托福阅读题目：1. What aspect of the La Brea tar pits does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The amount of asphalt that was mined there(B) The chemical and biological interactions between asphalt and animals(C) The fossil remains that have been found there(D) Scientific methods of determining the age of tar pits2. In using the phrase "the heart of Los Angeles" in line 2, the author is talking about the city's(A) beautiful design(B) central area(C) basic needs(D) supplies of natural asphalt3. The word "noticed" in line 5 closest in meaning to(A) predicted(B) announced(C) corrected(D) observed4. The word "tangled" in line 10 is closest in meaning to(A) buried beneath(B) twisted together(C) quickly formed(D) easily dated5. The word "them" in line 13 refers to(A) insects(B) birds(C) cloths(D) proboscideans6. How many proboscideans have been found at the La Brea tar。
新托福TPO12阅读原文及译文（一）
新托福TPO12阅读原文及译文（一）新托福TPO12阅读原文(一):Which Hand Did They Use?TPO12-1：Which Hand Did They Use?We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant.Cave art furnishes other types of evidence of this phenomenon. Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. In the few cases where an Ice Age figure is depicted holding something, it is mostly, though not always, in the right hand.Clues to right-handedness can also be found by other methods. Right-handers tend to have longer, stronger, and more muscular bones on the right side, and Marcellin Boule as long ago as 1911 noted the La Chapelle-aux-Saints Neanderthal skeleton had a right upper arm bone that was noticeably strongerthan the left. Similar observations have been made on other Neanderthal skeletons such as La Ferrassie I and Neanderthal itself.Fractures and other cut marks are another source of evidence. Right-handed soldiers tend to be wounded on the left. The skeleton of a 40- or 50-year-old Nabatean warrior, buried 2,000 years ago in the Negev Desert, Israel, had multiple healed fractures to the skull, the left arm, and the ribs.Tools themselves can be revealing. Long-handed Neolithic spoons of yew wood preserved in Alpine villages dating to 3000 B.C. have survived; the signs of rubbing on their left side indicate that their users were right-handed. The late Ice Age rope found in the French cave of Lascaux consists of fibers spiraling to the right, and was therefore tressed by a righthander.Occasionally one can determine whether stone tools were used in the right hand or the left, and it is even possible to assess how far back this feature can be traced. In stone toolmaking experiments, Nick Toth, a right-hander, held the core (the stone that would become the tool) in his left hand and the hammer stone in his right. As the tool was made, the core was rotated clockwise, and the flakes, removed in sequence, had a little crescent of cortex (the core's outer surface) on the side. Toth's knapping produced 56 percent flakes with the cortex on the right, and 44 percent left-oriented flakes. A left-handed toolmaker would produce the opposite pattern. Toth has applied these criteria to the similarly made pebble tools from a number of early sites (before 1.5 million years) at Koobi Fora, Kenya, probably made by Homo habilis. At seven sites he found that 57 percent of the flakes were right-oriented, and 43 percent left, a pattern almost identical to that produced today.About 90 percent of modern humans are right-handed: we are the only mammal with a preferential use of one hand. The part of the brain responsible for fine control and movement is located in the left cerebral hemisphere, and the findings above suggest that the human brain was already asymmetrical in its structure and function not long after 2 million years ago. Among Neanderthalers of 70,000–35,000 years ago, Marcellin Boule noted that the La Chapelle-aux-Saints individual had a left hemisphere slightly bigger than the right, and the same was found for brains of specimens from Neanderthal, Gibraltar, and La Quina.TPO12-1译文：他们到底用哪只手?我们都知道，现在的人们更多是使用右手而非左手。
2020托福阅读直接事实题解题攻略
2020托福阅读直接事实题解题攻略2020托福阅读直接事实题解题攻略托福阅读直接事实题解题攻略1.选项排除法直接事实题的正确选项是可以和题干共同完成一个意群表述的内容，错误选项有三种情形：一种是和原文无关的选项，这种选项可能会出现原文\题干讨论对象，但是陈述内容是编造出来的，原文中没有依据;一种是和题目无关选项，这种选项在原文中可以找到依据，但是并不能回答题干问题;还有一种是看上去是文章内容，但是出现了一些臆断的比较级、最高级等信息。
2.定位信息直接事实题的正确选项是可以和题干共同完成一个意群表述的内容，错误选项有三种情形：一种是和原文无关的选项，这种选项可能会出现原文\题干讨论对象，但是陈述内容是编造出来的，原文中没有依据;一种是和题目无关选项，这种选项在原文中可以找到依据，但是并不能回答题干问题;还有一种是看上去是文章内容，但是出现了一些臆断的比较级、最高级等信息。
3.了解出题点直接事实题往往不会针对像是例子一类太过于细节的内容出题。
在出题时，和上面所述出题过程对应，一种是对原文中某个原因的表述出题，将结果放在选项中备选;或者是将结果放在题干中，将原因放在选项中待选。
还有一些情况，托福阅读直接事实题会对对比事物的优劣势进行考察;还有的题目会问到某个事件的发展过程、某个人物做的某件事情、某个时间段对应的事件等等。
