电子专业中英文翻译
毕业证明用学科专业的中英文翻译对照表
050107
中国少数民族语言
CHINESE ETHNIC LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
85
050108
比较文学与世界文
COMPARATIVE LITERATURE AND WORLD LITERATURE
86
0501Z1
中国文学思想史
HISTORY OF CHINESE LITERARY THOUGHT
物流学
LOGISTICS
33
020224
计算金融学
COMPUTIONAL FINANCE
34
03
法学
LAW
35
0301
法学
LAW
36
030101
法学理论
JURISPRUDENCE
37
030102
法律史
LEGAL HISTORY
38
030103
宪法学与行政法学
CONSTITUTIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE LAW
050122
比较语言学
COMPARATIVE LINGUISTICS
91
0502
外国语言文学
FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE
92
050201
英语语言文学
ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
93
050202
俄语语言文学
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
119
0603Z2
世界上古中古史
ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL WORLD HISTORY
120
0603Z3
电气专业中英文翻译
The report concludesThe report mainly collected from the power transmission and power system requirements related to the content of these twoareas, and analyze, to understand some of the relevant knowledge.Page2 Electrical Energy Transmission（电能输送）1 English textFrom reference 1Growing populations and industrializing countries create huge needs for electrical energy. Unfortunately, electricity is not alwaysused in the same place that it is produced, meaning long-distance transmission lines and distribution systems are necessary. Buttransmitting electricity over distance and via networks involves energy loss.So, with growing demand comes the need to minimize this loss to achieve two main goals: reduce resource consumption whiledelivering more power to users. Reducing consumption can be done in at least two ways: deliver electrical energy more efficientlyand change consumer habits.Transmission and distribution of electrical energy require cables and power transformers, which create three types of energy loss:the Joule effect, where energy is lost as heat in the conductor (a copper wire, for example); magnetic losses, where energy dissipates into a magnetic field;the dielectric effect, where energy is absorbed in the insulating material.The Joule effect in transmission cables accounts for losses of about 2.5 % while the losses in transformers range between 1 % and2 % (depending on the type and ratings of the transformer). So, saving just 1 % on the electrical energy produced by a powerplant of 1 000 megawatts means transmitting 10 MW more to consumers, which is far from negligible: with the same energy we cansupply 1 000 - 2 000 more homes.Changing consumer habits involves awareness-raising programmers, often undertaken by governments or activist groups. Simplethings, such as turning off lights in unoccupied rooms, or switching off the television at night (not just putting it into standbymode), or setting tasks such as laundry for non-peak hours are but a few examples among the myriad of possibilities.On the energy production side, building more efficient transmission and distribution systems is another way to go about it. Highefficiency transformers, superconducting transformers and high temperature superconductors are new technologies which promisemuch in terms of electrical energy efficiency and at the same time, new techniques are being studied. These include direct currentand ultra high voltage transmission in both alternating current and direct current modes. Keywords: electrical energy transmissionFrom reference 2Disturbing loads like arc furnaces and thyristor rectifiers draw fluctuating and harmonic currents from the utility grid. These nonsinusoidal currents cause a voltage drop across the finite internal grid impedance, and the voltage waveform in the vicinity becomesdistorted. Hence, the normal operation of sensitive consumers is jeopardized.Active filters are a means to improve the power quality in distribution networks. In order to reduce the injection of non sinusoidalload currents shunt active filters are connnected in parallel to disturbing loads (Fig. 1). The active filter investigated in this projectconsists of a PWM controlled three-level VSI with a DC link capacitor.The VSI is connected to the point of common coupling via atransformer. The configuration is identical with an advanced static var compensator.The purpose of the active filter is to compensate transient and harmonic components of the load current so that only fundamentalfrequency components remain in the grid current. Additionally, the active filter may provide the reactive power consumed by theload. The control principle for the active filter is rather straightforward: The load current ismeasured, the fundamental activecomponent is removed from the measurement, and the result is used as the reference for the VSI output current.In the low voltage grid, active filters may use inverters based on IGBTs with switching frequencies of 10 kHz or more. The harmonicsproduced by those inverters are easily suppressed with small passive filters. The VSI can be regarded nearly as an ideally controllablevoltage source. Inmedium voltage applications with power ratings of several MV A, however, the switching frequen cy of today’s VSIsis limited to some hundred Hertz. Modern high power IGCTs can operate at around 1 kHz. Therefore, large passive filters are neededin order to remove the current ripple generated by the VSI. Furthermore, in fast control schemes the VSI no longer represents anideal voltage source because the PWM modulator produces a considerable dead-time. In this project a fast dead-beat algorithm forPWM operated VSIs is developed [1].This algorithm improves the load current tracking performance and the stability of the activefilter. Normally, for a harmonics free current measurement the VSI currentwould be sampled synchronously with the tips of the triangular carriers. Here, the current acquisition is shifted in order to minimizethe delays in the control loop. The harmonics now included in themeasurement can be calculated and subtracted from the VSIcurrent. Thus, an instantaneous current estimation free of harmonics is obtained.Keywords: active filtersFrom reference 3This report provides background information on electric power transmission and related policy issues. Proposals for changing federaltransmission policy before the 111th Congress include S. 539, the Clean Renewable Energy and Economic Development Act,introduced on March 5, 2009; and the March 9, 2009, majority staff transmission siting draft of the Senate Energy and NaturalResources Committee. The policy issues identified and discussed in this report include:Federal Transmission Planning: several current proposals call for the federal government to sponsor and supervise large scale, on-going transmission planning programs. Issues for Congress to consider are the objectives of the planning process (e.g., a focus onsupporting the development of renewable power or on a broader set of transmission goals), determining how much authority newinterconnection-wide planning entities should be granted, the degree to which transmission planning needs to consider non-transmission solutions to power market needs, what resources theexecutive agencies will need to oversee the planning process, and whether the benefits for projects included in the transmissionplans (e.g., a federal permitting option) will motivate developers to add unnecessary features and costs to qualify proposals for theplan.Permitting of Transmission Lines: a contentious issue is whether the federal government should assume from the states the primaryrole in permitting new transmission lines. Related issues include whether Congress should view management and expansion of thegrid as primarily a state or national issue, whether national authority over grid reliability (which Congress established in the EnergyPolicy Act of 2005) can be effectively exercised without federal authority over permitting, if it is important to accelerate theconstruction of new transmission lines (which is one of the assumed benefits of federal permitting), and whether the executiveagencies are equipped to take on the task of permitting transmission lines.Transmission Line Funding and Cost Allocation: the primary issues are whether the the federal government should help pay for newtransmission lines, and if Congress should establish a national standard for allocating the costs of interstate transmission lines toratepayers.Transmission Modernization and the Smart Grid: issues include the need for Congressional oversight of existing federal smart gridresearch, development, demonstration, and grant programs; and oversight over whether the smart grid is actually proving to be agood investment for taxpayers and ratepayers.Transmission System Reliability: it is not clear whether Congress and the executive branch have the information needed to evaluatethe reliability of the transmission system. Congress may also want to review whether the power industry is striking the right balancebetween modernization and new construction as a means of enhancing transmission reliability, and whether the reliability standardsbeing developed for the transmission system are appropriate for a rapidly changing power system. Keywords: electric power transmissionPage3 Requirements of an Electric Supply System(供电系统需求)1 English textFrom reference1Connections to external 330 kV power grids are provided using an open 330 kV switchyard. The plant is connected to theLithuanian power grid using two transmission lines L-454 and L-453, 330 kV each, to the Belorussian power grid using threetransmission lines L-450, L-452 and L-705, and to the Latvian power grid using one transmission line L-451.Connections to external power grids at 110 kV are provided using the first section of the open 110 kV switchyard. The plant isconnected to the Lithuanian power grid using one transmission line “Zarasai” 110 kV, and to the Latvian power grid using onetransmission line L-632.Connections between the open switchyards at 330 kV and 110 kV are established using two coupling autotransformers AT-1 andAT-2, types ATDCTN- 200000/330. Power of each autotransformer is equal to 200 MV×A. The autotransformers have a device forvoltage regulation under load. The device type is RNOA-110/1000. 