托福阅读真题原题+题目The observation of the skies has played a special part in the lives and cultures of peoples since the earliest of times. Evidence obtained from a site known as the Hole in the Rock, in Papago Park in Phoenix, Arizona, indicates that it might have been usedas an observatory by a prehistoric people known as the Hohokam.The physical attributes of the site allow its use as a natural calendar/clock. The hole at Hole in the Rock is formed by two large overhanging rocks coming together at a point, creating a shelter with an opening large enough for several persons to pass through. The northeast-facing overhang has a smaller opening in its roof. It is this smaller hole that produces the attributes that may have been used as a calendar/clock.Because of its location in the shelter's roof, a beam of sunlight can pass through this second hole and cast a spot onto the shelter's wall and floor. This spot of light travels from west to east as the sun moves across the sky. It also moves from north to south and back again as the Earth travels around the Sun, the west-to-east movement could have been used to establish a daily clock, much like a sundial, while the north-to-south movement could have been used to establish a seasonal calendar.The spot first appears and starts down the surface of the wall of the shelter at different times of the morning depending on the time of the year. The spot grows in size from its first appearance until its maximum size is achieved roughly at midday. It then continues its downward movement until it reaches a point where it jumps to the floor of the shelter. As the Sun continues to move to the west, the spot continues to move across the shelter floor and down the butte, or hill, toward a group of small boulders. If a person is seated on a certain one of these rocks as the spot reaches it, the Sun can be viewed through the calendar hole. This occurs at different times in the afternoon depending on the time of year.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) observations of the stars by ancient people(B) rock formations of Arizona(C) a site used by ancient people to measure time(D) the movement of the earth around the Sun2. The word obtained in line 2 is closest in meaning to(A) acquired(B) transported(C) covered(D) removed3. The word attributes in line 5 is closest in meaning to(A) changes(B) characteristics(C) locations(D) dimensions4. The word its in line 10 refers to(A) roof(B) beam(C) hole(D) spot5. The word establish in line 15 is closest in meaning to(A) create(B) locate(C) consult(D) choose6. Which of the following is NOT true of the spot of light?(A) It is caused by sunlight passing through a hole.(B) It travels across the roof of the shelter.(C) Its movement is affected by the position of the Sun.(D) It movement could have been used to estimate the time of day.7. From which of the following can be the time of year bedetermined?(A) The movement of the spot of light from west to east(B) The speed with which the spot of light moves(C) The movement of the spot of light from north to south(D) The size of the sport of light at midday8. The word roughly in line 18 is closest in meaning to(A) finally(B) harshly(C) uneasily(D) approximately9. The passage mentions that the Hole in the Rock was used as all of the following EXCEPT(A) a calendar(B) a home(C) a clock(D) an observatory10. Which of the following can be inferred from the fourth paragraph?(A) The boulders are located below the rock shelter.(B) The person seated on the rock cannot see the shelter.(C) After it passes the boulders, the spot of light disappears.(D) The spot of light is largest when it first appears.PASSAGE 35 CABCA BCDBA托福阅读真题原题+题目Railroads reshaped the North American environment and reoriented North American behavior. In a quarter of a century, claimed the Omaha Daily Republican in 1883, they have made the people of the United States homogeneous, breaking through the peculiarities and provincialisms which marked separate and unmingling sections.The railroad simultaneously stripped the landscape of the natural resources, made velocity of transport and economy of scale necessary parts of industrial production, and carried consumer goods to households; it dispatched immigrants to unsettled places, drew emigrants away from farms and villages to cities, and sent men and guns to battle. It standardized time and travel, seeking to annihilate distance and space by allowing movement at any time and in any season or type of weather. In its grand and impressive terminals and stations, architects recreated historic Roman temples and public baths, French chateaus and Italian bell towers — edifices that people used as stages for many of everyday life's high emotions: meeting and parting, waiting and worrying, planning new starts or coming home.Passenger terminals, like the luxury express trains that hurled people over spots, spotlight the romance of railroading. (The twentieth-Century Limited sped between Chicago and New York in twenty hours by 1915). Equally important to everyday life were the slow freight trans chugging through industrial zones, the morning and evening commuter locals shuttling back ions and urban terminals, and the incessant comings and goings that occurred in the classifications, or switching, yards. Moreover, in addition to its being a transportation pathway equipped with a mammoth physical plant of tracks signals, crossings, bridges, and junctions, plus telegraph and telephone lines the railroad nurtured factory complexes, coat piles, warehouses, and generating stations, forming along its right-of-way what has aptly been called the metropolitan corridor of the American landscape.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The influence of ancient architecture on the design of railroad terminals(B) The importance of natural resources in the development of railroads(C) The railroad's impact on daily life in the United States in the nineteenth century(D) Technological improvements in the area of communication in the nineteenth century2. It can be inferred from the quote from the Omaha Daily Republican (line 2-4) that railroads(A) made all sections of the nation much wealthier(B) brought more unity to what had been a fragmented nation(C) reduced dependence on natural resources(D) had no effect on the environment of the United States3. The word it in line 7 refers to(A) transport(B) scale(C) production(D) railroad4. The word drew in line 8 is closest(A) obliged(B) designed(C) helped(D) attracted5. The word annihilate in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) conquer(B) utilize(C) separate(D) mechanize6. The word Moreover in line 20 is closest in meaning to(A) consequently(B) furthermore(C) although(D) because7. All of the following were true of impressive passenger terminals EXCEPT:(A) Their architecture was influenced by the architecture of Europe.(B) Luxury express trains traveled between them.(C) They were usually located in small towns.(D) They were important to many commuters.8. According to the passage , which type of development lined the area along the metropolitancorridor?(A) Stores and shopping areas(B) Recreational areas(C) Industrial(D) Agricultural9. The word aptly in line 24 is closest in meaning to(A) appropriately(B) virtually(C) consistently(D) incessantly10. The author mentions the Twentieth-Century Limited as an example of(A) a freight train(B) a commuter train(C) a luxury train(D) an underground train11. The author gives a synonym for which of the following words?(A) homogeneous (line 3)(B) standardized (line 9)(C) temples (line 11)(D) classification(line 20)PASSAGE 42 CBDDA BCCAC D。
12月13日托福阅读答案解析
12月13日托福阅读答案解析Obviously=clearlyWidespread=commonDense=thickThus=consequentlyresultantShallow=smalldepthexerciseProfound=very strongEmergence=riseTactic=strategyAdjacent to=near toParallel=match12月13日托福阅读第一篇题材划分：生物类主要内容：板块运动可以改变生物多样性，提到生物区的划分，少于百分之二十的物种相似度就是不同的区越多说明那里的多样性越高。
比如板块分开的时候，多样性增加，反之亦然。
一个山脉可以把原本的湿润风给挡了，就变成沙漠不适合生长了。
或者一个障碍的形成可以把本来的一个物种分成两个，一南一北，等到在合并的时候，发现北部的可以到南部生活，但南部的很少到北部生活。
相似TPO练习推荐TPO31- Speciation in Geographically Isolated Populations相关背景知识：Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook was the first to coin the term ‘speciation’ for the splitting of lineages or “cladogenesis,” as opposed to “anagenesis” or “phyletic evolution” occurring within lineages. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation.There is research comparing the intensity of sexual selection in different clades with their number of species.There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another: allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments. Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject matter of much ongoing discussion.All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of evolution; however, debate persists as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving biodiversity.One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the three-spined stickleback, a marine fish that, after the last glacial period, has undergone speciation into new freshwater colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between different genera of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences.During allopatric speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures;(b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galápagos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing Galápagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as Darwin’s finches to be a classic case of adaptive evolutionary radiation.12月13日托福阅读第二篇题材划分：生物类主要内容：主要讲关于夏威夷岛上的Noendemic animals and plants是如何移民到岛上的，主要通过风，动物皮毛和消化，以及通过人类的船只等。