15 positions are provided to regulate voltage in a range (115 ±6) kV.The open 330 kV switchyard is designed using "4/3" principle (four circuit breakers per three connections) and consists of twosections. Circuit breakers are placed in two rows. The first section of the open switchyard 110 kV is designed using “Double systemof buses with bypass” structure. The second section of open switchyard 110 kV is connected to the first section through twocircuit breakers C101 and C102. The second section has the same design as the first one. The following transmission lines areconnected to the second section: L-Vidzy, L-Opsa, L-Statyba, LDuk Ötas. These transmission lines are intended for district powersupplies, so they are not essential for electric power supply for the plant in-house operation.Air circuit breakers of VNV-330/3150A type are used in the open 330 kV switchyard. Air circuit breakers of VVBK-110B-50/3150U1type are used in open switchyard 110 kV. To supply power loads on voltage level 330 kV and 110 kV, aerial transmission lines areused. Electrical connections of external grids 110 and 330 kV are presented in Fig. 8.1. Keywords: transmission linesFrom reference 2AbstractThis paper addresses sustainability criteria and the associated indicators allowing operationalization of the sustainability concept in the context of electricity supply. The criteria and indicators cover economic,environmental and social aspects. Some selected results from environmental analysis, risk assessment and economic studies areshown. These studies are supported by the extensive databases developed in this work. The applications of multi-criteria analysisdemonstrate the use of a framework that allows decision-makers to simultaneously address the often conflicting socio-economic andecological criteria. “EnergyGame”, the communication-oriented software recently developed by the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI),provides the opportunity to integrate the central knowledge-based results with subjective value judgments. In this way a sensitivitymap of technology choices can be constructed in an interactive manner. Accommodation of a range of perspectives expressed inthe energy debate, including the concept of sustainable development, may lead to different internal rankings of the options butsome patterns appear to be relatively robust.IntroductionThe public, opinion leaders and decision-makers ask for clear answers on issues concerning the energy sector and electricitygeneration in particular. Is it feasible to phase out nuclear power in countries extensively relying on nuclear electricity supply andsimultaneously reduce greenhouse gas emissions? What are the environmental and economic implications of enhanced uses ofcogeneration systems, renewable sources and heat pumps? How do the various energy carriers compare with respect to accidentrisks? How would internalization of external costs affect the relative competitiveness of the various means of electricity production?What can we expect from the prospective technological advancements during the next two or three decades? Which systems orenergy mixes come closest to the ideal of being cheap, environmentally clean, reliable and at the same time exhibit low accidentrisks?How can we evaluate and rank the current and future energy supply options with respect to their performance on specificsustainability criteria?The Swiss GaBE Project on “Comprehensive Assessment of Energy Systems” provides answers to many issues in the Swiss andinternational energy arena. A systematic, multidisciplinary, bottom-up methodology for the assessment of energy systems, has beenestablished and implemented. It covers environmental analysis, risk assessment and economic studies, which are supported by theextensive databases developed in this work. One of the analysis products are aggregated indicators associated with the varioussustainability criteria, thus allowing a practical operationalization of the sustainability concept. Apart from technical and economicaspects an integrated approach needs to consider also social preferences, which may be done in the framework of multi-criteriaanalysis.Keywords: criteria indicatorsFrom reference 3Mobility of persons and goods is an essential component of the competitiveness of European industry and services as well as anessential citizen right. The goal of the EU's sustainable transport policy is to ensure that our transport systems meet society'seconomic, social and environmental needs.The transport sector is responsible for about 30% of the total final energy consumption and for about 25% of the total CO2emissions. In particular the contribution of road transport is very high (around 80% and 70% respectively). These simple data shedlight on the necessity to move towards a more sustainable transportation system, but also suggest that a technological/systemicrevolution in the field will positively impact the overall world’s sustainable development.From a technological point of view, a lower dependency from not renewable energy sources (i.e. fuel oil) of the road transport isthe main anticipated change. In particular electric engines possibly represent the natural vehicle evolution in this direction. Indeedthey have much higher energy efficiency (around three times that of internal combustion engines, ICE) and do not produce anykind of tailpipe emissions. How the electricity will be supplied to the vehicles is still unpredictable due to the too many existinguncertainties on the future development, but the electrification of the drive train will contribute to having alternative energy pathsto reduce the nearly total dependency on crude oil. In particular, vehicle range and performances allowed by the differentpossibilities will play a key role on the debate.At the moment a great attention is attracted by electric vehicles, both hybrid and not, that will allow users to recharge theirvehicles directly at home. This kind of vehicle can represent a real future alternative to the ICE vehicles in particular for whatconcerns the daily commuting trips (whose range is quite low). It is therefore important to understand what might be the impacton the electric supply system capabilities of this recharging activity.In this light the present study carries out an analysis of this impact for the Province of Milan (of particular relevant due the very highdaily commuting trips) at a 2030 time horizon. Key issue of the analysis is the estimation of a potential market share evolution for theelectric vehicles. The results obtained show that even with a very high future market penetration the impact of the vehicles on theannual energy consumption will be quite negligible. On the contrary they also show that without an appropriate regulation (e.g. theintelligent integration of electric vehicles into the existing power grid as decentralised and flexible energy storage), they couldheavily impact on the daily electric power requirements.Keywords: electric vehicles报告总结本次报告主要从网上收集了电能输送和供电系统的需求这两个方面的相关内容，并对其进行了分析，了解了一些相关知识。
电子类文献中英文翻译
外文翻译原文：Progress in ComputersThe first stored program computers began to work around 1950. The one we built in Cambridge, the EDSAC was first used in the summer of 1949.These early experimental computers were built by people like myself with varying backgrounds. We all had extensive experience in electronic engineering and were confident that that experience would stand us in good stead. This proved true, although we had some new things to learn. The most important of these was that transients must be treated correctly; what would cause a harmless flash on the screen of a television set could lead to a serious error in a computer.As far as computing circuits were concerned, we found ourselves with an embarass de richess. For example, we could use vacuum tube diodes for gates as we did in the EDSAC or pentodes with control signals on both grids, a system widely used elsewhere. This sort of choice persisted and the term families of logic came into use. Those who have worked in the computer field will remember TTL, ECL and CMOS. Of these, CMOS has now become dominant.In those early years, the IEE was still dominated by power engineering and we had to fight a number of major battles in order to get radio engineering along with the rapidly developing subject of electronics.dubbed in the IEE light current electrical engineering.properly recognised as an activity in its own right. I remember that we had some difficulty in organising a conference because the power engineers’ ways of doing things were no t our ways. A minor source of irritation was that all IEE published papers were expected to start with a lengthy statement of earlier practice, something difficult to do when there was no earlier practice Consolidation in the 1960sBy the late 50s or early 1960s, the heroic pioneering stage was over and the computer field was starting up in real earnest. The number of computers in the worldhad increased and they were much more reliable than the very early ones . To those years we can ascribe the first steps in high level languages and the first operating systems. Experimental time-sharing was beginning, and ultimately computer graphics was to come along.Above all, transistors began to replace vacuum tubes. This change presented a formidable challenge to the engineers of the day. They had to forget what they knew about circuits and start again. It can only be said that they measured up superbly well to the challenge and that the change could not have gone more smoothly.Soon it was found possible to put more than one transistor on the same bit of silicon, and this was the beginning of integrated circuits. As time went on, a sufficient level of integration was reached for one chip to accommodate enough transistors for a small number of gates or flip flops. This led to a range of chips known as the 7400 series. The gates and flip flops were independent of one another and each had its own pins. They could be connected by off-chip wiring to make a computer or anything else.These chips made a new kind of computer possible. It was called a minicomputer. It was something less that a mainframe, but still very powerful, and much more affordable. Instead of having one expensive mainframe for the whole organisation, a business or a university was able to have a minicomputer for each major department.Before long minicomputers began to spread and become more powerful. The world was hungry for computing power and it had been very frustrating for industry not to be able to supply it on the scale required and at a reasonable cost. Minicomputers transformed the situation.The fall in the cost of computing did not start with the minicomputer; it had always been that way. This was what I meant when I referred in my abstract to inflation in the computer industry ‘going the other way’. As time goes on people get more for their money, not less.Research