托福阅读辅导：老托福阅读真题及答案passage13
托福阅读辅导:老托福阅读真题及答案passage13为了帮助大家备考托福阅读，练习更多阅读题目。
提高阅读水平，下面小编给大家带来托福阅读辅导:老托福阅读真题及答案passage13，希望对大家有所帮助!老托福阅读文本passage13Any rock that has cooled and solidified from a molten state is an igneous rock. Therefore, if the Earth began as a superheated sphere in space, all the rocks making up its crust may well have been igneous and thus the ancestors of all other rocks. Even today, approximately 95 percent of the entire crust is igneous. Periodically, molten material wells out of the Earth's interior to invade the surface layers or to flow onto the surface itself. This material cools into a wide variety of igneous rocks. In the molten state, it is called magma as it pushes into the crust and lava when it runs out onto the surface.All magma consists basically of a variety of silicate minerals (high in silicon-oxygen compounds), but the chemical composition of any given flow may differ radically from that of any other. The resulting igneous rocks will reflect these differences. Igneous rocks also vary in texture as well as chemistry. Granite, for instance, is a coarse-grained igneous rock whose individual mineral crystals have formed to a size easily seen by the naked eye. A slow rate of cooling has allowed the crystals to reach this size. Normally, slow cooling occurs when the crust is invaded by magma that remains buried well below the surface. Granite may be found on the surface of the contemporary landscape, but from its coarse texture we know that it must have formed through slow cooling at a great depth and later been laid bare by erosion. Igneous rocks with this coarse-grained texturethat formed at depth are called plutonic.On the other hand, if the same magma flows onto the surface and is quickly cooled by the atmosphere, the resulting rock will be fine-grained and appear quite different from granite, although the chemical composition will be identical. This kind of rock is called rhyolite. The most finely grained igneous rock is volcanic glass or obsidian, which has no crystals. Some researchers believe this is because of rapid cooling; others believe it is because of a lack of water vapor and other gases in the lava. The black obsidian cliffs of Yellowstone National Park are the result of a lava flow of basalt running head on into a glacier. Some of the glacier melted on contact, but suddenly there also appeared a huge black mass of glassy stone.老托福阅读题目 passage131. In the first paragraph, the author mentions that 95% of the Earth's crust is composed of igneous rock to support the idea that(A) the Earth began as a molten mass(B) a thin layer of magma flows beneath the Earth's crust(C) the minerals found in igneous rock are very common(D) igneous rock is continually being formed2. The word "invade" in line 5 is closest in meaning to(A) move into(B) neutralize(C) cover(D) deposit3. The word "contemporary" in line 15 is closest in meaning to(A) vast(B) natural(C) existing(D) uneven4. The word "it" in line 16 refers to(A) granite(B) surface(C) landscape(D) texture5. Granite that has been found above ground has been(A) pushed up from below the crust by magma(B) produced during a volcanic explosion(C) gradually exposed due to erosion(D) pushed up by the natural shifting of the Earth6. Which of the following is produced when magma cools rapidly?(A) granite(B) plutonic rock(C) rhyolite(D) mineral crystals7. The word "finely" in line 22 is closest in meaning to(A) minutely(B) loosely(C) sensitively(D) purely8. Which of the following is another name for volcanic glass?(A) Plutonic rock(B) Crystal(C) Lava(D) Obsidian老托福阅读答案 passage13AACAC CAD托福阅读技巧：词汇题应对方法为什么很多考生会对词汇题束手无措?一方面是因为考生的词汇量达不到，OG中词汇题的解释里有一句话，there is no “list of words” that must be tested. 这句话就告诉考生死了那条心去背所谓的大纲词汇，因为没有大纲，而考试中要考查到的单词可能是来自牛津字典或朗文字典中的任何一个单词，范围大的离谱;而另一方面则是因为有的考生没有学会从上下文或者从语法结构去猜测词义。
托福TPO13口语Task4阅读文本+听力文本+题目+满分范文
为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO13口语Task4阅读文本+听力文本+题目+满分范文，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
托福TPO13口语Task4阅读文本： Perceptual Constancy How an object affects our senses depends in part on external conditions, and these conditions are always changing. An object viewed from one angle presents a different shapes to our eye than when viewed from another angle; similarity, as the distance from which we view an object changes, the object will appear larger or smaller. In spite of this, even as conditions change and we see objects differently, we still recognize that they remain the same. This is what is known as perceptual constancy. If not for perceptual constancy, we might have difficulty recognizing familiar objects if we viewed them in a new and different context. 托福TPO13口语Task4听力文本： Now listen to part of a lecture on this topic in a psychology class. (Male Professor) Let's take an everyday example an ordinary round plate like you'd find in a kitchen. If you hold the plate directly in front of your face and look at it, what shape do you see? A perfect circle, right?Suppose you tilt the plate to a different angle, to a horizontal position, like you're planning to put food on it, still a perfect circle? No! The circle is now stretched out, flattened into an oval. Do you conclude the plate had actually changed shape? Or that it's a different object, not the same plate? Of course not! It looks different, but we perceive it as still being the same.Here's a different example. This classroom we're in. It's fairly large, right? Now, from up close, from the front row, I appear to be relatively big, bigger than if you're in the last row, right? But let's say you're sitting in the front row today but tomorrow you're sitting in the back row. From back there I'’m going to look smaller, but you don’t think I've actually gotten smaller. Yo u don’t think you’re seeing a different professor, a guy who looks like me except he’s smaller. No matter where you are, up close or far away, you understand without even thinking about it, that I’m the same size, the same person. 托福TPO13口语Task4题目： Explain what is meant by perceptual constancy using the examples provided by the professor. 托福TPO13口语Task4满分范文： Perceptual constancy is the phenomenon that however the external conditionsaffect our perception of an object, we still recognize it. According to the professor, there're two examples of this. The first one is about angle. When you hold a plate upright to your face, you see a perfect circle. But if a plate is placed horizontally, it stretches out, and flattens into an oval. Anyway, no matter what shape we see, we always know that it's the same plate because of perceptual constancy. Another example is about distance. We all know that if someone is far away from us, he/she appears smaller. Otherwise he/she appears bigger and taller. So if a student sits in the front row, he'll see a bigger and taller professor. But if he sits in the back, he will see a smaller professor. Bigger or smaller he still knows that it's the same professor due to perceptual constancy. (158 words) 以上是给大家整理的托福TPO13口语Task4阅读文本+听力文本+题目+满分范文，希望对你有所帮助!。
托福阅读真题2020
托福阅读真题2020托福阅读真题1PASSAGE 10One area of paleoanthropological study involves the eating and dietary habits of hominids, erect bipedal primates —including early humans. It is clear that at some stage of history, humans began to carry their food to central places, called home bases, where it was shared and consumed with the young and other adults. The use of home bases is a fundamental component of human social behavior; the common meal served at a common hearth is a powerful symbol, a mark of social unity. Home base behavior does not occur among nonhuman primates and is rare among mammals. It is unclear when humans began to use home bases, what kind of communications and social relations were involved, and what the ecological and food-choice contexts of the shift were. Work on early tools, surveys of paleoanthropological sites, development and testing of broad ecological theories, and advances in comparative primatology are contributing to knowledge about this central chapter in human prehistory.One innovative approach to these issues involves studying damage and wear on stone tools. Researchers make tools that replicate excavated specimens as closely as possible and then try to use them as the originals might have been used, in woodcutting, hunting, or cultivation. Depending on how the tool is used, characteristic chippage patterns and microscopically distinguishable polishes develop near the edges. The first application of this method of analysis to stone tools that are 1.5 million to 2 million years old indicates that, from the