in Computer Hardware.The time that I am describing was a wonderful one for research in computer hardware. The user of the 7400 series could work at the gate and flip-flop level and yet the overall level of integration was sufficient to give a degree of reliability far above that of discreet transistors. The researcher, in a university or elsewhere, could build any digital device that a fertile imagination could conjure up. In the Computer Laboratory we built the Cambridge CAP, a full-scale minicomputerwith fancy capability logic.The 7400 series was still going strong in the mid 1970s and was used for the Cambridge Ring, a pioneering wide-band local area network. Publication of the design study for the Ring came just before the announcement of the Ethernet. Until these two systems appeared, users had mostly been content with teletype-based local area networks.Rings need high reliability because, as the pulses go repeatedly round the ring, they must be continually amplified and regenerated. It was the high reliability provided by the 7400 series of chips that gave us the courage needed to embark on the project for the Cambridge Ring.The RISC Movement and Its AftermathEarly computers had simple instruction sets. As time went on designers of commercially available machines added additional features which they thought would improve performance. Few comparative measurements were done and on the whole the choice of features depende d upon the designer’s intuition.In 1980, the RISC movement that was to change all this broke on the world. The movement opened with a paper by Patterson and Ditzel entitled The Case for the Reduced Instructions Set Computer.Apart from leading to a striking acronym, this title conveys little of the insights into instruction set design which went with the RISC movement, in particular the way it facilitated pipelining, a system whereby several instructions may be in different stages of execution within the processor at the same time. Pipelining was not new, but it was new for small computersThe RISC movement benefited greatly from methods which had recently become available for estimating the performance to be expected from a computer design without actually implementing it. I refer to the use of a powerful existing computer to simulate the new design. By the use of simulation, RISC advocates were able to predict with some confidence that a good RISC design would be able to out-perform the best conventional computers using the same circuit technology. This prediction was ultimately born out in practice.Simulation made rapid progress and soon came into universal use by computer designers. In consequence, computer design has become more of a science and less of an art. Today, designers expect to have a roomful of, computers available to do their simulations, not just one. They refer to such a roomful by the attractive nameof computer farm.The x86 Instruction SetLittle is now heard of pre-RISC instruction sets with one major exception, namely that of the Intel 8086 and its progeny, collectively referred to as x86. This has become the dominant instruction set and the RISC instruction sets that originally had a considerable measure of success are having to put up a hard fight for survival.This dominance of x86 disappoints people like myself who come from the research wings.both academic and industrial.of the computer field. No doubt, business considerations have a lot to do with the survival of x86, but there are other reasons as well. However much we research oriented people would like to think otherwise. high level languages have not yet eliminated the use of machine code altogether. We need to keep reminding ourselves that there is much to be said for strict binary compatibility with previous usage when that can be attained. Nevertheless, things might have been different if Intel’s major attempt to produce a good RISC chip had been more successful. I am referring to the i860 (not the i960, which was something different). In many ways the i860 was an excellent chip, but its software interface did not fit it to be used in a workstation.There is an interesting sting in the tail of this apparently easy triumph of the x86 instruction set. It proved impossible to match the steadily increasing speed of RISC processors by direct implementation of the x86 instruction set as had been done in the past. Instead, designers took a leaf out of the RISC book; although it is not obvious, on the surface, a modern x86 processor chip contains hidden within it a RISC-style processor with its own internal RISC coding. The incoming x86 code is, after suitable massaging, converted into this internal code and handed over to the RISC processor where the critical execution is performed.In this summing up of the RISC movement, I rely heavily on the latest edition of Hennessy and Patterson’s books on computer design as my supporting authority; see in particular Computer Architecture, third edition, 2003, pp 146, 151-4, 157-8.The IA-64 instruction set.Some time ago, Intel and Hewlett-Packard introduced the IA-64 instruction set. This was primarily intended to meet a generally recognised need for a 64 bit address space. In this, it followed the lead of the designers of the MIPS R4000 and Alpha. However one would have thought that Intel would have stressed compatibility with the x86; the puzzle is that they did the exact opposite.Moreover, built into the design of IA-64 is a feature known as predication which makes it incompatible in a major way with all other instruction sets. In particular, it needs 6 extra bits with each instruction. This upsets the traditional balance between instruction word length and information content, and it changes significantly the brief of the compiler writer.In spite of having an entirely new instruction set, Intel made the puzzling claim that chips based on IA-64 would be compatible with earlier x86 chips. It was hard to see exactly what was meant.Chips for the latest IA-64 processor, namely, the Itanium, appear to have special hardware for compatibility. Even so, x86 code runs very slowly.Because of the above complications, implementation of IA-64 requires a larger chip than is required for more conventional instruction sets. This in turn implies a higher cost. Such at any rate, is the received wisdom, and, as a general principle, it was repeated as such by Gordon Moore when he visited Cambridge recently to open the Betty and Gordon Moore Library. I have, however, heard it said that the matter appears differently from within Intel. This I do not understand. But I am very ready to admit that I am completely out of my depth as regards the economics of the semiconductor industry.AMD have defined a 64 bit instruction set that is more compatible with x86 and they appear to be making headway with it. The chip is not a particularly large one. Some people think that this is what Intel should have done. [Since the lecture was delivered, Intel have announced that they will market a range of chips essentially compatible with those offered by AMD.]The Relentless Drive towards Smaller TransistorsThe scale of integration continued to increase. This was achieved by shrinking the original transistors so that more could be put on a chip. Moreover, the laws of physics were on the side of the manufacturers. The transistors also got faster, simply by getting smaller. It was therefore possible to have, at the same time, both high density and high speed.There was a further advantage. Chips are made on discs of silicon, known as wafers. Each wafer has on it a large number of individual chips, which are processed together and later separated. Since shrinkage makes it possible to get more chips on a wafer, the cost per chip goes down.Falling unit cost was important to the industry because, if the latest chipsare cheaper to make as well as faster, there is no reason to go on offering the old ones, at least not indefinitely. There can thus be one product for the entire market.However, detailed cost calculations showed that, in order to maintain this advantage as shrinkage proceeded beyond a certain point, it would be necessary to move to larger wafers. The increase in the size of wafers was no small matter. Originally, wafers were one or two inches in diameter, and by 2000 they were as much as twelve inches. At first, it puzzled me that, when shrinkage presented so many other problems, the industry should make things harder for itself by going to larger wafers. I now see that reducing unit cost was just as important to the industry as increasing the number of transistors on a chip, and that this justified the additional investment in foundries and the increased risk.The degree of integration is measured by the feature size, which, for a given technology, is best defined as the half the distance between wires in the densest chips made in that technology. At the present time, production of 90 nm chips is still building upSuspension of LawIn March 1997, Gordon Moore was a guest speaker at the celebrations of the centenary of the discovery of the electron held at the Cavendish Laboratory. It was during the course of his lecture that I first heard the fact that you can have silicon chips that are both fast and low in cost described as a vi olation of Murphy’s law.or Sod’s law as it is usually called in the UK. Moore said that experience in other fields would lead you to expect to have to choose between speed and cost, or to compromise between them. In fact, in the case of silicon chips, it is possible to have both.In a reference book available on the web, Murphy is identified as an engineer working on human acceleration tests for the US Air Force in 1949. However, we were perfectly familiar with the law in my student days, when we called it by a much more prosaic name than either of those mentioned above, namely, the Law of General Cussedness. We even had a mock examination question in which the law featured. It was the type of question in which the first part asks for a definition of some law or principle and the second part contains a problem to be solved with the aid of it. In our case the first part was to define the Law of General Cussedness and the second was the problem;A cyclist sets out on a circular cycling tour. Derive an equation giving the direction of the wind at any time.The single-chip computerAt each shrinkage the number of chips was reduced and there were fewer wires going from one chip to another. This led to an additional increment in overall speed, since the transmission