start, animportant function of early stone tools was to extract highly nutritious food —meat and marrow —from large animal carcasses. Fossil bones with cut marks caused by stone tools have been discovered lying in the same 2-million-year-old layers that yielded the oldest such tools and the oldest hominid specimens (including humans) with larger than ape-sized brains. This discovery increases scientists' certainty about when human ancestors began to eat more meat than present-day nonhuman primates. But several questions remain unanswered: how frequently meat eating occurred; what the social implications of meat eating were; and whether the increased use of meat coincides with the beginnings of the use of home bases.1. The passage mainly discusses which of the following aspects of hominid behavior?(A) Changes in eating and dietary practices(B) The creation of stone hunting tools(C) Social interactions at home bases(D) Methods of extracting nutritious food from carcasses2. According to the passage , bringing a meal to a location to be shared by many individuals is(A) an activity typical of nonhuman primates(B) a common practice among animals that eat meat(C) an indication of social unity(D) a behavior that encourages better dietary habits3. The word consumed in line 4 is closest in meaning to(A) prepared(B) stored(C) distributed(D) eaten4. According to paragraph 2, researchers make copies of oldstone tools in order to(A) protect the old tools from being worn out(B) display examples of the old tools in museums(C) test theories about how old tools were used(D) learn how to improve the design of modern tools5. In paragraph 2, the author mentions all of the following as examples of ways in which earlystone tools were used EXCEPT to(A) build home bases(B) obtain food(C) make weapons(D) shape wood6. The word innovative in line 13 is closest in meaning to(A) good(B) new(C) simple(D) costly7. The word them in line 15 refers to(A) issues(B) researchers(C) tools(D) specimens8. The author mentions characteristic chippage patterns in line 16 as an example of(A) decorations cut into wooden objects(B) differences among tools made of various substances(C) impressions left on prehistoric animal bones(D) indications of wear on stone tools9. The word extract in line 19 is closest in meaning to(A) identify(B) remove(C) destroy(D) compare10. The word whether in line 26 is closest in meaning to(A) if(B) how(C) why(D) when托福阅读真题2PASSAGE 11Plants are subject to attack and infection by a remarkable variety of symbiotic species and have evolved a diverse array of mechanisms designed to frustrate the potential colonists. These can be divided into preformed or passive defense mechanisms and inducible or active systems. Passive plant defense comprises physical and chemical barriers that prevent entry of pathogens, such as bacteria, or render tissues unpalatable or toxic to the invader. The external surfaces of plants, in addition to being covered by an epidermis and a waxy cuticle, often carry spiky hairs known as trichomes, which either prevent feeding by insects or may even puncture and kill insect larvae. Other trichomes are sticky and glandular and effectively trap and immobilize insects.If the physical barriers of the plant are breached, then preformed chemicals may inhibit or kill the intruder, and plant tissues contain a diverse array of toxic or potentially toxic substances, such as resins, tannins, glycosides, and alkaloids, many of which are highly effective deterrents to insects that feed on plants. The success of the Colorado beetle in infesting potatoes, for example, seems to be correlated with its high tolerance to alkaloids that normally repel potential pests. Otherpossible chemical defenses, while not directly toxic to the parasite, may inhibit some essential step in the establishment of a parasitic relationship. For example, glycoproteins in plant cell walls may inactivate enzymes that degrade cell walls. These enzymes are often produced by bacteria and fungi.Active plant defense mechanisms are comparable to the immune system of vertebrate animals, although the cellular and molecular bases are fundamentally different. Both, however, are triggered in reaction to intrusion, implying that the host has some means of recognizing the presence of a foreign organism. The most dramatic example of an inducible plant defense reaction is the hypersensitive response. In the hypersensitive response, cells undergo rapid necrosis — that is, they become diseased and die —after being penetrated by a parasite; the parasite itself subsequently ceases to grow and is therefore restricted to one or a few cells around the entry site. Several theories have been put forward to explain the basis of hypersensitive resistance.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The success of parasites in resisting plant defense mechanisms(B) Theories on active plant defense mechanisms(C) How plant defense mechanisms function(D) How the immune system of animals and the defense mechanisms of plants differ2. The phrase subject to in line 1 is closest in meaning to(A) susceptible to(B) classified by(C) attractive to(D) strengthened by3. The word puncture in line 8 is closest in meaning to(A) pierce(B) pinch(C) surround(D) cover .4. The word which in line 12 refers to(A) tissues(B) substances(C) barriers(D) insects5. Which of the following substances does the author mention as NOT necessarily being toxic tothe Colorado beetle?(A) resins(B) tannins(C) glycosides(D) alkaloids6. Why does the author mention glycoproteins in line 17?(A) to compare plant defense mechanisms to the immune system of animals(B) to introduce the discussion of active defense mechanisms in plants(C) to illustrate how chemicals function in plant defense(D) to emphasize the importance of physical barriers in plant defense7. The word dramatic in line 23 could best be replaced by(A) striking(B) accurate(C) consistent(D) appealing8. Where in the passage does the author describe an active plant-defense reaction?(A) Lines 1-3(B) Lines 4-6(C) Lines 13-15(D) Lines 24-279. The passage most probably continues with a discussion of theories on(A) the basis of passive plant defense(B) how chemicals inhibit a parasitic relationship.(C) how plants produce toxic chemicals(D) the principles of the hypersensitive response.托福阅读真题3PASSAGE 12Among the species of seabirds that use the windswept cliffs of the Atlantic coast of Canada in the summer to mate, lay eggs, and rear their young are common murres, Atlantic puffins, black-legged kittiwakes, and northern gannets. Of all the birds on these cliffs, the black-legged kittiwake gull is the best suited for nesting on narrow ledges. Although its nesting habits are similar to those of gulls that nest on flat ground, there are a number of important differences related to the cliff-nesting habit.The advantage of nesting on cliffs is the immunity it gives from foxes, which cannot scale the sheer rocks, and from ravens and other species of gulls, which have difficulty in landing on narrow ledges to steal eggs. This immunity has been followed by a relaxation of the defenses, and kittiwakes do not react to predators nearly as fiercely as do ground-nesting gulls. A colony of Bonaparte's gulls responds to the appearance of a predatory herring gull by flying up as a group with a clamor of alarm calls,followed by concerted mobbing, but kittiwakes simply ignore herring gulls, since they pose little threat to nests on cliffs. Neither do kittiwakes attempt to conceal their nest. Most gulls keep the nest area clear of droppings, and remove empty eggshells after the chicks have hatched, so that the location of the nest is not given away. Kittiwakes defecate over the edge of the nest, which keeps it clean, but this practice, as well as their tendency to leave the nest littered with eggshells, makes its location very conspicuous.On the other hand, nesting on a narrow ledge has its own peculiar problems, and kittiwake behavior has become adapted to overcome them. The female kittiwake sits when mating, whereas other gulls stand, so the pair will not overbalance and fall off the ledge. The nest is a deep cup, made of mud or seaweed, to hold the eggs safely, compared with the shallow scrape of other gulls, and the chicks are remarkably immobile until fully grown. They do not run from their nests when approached, and if they should come near to the cliff edge, they instinctively turn back.1. What aspect of the kittiwake gull does the passage mainly discuss?(A) Its defensive behavior(B) It interactions with other gull species(C) Its nesting habits(D) Its physical difference from other gull species2. The word rear in line 2 is closest in meaning to(A) visit(B) watch(C) reverse(D) raise3. The word scale in line 8 is closest in meaning to(A) climb(B) avoid(C) approach(D) measure4. The word immunity in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) distance(B) transition(C) protection(D) reminder5. Why is it difficult for ravens to steal the kittiwakes' eggs?(A) The kittiwakes can see the ravens approaching the nest.(B) The ravens cannot land on the narrow ledges where kittiwakes nest.