of signals from one chip to another takes a long time.Eventually, shrinkage proceeded to the point at which the whole processor except for the caches could be put on one chip. This enabled a workstation to be built that out-performed the fastest minicomputer of the day, and the result was to kill the minicomputer stone dead. As we all know, this had severe consequences for the computer industry and for the people working in it.From the above time the high density CMOS silicon chip was Cock of the Roost. Shrinkage went on until millions of transistors could be put on a single chip and the speed went up in proportion.Processor designers began to experiment with new architectural features designed to give extra speed. One very successful experiment concerned methods for predicting the way program branches would go. It was a surprise to me how successful this was. It led to a significant speeding up of program execution and other forms of prediction followedEqually surprising is what it has been found possible to put on a single chip computer by way of advanced features. For example, features that had been developed for the IBM Model 91.the giant computer at the top of the System 360 range.are now to be found on microcomputersMurphy’s Law remained i n a state of suspension. No longer did it make sense to build experimental computers out of chips with a small scale of integration, such as that provided by the 7400 series. People who wanted to do hardware research at the circuit level had no option but to design chips and seek for ways to get them made. For a time, this was possible, if not easyUnfortunately, there has since been a dramatic increase in the cost of making chips, mainly because of the increased cost of making masks for lithography, a photographic process used in the manufacture of chips. It has, in consequence, again become very difficult to finance the making of research chips, and this is a currently cause for some concern.The Semiconductor Road MapThe extensive research and development work underlying the above advances has been made possible by a remarkable cooperative effort on the part of theinternational semiconductor industry.At one time US monopoly laws would probably have made it illegal for US companies to participate in such an effort. However about 1980 significant and far reaching changes took place in the laws. The concept of pre-competitive research was introduced. Companies can now collaborate at the pre-competitive stage and later go on to develop products of their own in the regular competitive manner.The agent by which the pre-competitive research in the semi-conductor industry is managed is known as the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA). This has been active as a US organisation since 1992 and it became international in 1998. Membership is open to any organisation that can contribute to the research effort.Every two years SIA produces a new version of a document known as the International Technological Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), with an update in the intermediate years. The first volume bearing the title ‘Roadmap’ was issued in 1994 but two reports, written in 1992 and distributed in 1993, are regarded as the true beginning of the series.Successive roadmaps aim at providing the best available industrial consensus on the way that the industry should move forward. They set out in great detail.over a 15 year horizon. the targets that must be achieved if the number of components on a chip is to be doubled every eighteen months.that is, if Moore’s law is to be maintained.-and if the cost per chip is to fall.In the case of some items, the way ahead is clear. In others, manufacturing problems are foreseen and solutions to them are known, although not yet fully worked out; these areas are coloured yellow in the tables. Areas for which problems are foreseen, but for which no manufacturable solutions are known, are coloured red. Red areas are referred to as Red Brick Walls.The targets set out in the Roadmaps have proved realistic as well as challenging, and the progress of the industry as a whole has followed the Roadmaps closely. This is a remarkable achievement and it may be said that the merits of cooperation and competition have been combined in an admirable manner.It is to be noted that the major strategic decisions affecting the progress of the industry have been taken at the pre-competitive level in relative openness, rather than behind closed doors. These include the progression to larger wafers.By 1995, I had begun to wonder exactly what would happen when the inevitable point was reached at which it became impossible to make transistors any smaller.My enquiries led me to visit ARPA headquarters in Washington DC, where I was given a copy of the recently produced Roadmap for 1994. This made it plain that serious problems would arise when a feature size of 100 nm was reached, an event projected to happen in 2007, with 70 nm following in 2010. The year for which the coming of 100 nm (or rather 90 nm) was projected was in later Roadmaps moved forward to 2004 and in the event the industry got there a little sooner.I presented the above information from the 1994 Roadmap, along with such other information that I could obtain, in a lecture to the IEE in London, entitled The CMOS end-point and related topics in Computing and delivered on 8 February 1996.The idea that I then had was that the end would be a direct consequence of the number of electrons available to represent a one being reduced from thousands to a few hundred. At this point statistical fluctuations would become troublesome, and thereafter the circuits would either fail to work, or if they did work would not be any faster. In fact the physical limitations that are now beginning to make themselves felt do not arise through shortage of electrons, but because the insulating layers on the chip have become so thin that leakage due to quantum mechanical tunnelling has become troublesome.There are many problems facing the chip manufacturer other than those that arise from fundamental physics, especially problems with lithography. In an update to the 2001 Roadmap published in 2002, it was stated that the continuation of progress at present rate will be at risk as we approach 2005 when the roadmap projects that progress will stall without research break-throughs in most technical areas “. This was the most specific statement about the Red Brick Wall, that had so far come from the SIA and it was a strong one. The 2003 Roadmap reinforces this statement by showing many areas marked red, indicating the existence of problems for which no manufacturable solutions are known.It is satisfactory to report that, so far, timely solutions have been found to all the problems encountered. The Roadmap is a remarkable document and, for all its frankness about the problems looming above, it radiates immense confidence. Prevailing opinion reflects that confidence and there is a general expectation that, by one means or another, shrinkage will continue, perhaps down to 45 nm or even less.However, costs will rise steeply and at an increasing rate. It is cost that will ultimately be seen as the reason for calling a halt. The exact point at which an industrial consensus is reached that the escalating costs can no longer be met willdepend on the general economic climate as well as on the financial strength of the semiconductor industry itself.。
电子行业专业英语词汇翻译中英文
电子行业英语A1.Analog 模拟相似物2.A/D Analog to Digital 模-数转换3.AAC Advanced Audio Coding 高级音频编码4.ABB Automatic Black Balance 自动黑平衡5.ABC American Broadcasting Company 美国广播公司6.Automatic Bass Compensation 自动低音补偿7.Automatic Brightness Control 自动亮度控制8.ABL Automatic Black Level 自动黑电平9.ABLC Automatic Brightness Limiter Circuit 自动亮度限制电路10.ABU Asian Broadcasting Union 亚洲广播联盟亚广联11.ABS American Bureau of Standard 美国标准局12.AC Access Conditions 接入条件13.Audio Center 音频中心14.ACA Adjacent Channel Attenuation 邻频道衰减15.ACC Automatic Centering Control 自动中心控制16.Automatic Chroma Control 自动色度增益控制17.ACK Automatic Chroma Killer 自动消色器18.ACP Additive Colour Process 加色法19.ACS Access Control System 接入控制系统20.Advanced Communication Service 高级通信业务21.Area Communication System 区域通信系统22.ADC Analog to Digital Converter 模-数转换器23.Automatic Degaussing Circuit 自动消磁电路24.ADL Acoustic Delay Line 声延迟线25.ADS Audio Distribution System 音频分配系统26.AE Audio Erasing 音频（声音擦除27.AEF Automatic Editing Function 自动编辑功能28.AES Audio Engineering Society 音频工程协会29.AF Audio Frequency 音频30.AFA Audio Frequency Amplifier 音频放大器31.AFC Automatic Frequency Coder 音频编码器32.Automatic Frequency Control 自动频率控制33.AFT Automatic Fine Tuning 自动微调34.Automatic Frequency Track 自动频率跟踪35.Automatic Frequency Trim 自动额率微调36.AGC Automatic Gain Control 自动增益控制37.AI Artificial Intelligence 人工智能38.ALM Audio-Level Meter 音频电平表39.AM Amplitude Modulation 调幅40.AMS Automatic Music Sensor 自动音乐传感装置41.ANC Automatic Noise Canceller 自动噪声消除器42.ANT antenna 天线43.AO Analog Output 模拟输出44.APS Automatic Program Search 自动节目搜索45.APPS Automatic Program Pause System 自动节目暂停系统46.APSS Automatic Program Search System 自动节目搜索系统47.AR Audio Response 音频响应48.ARC Automatic Remote Control 自动遥控49.ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange 美国信息交换标准50.AST Automatic Scanning Tracking 自动扫描跟踪51.ATC Automatic Timing Control 自动定时控制52.Automatic Tone Correction 自动音频校正53.ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode 异步传输模式54.ATF Automatic Track Finding 自动寻迹55.ATS Automatic Test System 自动测试系统56.ATSC Advanced Television Systems Committee 美国高级电视制式委员会57.AVC Automatic Volume Control 自动音量控制58.AVR Automatic Voltage Regulator 自动稳压器59.AWB Automatic White Balance 自动白平衡60.AZC Automatic Zooming Control 自动变焦控制61.AZS Automatic Zero Setting 自动调零B1.BA Branch Amplifier 分支放大器2.Buffer Amplifier 缓冲放大器3.BAC Binary-Analog Conversion 二进制模拟转换4.BB Black Burst 黑场信号5.BBC British Broadcasting Corporation 英国广播公司6.BBI Beijing Broadcasting Institute 北京广播学院7.BC Binary Code 二进制码8.Balanced Current 平衡电流9.Broadcast Control 广播控制10.BCT Bandwidth Compression Technique 带宽压缩技术11.BDB Bi-directional Data Bus 双向数据总线12.BER Basic Encoding Rules 基本编码规则13.Bit Error Rate 比特误码率14.BF Burst Flag 色同步旗脉冲15.BFA Bare Fiber Adapter 裸光纤适配器16.Brillouin Fiber Amplifier 布里渊光纤放大器17.BM Background Music 背景音乐18.BIOS Basic Input／Output System 基本输入输出系统19.B-ISDN Broadband-ISDN 宽带综合业务数据网20.BIU Basic Information Unit 基本信息单元21.Bus Interface Unit 总线接口单元22.BM Bi-phase Modulation 双相调制23.BML Business Management Layer 商务管理层24.BN Backbone Network 主干网25.BNT Broadband Network Termination 宽带网络终端设备26.BO Bus Out 总线输出27.BPG Basic Pulse Generator 基准脉冲发生器28.BPS Band Pitch Shift 分频段变调节器29.BSI British Standard Institute 英国标准学会30.BSS Broadcast Satellite Service 广播卫星业务31.BT Block Terminal 分线盒、分组终端32.British Telecom 英国电信33.BTA Broadband Terminal Adapter 宽带终端适配器34.Broadcasting Technology Association (***广播技术协会35.BTL Balanced Transformer-Less 桥式推挽放大电路36.BTS Broadcast Technical Standard 广播技术标准37.BTU Basic Transmission Unit 基本传输单元38.BVU Broadcasting Video Unit 广播视频型(一种3/4英寸带录像机记录格式39.BW BandWidth 带宽40.BWTV Black and White Television 黑白电视C1.CA Conditional Access 条件接收2.CAC Conditional Access Control 条件接收控制3.CAL Continuity Accept Limit 连续性接受极限4.CAS Conditional Access System 条件接收系统5.Conditional Access Sub-system 条件接收子系统6.CATV Cable Television 有线电视，电缆电视munity Antenna Television 共用天线电视8.CAV Constant Angular Velocity 恒角速度9.CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 加拿大广播公司10.CBS Columbia Broadcasting System 美国哥伦比亚广播公司 Concentric Cable 同轴电缆G Chinese Character Generator 中文字幕发生器IR International Radio Consultative Committee 国际无线电咨询委员会ITT International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee 国际电话电报咨询委员会R Central Control Room 中心控制室TV China Central Television 中国中央电视台17.Close-Circuit Television 闭路电视S Center Central System 中心控制系统U Camera Control Unit 摄像机控制器W Counter Clock-Wise 反时针方向21.CD Compact Disc 激光唱片22.CDA Current Dumping Amplifier 电流放大器23.CD-E Compact Disc Erasable 可抹式激光唱片24.CDFM Compact Disc File Manager 光盘文件管理程序25.CDPG Compact-Disc Plus Graphic 带有静止图像的CD唱盘26.CD-ROM Compact Disc-Read Only Memory 只读式紧凑光盘27.CETV China Educational Television 中国教育电视台28.CF Color Framing 彩色成帧29.CGA Color Graphics Adapter 彩色图形显示卡30.CI Common Interface 通用接口31.CIE Chinese Institute of Electronics 中国电子学会32.CII China Information Infrastructure 中国信息基础设施33.CIF Common Intermediate Format 通用中间格式34.CIS Chinese Industrial Standard 中国工业标准35.CLV Constant Linear Velocity 恒定线速度36.CM Colour Monitor 色监视器37.CMTS Cable Modem Termination System 线缆调制解调器终端系统R Carrier-to-Noise Ratio 载噪比39.CON Console 操纵台40.Controller 控制器41.CPB Corporation of Public Broadcasting 美国公共广播公司42.CPU Central Processing Unit 中央处理单元43.CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check 循环冗余校验44.CRCC CRI Cyclic Redundancy Check Code 循环冗余校验码45.CROM China Radio International 中国国际广播电台46.CRT Control Read Only Memory 控制只读存储器47.CS Cathode-Ray Tube 阴极射线管48.CSC Communication Satellite 通信卫星49.CSS Color Sub-carrier 彩色副载波50.Center Storage Server 中央存储服务器51.Content Scrambling System 内容加扰系统52.CSU Channel Service Unit 信道业务单元53.CT Color Temperature 色温54.CTC Cassette Tape Controller 盒式磁带控制器55.Channel Traffic Control 通道通信量控制56.Counter Timer Circuit 计数器定时器电路57.Counter Timer Control 计数器定时器控制58.CTE Cable Termination Equipment 线缆终端设备59.Customer Terminal Equipment 用户终端设备60.CTV Color Television 彩色电视61.CVD China Video Disc 中国数字视盘62.CW Carrie Wave 载波D1.DAB Digital Audio Broadcasting 数字音频广播2.DASH Digital Audio Stationary Head 数字音频静止磁头3.DAT Digital Audio Tape 数字音频磁带4.DBMS Data Base Management System 数据库管理系统5.DBS Direct Broadcast Satellite 直播卫星6.DCC Digital Compact Cassette 数字小型盒带7.Dynamic Contrast Control 动态对比度控制8.DCT Digital Component Technology 数字分量技术9.Discrete Cosine Transform 离散余弦变换10.DCTV Digital Color Television 数字彩色电视11.DD Direct Drive 直接驱动12.DDC Direct Digital Control 直接数字控制13.DDE Dynamic Data Exchange 动态数据交换14.DDM Data Display Monitor 数据显示监视器15.DES Data Elementary Stream 数据基本码流16.Data Encryption Standard 美国数据加密标准17.DF Dispersion Flattened 色散平坦光纤18.DG Differential Gain 微分增益19.DI Digital Interface 数字接口20.DITEC Digital Television Camera 数字电视摄像机21.DL Delay Line 延时线22.DLD Dynamic Linear Drive 动态线性驱动23.DM Delta Modulation 增量调制24.Digital Modulation 数字调制25.DMB Digital Multimedia Broadcasting 数字多媒体广播26.DMC Dynamic Motion Control 动态控制27.DME Digital Multiple Effect 数字多功能特技28.DMS Digital Mastering System 数字主系统29.DN Data Network 数据网络30.DNG Digital News Gathering 数字新闻采集31.DNR Digital Noise Reducer 数字式降噪器32.DOB Data Output Bus 数据输出总线33.DOCSIS Data Over Cable Service Interface Specifications 有线数据传输业务接口规范34.DOC Drop Out Compensation 失落补偿35.DOS Disc Operating System 磁盘操作系统36.DP Differential Phase 微分相位37.Data Pulse 数据脉冲38.DPCM Differential Pulse Code Modulation 差值脉冲编码调制39.DPL Dolby Pro Logic 杜比定向逻辑40.DSB Digital Satellite Broadcasting 数字卫星广播41.DSC Digital Studio Control 数字演播室控制42.DSD Dolby Surround Digital 杜比数字环绕声43.DSE Digital Special Effect 数字特技44.DSK Down-Stream Key 下游键45.DSP Digital Signal Processing 数字信号处理46.Digital Sound Processor 数字声音处理器47.DSS Digital Satellite System 数字卫星系统48.DT Digital Technique 数字技术49.Digital Television 数字电视50.Data Terminal 数据终端51.Data Transmission 数据传输52.DTB Digital Terrestrial Broadcasting 数字地面广播53.DTBC Digital Time-Base Corrector 数字时基校正器54.DTC Digital Television Camera 数字电视摄像机55.DTS Digital Theater System 数字影院系统56.Digital Tuning System 数字调谐系统57.Digital Television Standard 数字电视标准58.DVB Digital Video Broadcasting 数字视频广播59.DVC Digital Video Compression 数字视频压缩60.DVE Digital Video Effect 数字视频特技61.DVS Desktop Video Studio 桌上视频演播(系统62.DVTR Digital Video Tape Recorder 数字磁带录像机E1.EA Extension Amplifier 延长放大器2.EB Electron Beam 电子束3.EBS Emergency Broadcasting System 紧急广播系统4.EBU European Broadcasting Union 欧洲广播联盟5.EC Error Correction 误差校正6.ECN Emergency Communications Network 应急通信网络7.ECS European Communication Satellite 欧洲通信卫星8.EDC Error Detection Code 错误检测码9.EDE Electronic Data Exchange 电子数据交换10.EDF Erbium-Doped Fiber 掺饵光纤11.EDFA Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier 掺饵光纤放大器12.EDL Edit Decision List 编辑点清单13.EDTV Extended Definition Television 扩展清晰度电视14.EE Error Excepted 允许误差15.EFM Eight to Fourteen Modulation 8-14调制16.EFP Electronic Field Production 电子现场节目制作17.EH Ethernet Hosts 以太网主机18.EIN Equivalent Input Noise 等效输入噪声19.EIS Electronic Information System 电子信息系统20.EISA Extended Industrial Standard Architecture 扩展工业标准总线21.EL Electro-Luminescent 场致发光22.EM Error Monitoring 误码监测23.EN End Node 末端节点24.ENG Electronic News Gathering 电子新闻采集25.EOT End of Tape 带尾26.EP Edit Point 编辑点27.Error Protocol 错误协议28.EPG Electronic Program Guides 电子节目指南29.EPS Emergency Power Supply 应急电源30.ERP Effective Radiated Power 有效辐射功率31.ES Elementary Stream 基本码流32.End System 终端系统33.ESA European Space Agency 欧洲空间局34.ETV Education Television 教育电视35.ETV Enhanced Television 增强电视F1.FA Facial Animation 面部动画2.FABM Fiber Amplifier Booster Module 光纤放大器增强模块3.Fiber Access System 光纤接入系统4.Frequency Changer 变频器5.FC Fiber Channel 光纤通道6.Film Composer 电影编辑系统9.FCC Federal Communications Commission 美国联邦通信委员会10.FD Frequency Divider 分频器11.FD Fiber Duct 光纤管道12.FDCT Forward Discrete Cosine Transform 离散余弦正变换13.FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface 分布式光纤数据接口14.FDM Frequency-Division Multiplexing 频分复用15.FDP Fiber Distribution Point 光纤分配点16.FE Front End 前端17.FE Framing Error 成帧误差18.FF Fast Forward 快进19.FG Frequency Generator 频率发生器20.FH Frequency Hopping 跳频21.FIT Frame-Interline Transfer 帧一行间转移22.FN Fiber Node 光纤节点23.FOA Fiber Optic Amplifier 光纤放大器24.FOC Fiber Optic Cable 光缆25.FOC Fiber Optic Communications 光纤通信26.FOC Fiber Optic Coupler 光纤耦合器27.FOM Fiber Optic Modem 光纤调制解调器28.Fiber Optic Net 光纤网29.Factor of Safety 安全系数30.Fiber Optic Trunk Cable 光缆干线31.Frame Scan 帧扫描32.Frame Store 帧存储器33.Frame Synchro 帧同步机34.France Telecom 法国电信35.FTP File Transfer Protocol 文件传输协议36.FTTB Fiber-To-The-Building 光纤到楼37.FTTC Fiber-To-The-Curb 光纤到路边38.FTTH Fiber-To-The-Home 光纤到家39.FTTN Fiber-To-The-Node 光纤到节点40.FTTO Fiber-To-The-Office 光纤到办公室G1.GA General Average 总平均值2.GB Gain Bandwidth 增益带宽3.GFC Generic Flow Control 一般流量控制4.GMT Greenwich Mean Time 格林威治标准时间5.Ground 接地6.GPC General Purpose Computer 通用接口7.GPIB General Purpose Interface Bus 通用接口总线8.GPS Global Positioning Satellite 全球定位卫星9.GPS Global Positioning System 全球定位系统10.GSM Global System for Mobile Communication 全球移动通信系统11.GVFS General Video File Server 通用视频文件服务器H1.HA Head Amplifier 前置放大器2.HB Head Bus 前端总线3.HC Hierarchical Coding 分层编码4.HCT Home Communication Terminal 家庭通信终端5.HD High Definition 高清晰度6.HD Horizontal Drive 水平驱动脉冲7.HDM High Density Modulation 高密度调制8.HDTV High Definition Television 高清晰度电视9.HDVS High Definition Video System 高清晰度视频系统10.HF High Frequency 高频11.HFC Hybrid Fiber Coaxial 光纤同轴电缆混合网12.HFCT Hybrid Fiber Concentric Twisted Pair Wire 混合光纤同轴双绞线13.HIS Home Information System 家庭信息系统14.HF High-Fidelity 高保真度15.HPA High Power Amplifier 大功率放大器16.HPF High-Pass Filter 高通滤波器17.HQAD High Quality Audio Disc 高品位音频光盘18.HS Horizon Scanner 水平扫描19.HSCS High Speed Camera System 高速摄像机系统20.HSC High Speed Channel 高速信道21.HDB High Speed Data Broadcast 高速数据广播22.HT High Tension 高压23.HTT Home Television Theatre 家庭电视影院24.HTTP Hyper Text Transmission Protocol 超文本传输协议25.HTU Home Terminal Unit 家庭终端单元I1.IA Information Access 信息存取2.IB International Broadcasting 国际广播3.IB Interface Bus 接口总线4.IB Internal Bus 内部总线5.IBC Integrated Broadband Communication 综合宽带通信6.IBC International Broadcasting Center 国际广播中心7.IBC International Broadcasting Convention 欧洲国际广播会议8.IBG Inter Block Gap 字组间隔9.IC Integrated Circuit 集成电路10.IDC Inverse Discrete Cosine Transform 离散余弦逆变换11.IF Intermediate Frequency 中频12.IM Interface Module 接口模块13.IMTV Interactive Multimedia Television 交互式多媒体电视14.IN Integrated Network 综合网 Integrated Network Using Fiber Optics 光纤综合网16.INS Information Network System 信息网络系统17.IOCS Input-Output Control System 输入/输出控制系统18.IOD Information On Demand 点播信息19.Input Power 输入功率20.IP Internet Protocol 因特网协议21.IPC Information Processing Center 信息处理中心22.IPD Interactive Program Directory 交互式节目指南23.IPDC International Press Telecommunication Council 国际新闻通信委员会24.IRD Integrated Receiver/Decoder 综合接收机/解码器25.IS Information Superhighway 信息高速公路26.IS Interactive Service 交互业务27.IS International Standard 国际标准28.ISA Industry Standard Architecture 工业标准总线29.Integrated Service Analog Network 综合业务模拟网30.ISAN International Standard Audiovisual Number 国际标准音视频编号31.ISO International Standards Organization 国际标准化组织32.ISRC International Standard Recording Code 国际标准记录码33.ISSI Inter-Switching System Interface 交换机间系统接口34.IT Interline Transfer 行间转移35.ITS Insertion Test Signal 插入测试信号36.ITS Intelligent Traffic System 智能交通系统37.ITS International Telecommunication Service 国际电信业务38.ITU International Telecommunications Union 国际电信联盟39.ITV Industrial Television 工业电视40.ITV Interactive Television 交互式电视41.IU Information Unit 信息单元42.IVCS Intelligent Video Conferencing System 智能视频会议系统43.IVDS Interactive Video Data Service 交互视频数据业务44.IVO Interactive Video On Demand 交互点播电视45.IVS Interactive Video System 交互视频系统J1.JB Junction Box 接线盒2.JCTA Japan Cable Television Association ***有线电视协会3.JPEG Joint Photographic Experts Group 联合图片专家组4.JSB Japan Satellite Broadcasting Inc ***广播卫星公司Keyboard 键盘LN Local Area Network 局域网2.LBC Low Bit-rate Coding 低码率编码3.LC Lossless Coding 无损编码4.LCD Liquid Crystal Display 液晶显示器5.LCD Light Coupled Device 光耦合器件6.LD Laser Diode 激光二极管7.LDT Low Definition Television 低分辨率数字电视8.LED Light-Emitting Diode 发光二极管9.LF Low Frequency 低频10.LFR Low Frequency Response 低频响应11.LFE Low Frequency Oscillator 低频振荡器12.LI Level Indicator 电平指示器13.LMDS Local Microwave Distribution System 本地微波分配系统14.LNA Low Noise Amplifier 低噪声放大器15.LO Local Oscillator 本地振荡器16.LPF Low Pass Filter 低通滤波器17.LRC Longitudinal Redundancy Checking 纵向冗余校验18.LS Light Source 光源19.LSD Large Screen Display 大屏幕显示器20.LSIC Large Scale Integrated Circuit 大规模集成电路21.LSN Local Supervision Network 本地监测网22.LTC Longitudinal Time Code 纵向时间码23.LVD Laser Vision Disc 激光电视唱片24.LVRS Laser Video Recording System 激光视盘录制系统1.MAC Multiplexed Analog Components 复用模拟分量2.MAN Metropolitan Area Network 都市网3.MAPI Multimedia Application Programming Interface 多媒体应用编程接口4.MAT Master Antenna Television 共用天线电视5.MC Main Control 主控6.Media Composer 非线性媒体编辑系统7.MD Motion Compensation 运动补偿8.MC Multimedia Communication 多媒体通信9.MCI Media Control Interface 媒体控制接口10.MCPC Multi-Channel Per Carrier 多路单载波11.MCR Master Control Room 主控制室12.MCR Mobile Control Room 转播车，移动控制室13.MD Magnetic Drum 磁鼓14.MDM Multimedia Data Management 多媒体数据管理15.MDOP Multimedia Data Operation Platform 多媒体数据操作平台16.MF Medium Frequency 中频16.Microphone 传声器，话筒17.MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface 乐器数字接口18.MMDS Multi-Channel Microwave Distribution System 微波多点分配系统19.MAD Modulator And Demodulator 调制解调器20.MOL Maximum Output Level 最大输出电平21.Monitor 监视器，监听器。