(C) The kittiwakes' eggs are too big for the ravens to carry.(D) The female kittiwakes rarely leave the nest.6. The author mentions that eggshells litter around the nests of kittiwakes in order to(A) demonstrate that kittiwakes are not concerned about predators(B) prove how busy kittiwakes are in caring for their offspring(C) show a similarity to other types of gulls(D) illustrate kittiwakes' lack of concern for their chicks7. According to the passage , it can be inferred that which of the following birds conceal theirnest?(A) Bonaparte's gulls(B) Atlantic puffins(C) Kittiwake gulls(D) Northern gannets8. The word it in line 17 refers to(A) location(B) edge(C) nest(D) practice9. The word conspicuous in line 18 is closest in meaning to(A) disordered(B) suspicious(C) noticeable(D) appealing10. The phrase On the other hand in line 19 is closest in meaning to(A) therefore(B) however(C) for example(D) by no means。
2020年12月12日托福听力答案解析
2020年12月12日托福听力答案解析Conversation 1一个女生说她因为役认真看通知记错了活动上车地方，又因为物理课结束的晚，所以吃晚饭就晚了，就没遇着熟人告诉她对的上车地方。
然后那个职员就告诉她那个concert真的很棒，他本来被迫负责活动的结果，去看了之后发现非常喜欢。
那姑娘听了就心塞，然后那个职员说其实到最后我把你的票连着车票一起卖给一个特想去的同学了，所以我能够给你钱，这样你周末还能够去。
-TPO部分对应参考 (校园场景类TPO23-C1/T29-C2)Lecture 1艺术史--从实际的画风转向抽象化的转变。
抽象画就是会没有具体的轮廓，以唤起观众对色彩的感受，唤醒观众的感情。
这里一个叫瓦西里·康定斯基的艺术家有很大的贡献，这个画家本身也是音乐家，他的风格就是吧sound和color联系起来，让人在看到画的不同颜色会在脑海里产生不同的声音，比如这个画家就会觉得绿色很平和，红色就很像乐队的大号手之类的，康定斯基将这种现象称为synthesis。
教授一开始不相信这种现象的存有，但实验表明s的存有。
当有的人蒙面听到一些声音，他脑梅中关于视觉的部分的确会活跃。
教授最后觉得那么s的存有还是可信的，同时也说明了它很大水准影晌TKan的abstract风格。
-TPO部分对应参考(艺术史类TPO26-L4/TPO34-L1)Lecture 2恐龙灭绝到底是因为彗星碰撞还是火山爆发。
彗星这个观点是因为从地质层发现的IrAk个元素本来在地球上是没有的，只有通过asteroids and comets带来，陨石坠落造成环境大毁灭是一个很快的过程。
而且时间和恐龙灭绝的时间吻合。
因为撞击地球产生了大量的尘埃遮蔽了太阳光，温度过低，植物死了，恐龙没有食物所以灭绝了。
但是教授表示不支持这种观点，他认为火山爆发产生了很多的suldox让天气变了，这是一个缓慢的过程，在一个地方发现了化石，表明insect和鸟在那个时间都役灭绝。
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2020年12月13日托福阅读答案解析12月13日托福阅读词汇题：
Obviously=clearly
Widespread=common
Dense=thick
Thus=consequently
resultant
Shallow=small
depth
exercise
Profound=very strong
Emergence=rise
Tactic=strategy
Adjacent to=near to
Parallel=match
12月13日托福阅读第一篇
题材划分：生物类
主要内容：板块运动能够改变生物多样性，提到生物区的划分，少于百分之二十的物种相似度就是不同的区越多说明那里的多样性越高。
比如板块分开的时候，多样性增加，反之亦然。
一个山脉能够把原本的湿润风给挡了，就变成沙漠不适合生长了。
或者一个障碍的形
成能够把本来的一个物种分成两个，一南一北，等到在合并的时候，
发现北部的能够到南部生活，但南部的很少到北部生活。
相似TPO练习推荐
TPO31- Speciation in Geographically Isolated Populations
相关背景知识：
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook was
the first to coin the term 'speciation' for the splitting of lineages or "cladogenesis," as opposed to "anagenesis" or "phyletic evolution" occurring within lineages. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural
selection in speciation.There is research comparing the intensity of sexual selection in different clades with their number of species.
There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating populations are isolated from one another： allopatric, peripatric, parapatric, and sympatric. Speciation may also be induced artificially, through animal husbandry, agriculture, or laboratory experiments. Whether genetic drift is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject matter of much ongoing discussion.
All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of evolution; however, debate persists as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving biodiversity.
One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the three-spined stickleback, a marine fish that, after the last
glacial period, has undergone speciation into new freshwater colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between
different genera of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences.
During allopatric speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by habitat fragmentation due to geographical change such as mountain formation). The isolated populations then undergo genotypic and/or phenotypic divergence as： (a) they become subjected to dissimilar selective pressures; (b) they independently undergo genetic drift; (c) different mutations arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging genes. Island genetics is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include insular dwarfism and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on Komodo. The Galápagos Islands are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that Galáp agos tortoises could be identified by island, and noticed that finches differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he reflected that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to England, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other。