电子专业中英文翻译
电子专业中英文翻译1 引言在“三网合一”的推动下，光纤到户等光纤接入方案的应用日益广泛。
在光进铜退的呼声下，光网络迅速进展。
光收发器在光通信中起到光电、电光转换的作用，是光通信必不可少的器件。
由于涉及到高速电路设计、精密机械加工与光学设计，光收发器的成本占据了光纤通信系统与的重要部分，而较高的光收发器价格成了制约光纤接入推广的瓶颈。
进一步降低光收发器的成本将有利于光接入的应用推广，加快光进铜退的步伐。
光收发器要紧由电路部分、光发送组件与光接收组件构成。
其中电路部分又包含激光驱动、光接收信号放大与操纵部分。
目前市场上的光收发器的电路部分使用的是三个专用芯片。
一直有公司在研究把激光驱动与接收信号放大电路集成在一个器件上，操纵器使用普通的嵌入式处理器的方案。
由于只使用一个专用芯片与一个通用芯片，这样就能够大幅降低电路部分的成本。
PHYWORKS 公司研制的PHY1076芯片就是一款这样的芯片。
它要紧针对1.25Gbps 到2.5Gbps的光收发器，具有外围电路简单，操纵电路只需要普通的8位单片机就能够实现的特点。
本文要紧研究了PHY1076 的性能，选择了ATMEL 公司的ATMEGA88 单片机进行操纵，设计出光收发器样品，并进行了性能测试，最终成功设计了1.25G 光收发器。
2 光收发器设计方案及工作原理讨论光收发器在进展的过程中，有许多种不一致的外形封装。
SFP（小型化可热插拔光收发一体模块）是目前在5Gbps下列速率中最先进的一种封装形式，具有小型化、可热插拔、功耗小、系统可集成度高与能够进行数字诊断功能等特点。
本设计中使用激光驱动电路与光接收放大电路集成的PHY1076 作为专用芯片，使用ATMEL 的AVR 单片机ATMEGA88 进行操纵与实现DDM 功能，加上相应的TOSA（光发射组件）,ROSA（光接收组件）与结构件，设计了一款工作在1.25Gbps 传输距离为10km 的SFP 光收发器。
电子专业词汇翻译中英文对照
电子专业词汇翻译中英文对照(新手必备知识)2011-07-22 21:27:56 来源:互联网1 backplane 背板2 Band gap voltage reference 带隙电压参考3 benchtop supply 工作台电源4 Block Diagram 方块图5 Bode Plot 波特图6 Bootstrap 自举7 Bottom FET Bottom FET8 bucket capcitor 桶形电容9 chassis 机架10 Combi-sense Combi-sense11 constant current source 恒流源12 Core Sataration 铁芯饱和13 crossover frequency 交叉频率14 current ripple 纹波电流15 Cycle by Cycle 逐周期16 cycle skipping 周期跳步17 Dead Time 死区时间18 DIE Temperature 核心温度19 Disable 非使能，无效，禁用，关断20 dominant pole 主极点21 Enable 使能，有效，启用22 ESD Rating ESD额定值23 Evaluation Board 评估板24 Exceeding the specifications below may result in permanent damage to the device, or device malfunction. Operation outside of the parameters specified in the Electrical Characteristics section is not implied. 超过下面的规格使用可能引起永久的设备损害或设备故障。
建议不要工作在电特性表规定的参数范围以外。
25 Failling edge 下降沿26 figure of merit 品质因数27 float charge voltage 浮充电压28 flyback power stage 反驰式功率级29 forward voltage drop 前向压降30 free-running 自由运行31 Freewheel diode 续流二极管32 Full load 满负载33 gate drive 栅极驱动34 gate drive stage 栅极驱动级35 gerber plot Gerber 图36 ground plane 接地层37 Henry 电感单位：亨利38 Human Body Model 人体模式39 Hysteresis 滞回40 inrush current 涌入电流41 Inverting 反相42 jittery 抖动43 Junction 结点44 Kelvin connection 开尔文连接45 Lead Frame 引脚框架46 Lead Free 无铅47 level-shift 电平移动48 Line regulation 电源调整率49 load regulation 负载调整率50 Lot Number 批号51 Low Dropout 低压差52 Miller 密勒53 node 节点54 Non-Inverting 非反相55 novel 新颖的56 off state 关断状态57 Operating supply voltage 电源工作电压58 out drive stage 输出驱动级59 Out of Phase 异相60 Part Number 产品型号61 pass transistor pass transistor62 P-channel MOSFET P沟道MOSFET63 Phase margin 相位裕度64 Phase Node 开关节点65 portable electronics 便携式电子设备66 power down 掉电67 Power Good 电源正常68 Power Groud 功率地69 Power Save Mode 节电模式70 Power up 上电71 pull down 下拉72 pull up 上拉73 Pulse by Pulse 逐脉冲（Pulse by Pulse）74 push pull converter 推挽转换器75 ramp down 斜降76 ramp up 斜升77 redundant diode 冗余二极管78 resistive divider 电阻分压器79 ringing 振铃80 ripple current 纹波电流81 rising edge 上升沿82 sense resistor 检测电阻83 Sequenced Power Supplys 序列电源84 shoot-through 直通，同时导通85 stray inductances. 杂散电感86 sub-circuit 子电路87 substrate 基板88 Telecom 电信89 Thermal Information 热性能信息90 thermal slug 散热片91 Threshold 阈值92 timing resistor 振荡电阻93 Top FET Top FET94 Trace 线路，走线，引线95 Transfer function 传递函数96 Trip Point 跳变点97 turns ratio 匝数比，＝Np / Ns。
电子类文献中英文翻译(发电机)
电子类文献中英文翻译(发电机)DC GENENRATORS1. INTRODUCTIONFor all practical purposes, the direct-current generator is only used for special applications and local dc power generation. This limitation is due to the commutator required to rectify the internal generated ac voltage, thereby making largescale dc power generators not feasible.Consequently, all electrical energy produced commercially is generated and distributed in the form of three-phase ac power. The use of solid state converters nowadays makes conversion to dc economical. However, the operating characteristics of dc generators are still important, because most concepts can be applied to all other machines.2. FIELD WINDING CONNECTIONSThe general arrangement of brushes and field winding for a four-pole machine is as shown in Fig.1. The four brushes ride on the commutator. The positive brusher are connected to terminal A1 while the negative brushes are connected to terminal A2 of the machine. As indicated in the sketch, the brushes are positioned approximately midway under the poles. They make contact with coils that have little or no EMF induced in them, since their sides are situated between poles.Figure 1 Sketch of four-pole dc matchineThe four excitation or field poles are usually joined in series and their ends brought out to terminals marked F1 and F2. They are connected such that they produce north and south poles alternately.The type of dc generator is characterized by the manner in which the field excitation is provided. In general, the method employed to connect the field and armature windings falls into the following groups (see Fig.2):Figure2 Field connections for dc generators:(a)separately excited generator;(b)self-excited,shunt generator;(c)series generator;(d)compound generator;short-shunt connection;(e)compoundgenerator,long-shunt connection.The shunt field contains many turns of relatively fine wire and carries a comparatively small current, only a few percent of rated current. The series field winding, on the other hand, has few turns of heavy wire since it is in series with the armature and therefore carries the load current.Before discussing the dc generator terminal characteristics, let us examine the relationship between the generated voltage and excitation current of a generator on no load. The generated EMF is proportional to both the flux per pole and the speed at which the generator is driven, EG=kn. By holding the speed constant it can be shown the EG depends directly on the flux.To test this dependency on actual generators is not very practical, as it involves a magnetic flux measurement. The flux is produced by the ampere-turns of the field coils: in turn, the flux must depend on the amount of field current flowing since the number of turns on the field winding is constant. This relationship is not linear because of magnetic saturation after the field current reaches a certain value. The variation of EG versus the field current If may be shown by a curve known as the magnetization curve or open-circuit characteristic. For this a given generator is driven at a constant speed, is not delivering load current, and has its field winding separately excited.The value of EG appearing at the machine terminals is measured as If is progressively increased from zero to a value well above rated voltage of that machine. The resulting curve is shown is Fig.3. When Ij=0, that is, with the field circuit open circuited, a small voltage Et is measured, due to residual magnetism. As the field current increases, the generated EMF increases linearly up to the knee of the magnetization curve. Beyond this point, increasing the field current still further causes saturation of the magnetic structure to set in.Figure 3 Magnetization curve or open-circuit characteristic of a separately excited dc machineThe means that a larger increase in field current is required to produce a given increase in voltage.Since the generated voltage EG is also directly proportional to the speed, a magnetization curve can be drawn for any other speed once the curve is determined. This merely requires anadjustment of all points on the curve according ton n x E E G G ''=where the quantities values at the various speeds.3. VOLTAGE REGULATIONLet us next consider adding a load on generator. The terminal voltage will then decrease (because the armature winding ha resistance) unless some provision is made to keep it constant. A curve that shows the value of terminal voltage for various load currents is called the load or characteristic of the generator.Figure 4 (a) directs current it to urge the generator load characteristics; (b) circuit diagramFig.4 shows the external characteristic of a separately excited generator. The decrease in the terminal voltage is due mainly to the armature circuit resistance RA. In general,A A G t R I E V -=where Vt is the terminal voltage and IA is the armature current (or load current IL) supplied by the generator to the load.Another factor that contributes to the decrease in terminal voltage is the decrease in flux due to armature reaction. The armature current established an MMF that distorts the main flux, resulting in a weakened flux, especially in noninterpole machines. This effect is calledarmature reaction. As Fig.4 shows, the terminal voltage versus load current curve does not drop off linearly since the iron behaves nonlinear. Because armature reaction depends on the armature current it gives the curve its drooping characteristic.4. SHUNT OR SELF-EXCIITED GENRATORSA shunt generator has its shunt field winding connected in parallel with the armature so that the machine provides its own excitation, as indicated in Fig.5. The question arises whether the machine will generate a voltage and what determines the voltage.For voltage to “build up” as it is called, there must be some remanent magnetism in the field poles. Ordinarily, if the generator has been used previously, there will be some remanent magnetism. We have seen in Section 3 that if the field would be disconnected, there will be small voltage Ef generated due to this remanent magnetism, provided that the generator is driven at some speed. Connecting the field for self-excitation, this small voltage will be applied to the shunts field and drive a small current through the field circuit. If this resulting small current in the shunt field is of such a direction that it weakens the residual flux, the voltage remains near zero and the terminal voltage does not build up. In this situation the weak main pole flux opposes the residual flux.Figure 5 Shunt generator:(a)circuit;(b)load characteristicIf the connection is such that the weak main pole flux aids the residual flux, the inducedvoltage increases rapidly to a large, constant value. The build-up process is readily seen to be cumulanve. That is, more voltage increases the field current, which in turn increases the voltage, and so on. The fact that this process terminates at a finite voltage is due to the nonlinear behavior of the magnctic circuit. In steady state the generated voltage is causes a field current to flow that is just sufficient to develop a flux required for the generated EMF that causes the field current to flow.The circuit carries only dc current, so that the field current depends only on the field circuit resistance, Rf. This may consist of the field circuit resistance Rf, the field current depends on the generated voltage in accordance with Ohm ’s law.It should be evident that on a new machine or one that has lost its residual flux because of a long idle period, some magnetism must be created. This is usually done by connecting the field winding only to a separate dc source for a few seconds. This procedure is generally known as flashing the field.Series GeneratorsAs mentioned previously, the field winding of a series generator is in series with the armature. Since it carries the load current the series field winding consists of only a few turns of thick wire. At no load, the generated voltage is small due to residual field flux only. When a load is added, the flux increases, and so does the generated voltage. Fig.7 shows the load characteristic of a series generator driven at a certain speed. The dashed line indicates the generated EMF of the same machine with the armature open-circuited and the field separately excited. The difference between the two curves is simply the IR drop in the series field and armature winding, such that)(S A A G t R R I E V +-=where RS is the series field winding resistance.Figure 7 Series generator: (a)circuit diagram;(b)load characteristicsCompound GeneratorsThe compound generator has both a shunt and a series field winding, the latter winding wound on top of the shunt winding. Fig.8 shows the circuit diagram. The two windings are usually connected such that their ampere-turns act in the same direction. As such the generator is said to be cumulatively compounded.The shunt connection illustrated in Fig.8 is called a long shunt connection. If the shunt field winding is directly connected across the armature terminals, the connection is referred to as a short shunt. In practice the connection used is of little consequence, since the shunt field winding carries a small current compared to the full-load current. Furthermore, the number of turns on the series field winding. This implies it has a low resistance value and the corresponding voltage drop across it at full load is minimal.Curves in Fig.9 represents the terminal characteristic of the shunt field winding alone. By the addition of a small series field winding the drop in terminal voltage with increased loading is reduced as indicated. Such a generator is said to be undercompounded. By increasing the number of series turns, the no-load and full-load terminal voltage can be made equal; the generator is then said to be flatcompounded. If the number of series turns is more than necessary to compensate for the voltage drop, the generator is overcome pounded. In that case the full-load voltage is higher than the no-load voltage.Figure 9 Terminal characteristics of compound generators compared with that of the shunt generatorThe overcompounded generator may be used in instances where the load is at some distance from the generator. The voltage drops in the feeder lines are the compensated for with increased loading. Reversing the polarity of the series field in relation to the shunt field, the fields will oppose each other more and more as the load current increase. Such a generator is said to be differentially compounded. It is used in applications where feeder lines could occur approaching those of a short circuit. An example would be where feeder lines could break and short circuit the generator. The short-circuit current, however, is then limited to a “safe” value. The terminal characteristic for this type of generator is also shown in Fig.9. Compound generators are used more extensively than the other types because they may be designed to have a wide varity of terminal characteristics.As illustrated, the full-load terminal voltage can be maintained at the no-load value by the proper degree of compounding. Other methods of voltage control are the use of rheostats, for instance, in the field circuit. However, with changing loads it requires a constant adjustment of the field rheostat to maintain the voltage. A more useful arrangement, which is now common practice, is to use an automatic voltage regulator with the generator. In essence, the voltage regulator is a feedback control system. The generator output voltage is sensed and compared to a fixed reference voltage deviation from the reference voltage gives an error signal that is fed to a power amplifier. The power amplifier supplies the field excitation current. If the error signal is positive, for example, the output voltage is larger than desiredand the amplifier will reduce its current drive. In doing so the error signal will be reduced to zero.TRANSFORMER1. INTRODUCTIONThe high-voltage transmission was need for the case electrical power is to be provided at considerable distance from a generating station. At some point this high voltage must be reduced, because ultimately is must supply a load. The transformer makes it possible for various parts of a power system to operate at different voltage levels. In this paper we discuss power transformer principles and applications.2. TOW-WINDING TRANSFORMERSA transformer in its simplest form consists of two stationary coils coupled by a mutual magnetic flux. The coils are said to be mutually coupled because they link a common flux. In power applications, laminated steel core transformers (to which this paper is restricted) are used. Transformers are efficient because the rotational losses normally associated with rotating machine are absent, so relatively little power is lost when transforming power from one voltage level to another. Typical efficiencies are in the range 92 to 99%, the higher values applying to the larger power transformers.The current flowing in the coil connected to the ac source is called the primary winding or simply the primary. It sets up the flux φ in the core, which varies periodically both in magnitude and direction. The flux links the second coil, called the secondary winding or simply secondary. The flux is changing; therefore, it induces a voltage in the secondary by electromagnetic induction in accordance with Lenz’s law. Thus the primary receives its power from the source while the secondary supplies this power to the load. This action is known as transformer action.3. TRANSFORMER PRINCIPLESWhen a sinusoidal voltage V p is applied to the primary with the secondary open-circuited, there will be no energy transfer. The impressed voltage causes a small current Iθ to flow in the primary winding. This no-load current has two functions: (1) it produces the magnetic flux in the core, which varies sinusoidally between zero and φm, where φm is the maximum value of the core flux; and (2) it provides a component to account for the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core. There combined losses are normally referred to as the core losses.The no-load current Iθ is usually few percent of the rated full-load current of the transformer (about 2 to 5%). Since at no-load the primary winding acts as a large reactance due to the iron core, the no-load current will lag the primary voltage by nearly 90º. It is readily seen that the current component I m= I0sinθ0, called the magnetizing current, is 90ºin phase behind the primary voltage V P. It is this component that sets up the flux in the core; φ is therefore in phase with I m.The second component, I e=I0sinθ0, is in phase with the primary voltage. It is the current component that supplies the core losses. The phasor sum of these two components represents the no-load current, orI0 = I m+ I eIt should be noted that the no-load current is distortes and nonsinusoidal. This is the result of the nonlinear behavior of the core material.If it is assumed that there are no other losses in the transformer, the induced voltage In the primary, E p and that in the secondary, E s can be shown. Since the magnetic flux set up by the primary winding，there will be an induced EMF E in the secondary winding in accordance with Faraday’s law, namely, E=NΔφ/Δt. This same flux also links the primary itself, inducing in it an EMF, E p. As discussed earlier, the induced voltage must lag the flux by 90º, therefore, they are 180º out of phase with the applied voltage. Since no current flows in the secondary winding, E s=V s. The no-load primary current I0 is small, a few percent of full-load current. Thus the voltage in the primary is small and V p is nearly equal to E p. The primary voltage and the resulting flux are sinusoidal; thus the induced quantities E p and E s vary as a sine function. The average value of the induced voltage given byE avg = turns× change in flux in a given time given timewhich is Faraday’s law applied to a finite time interval. It follows thatE avg = N 21/(2)m f = 4fNφm which N is the number of turns on the winding. Form ac circuit theory, the effective or root-mean-square (rms) voltage for a sine wave is 1.11 times the average voltage; thusE = 4.44fNφmSince the same flux links with the primary and secondary windings, the voltage per turn in each winding is the same. HenceE p = 4.44fN p φmandE s = 4.44fN s φmwhere E p and Es are the number of turn on the primary and secondary windings, respectively. The ratio of primary to secondary induced voltage is called the transformation ratio. Denoting this ratio by a, it is seen that a = p sE E = p s N N Assume that the output power of a transformer equals its input power, not a bad sumption in practice considering the high efficiencies. What we really are saying is that we are dealing with an ideal transformer; that is, it has no losses. ThusP m = P outorV p I p × primary PF = V s I s × secondary PFwhere PF is the power factor. For the above-stated assumption it means that the power factor on primary and secondary sides are equal; thereforeV p I p = V s I s from which is obtainedp s V V = p s I I ≌ p sE E ≌ aIt shows that as an approximation the terminal voltage ratio equals the turns ratio. The primary and secondary current, on the other hand, are inversely related to the turns ratio. The turns ratio gives a measure of how much the secondary voltage is raised or lowered in relation to the primary voltage. To calculate the voltage regulation, we need more information.The ratio of the terminal voltage varies somewhat depending on the load and its power factor. In practice, the transformation ratio is obtained from the nameplate data, which list the primary and secondary voltage under full-load condition.When the secondary voltage V s is reduced compared to the primary voltage, the transformation is said to be a step-down transformer: conversely, if this voltage is raised, it is called a step-up transformer. In a step-down transformer the transformation ratio a is greater than unity (a>1.0), while for a step-up transformer it is smaller than unity (a<1.0). In the event that a=1, the transformer secondary voltage equals the primary voltage. This is a special type of transformer used in instances where electrical isolation is required between the primary and secondary circuit while maintaining the same voltage level. Therefore, this transformer is generally knows as an isolation transformer.As is apparent, it is the magnetic flux in the core that forms the connecting link between primary and secondary circuit. In section 4 it is shown how the primary winding current adjusts itself to the secondary load current when the transformer supplies a load.Looking into the transformer terminals from the source, an impedance is seen which by definition equals V p / I p . From p s V V = p s I I ≌ p sE E ≌ a , we have V p = aV s and I p = I s /a.In terms of V s and I s the ratio of V p to I p isp p V I = /s s aV I a= 2s s a V I But V s / I s is the load impedance Z L thus we can say thatZ m (primary) = a 2Z LThis equation tells us that when an impedance is connected to the secondary side, it appears from the source as an impedance having a magnitude that is a 2 times its actual value. We say that the load impedance is reflected or referred to the primary. It is this property oftransformers that is used in impedance-matching applications.4. TRANSFORMERS UNDER LOADThe primary and secondary voltages shown have similar polarities, as indicated by the “dot-making” convention. The dots near the upper ends of the windings have the same meaning as in circuit theory; the marked terminals have the same polarity. Thus when a load is connected to the secondary, the instantaneous load current is in the direction shown. In other words, the polarity markings signify that when positive current enters both windings at the marked terminals, the MMFs of the two windings add.Since the secondary voltage depends on the core flux φ0, it must be clear that the flux should not change appreciably if E s is to remain essentially constant under normal loading conditions. With the load connected, a current I s will flow in the secondary circuit, because the induced EMF E s will act as a voltage source. The secondary current produces an MMF N s I s that creates a flux. This flux has such a direction that at any instant in time it opposes the main flux that created it in the first place. Of course, this is Lenz’s law in action. Thus the MMF represented by N s I s tends to reduce the core flux φ0. This means that the flux linking the primary winding reduces and consequently the primary induced voltage E p, This reduction in induced voltage causes a greater difference between the impressed voltage and the counter induced EMF, thereby allowing more current to flow in the primary. The fact that primary current I p increases means that the two conditions stated earlier are fulfilled: (1) the power input increases to match the power output, and (2) the primary MMF increases to offset the tendency of the secondary MMF to reduce the flux.In general, it will be found that the transformer reacts almost instantaneously to keep the resultant core flux essentially constant. Moreover, the core flux φ0drops very slightly between n o load and full load (about 1 to 3%), a necessary condition if E p is to fall sufficiently to allow an increase in I p.On the primary side, I p’ is the current that flows in the primary to balance the demagnetizing effect of I s. Its MMF N p I p’ se ts up a flux linking the primary only. Since the core flux φ0 remains constant. I0 must be the same current that energizes the transformer at no load. Theprimary current I p is therefore the sum of the current I p’ and I0.Because the no-load current is relatively small, it is correct to assume that the primary ampere-turns equal the secondary ampere-turns, since it is under this condition that the core flux is essentially constant. Thus we will assume that I0 is negligible, as it is only a small component of the full-load current.When a current flows in the secondary winding, the resulting MMF (N s I s) creates a separate flux, apart from the flux φ0 produced by I0, which links the secondary winding only. This flux does no link with the primary winding and is therefore not a mutual flux.In addition, the load current that flows through the primary winding creates a flux that links with the primary winding only; it is called the primary leakage flux. The secondary- leakage flux gives rise to an induced voltage that is not counter balanced by an equivalent induced voltage in the primary. Similarly, the voltage induced in the primary is not counterbalanced in the secondary winding. Consequently, these two induced voltages behave like voltage drops, generally called leakage reactance voltage drops. Furthermore, each winding has some resistance, which produces a resistive voltage drop. When taken into account, these additional voltage drops would complete the equivalent circuit diagram of a practical transformer. Note that the magnetizing branch is shown in this circuit, which for our purposes will be disregarded. This follows our earlier assumption that the no-load current is assumed negligible in our calculations. This is further justified in that it is rarely necessary to predict transformer performance to such accuracies. Since the voltage drops are all directly proportional to the load current, it means that at no-load conditions there will be no voltage drops in either winding.中文翻译①直流发电机1.介绍关于所有实际目的来说，直流发电机仅用于特殊场合与地方性发电厂。
汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献
汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献1汽车电子系统中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)The Changing Automotive Environment: High-Temperature ElectronicsR. Wayne Johnson, Fellow, IEEE, John L. Evans, Peter Jacobsen, James R. (Rick) Thompson, and Mark ChristopherAbstract —The underhood automotive environment is harsh and current trends in the automotive electronics industry will be pushing the temperatureenvelope for electronic components. The desire to place engine control unitson the engine and transmission control units either on or in the transmissionwill push the ambient temperature above 125125℃℃.However, extreme cost pressures,increasing reliability demands (10 year/241 350 km) and the cost of field failures (recalls, liability, customer loyalty) will make the shift to higher temperatures occur incrementally. The coolest spots on engine and in the transmission will be used. These large bodies do provide considerableheat sinking to reduce temperature rise due to power dissipation in the controlunit. The majority of near term applications will be at 150 ℃ or less andthese will be worst case temperatures, not nominal. The transition toX-by-wire technology, replacing mechanical and hydraulic systems with electromechanical systems will require more power electronics. Integrationof power transistors and smart power devices into the electromechanical℃ to 200℃ . Hybridactuator will require power devices to operate at 175electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles will also drive the demand for higher temperature power electronics. In the case of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles, the high temperature will be due to power dissipation. Thealternates to high-temperature devices are thermal management systems which add weight and cost. Finally, the number of sensors in vehicles is increasingas more electrically controlled systems are added. Many of these sensors mustwork in high-temperature environments. The harshest applications are exhaustgas sensors and cylinder pressure or combustion sensors. High-temperature electronics use in automotive systems will continue to grow, but it will be gradual as cost and reliability issues are addressed. This paper examines themotivation for higher temperature operation,the packaging limitations evenat 125 C with newer package styles and concludes with a review of challenge at both the semiconductor device and packaging level as temperatures push beyond 125 ℃.Index Terms—Automotive, extreme-environment electronics.I. INTRODUCTIONI N 1977, the average automobile contained $110 worth of electronics [1]. By 2003 the electronics content was $1510 per vehicle and is expected to reach$2285 in 2013 [2].The turning point in automotive electronics was governmentTABLE IMAJOR AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRONIC SYSTEMSTABLE IIAUTOMOTIVETEMPERATUREEXTREMES(DELPHIDELCOELECTRONIC SYSTEMS) [3]regulation in the 1970s mandating emissions control and fuel economy. The complex fuel control required could not be accomplished using traditional mechanical systems. These government regulations coupled with increasing semiconductor computing power at decreasing cost have led to an ever increasing array of automotive electronics. Automotive electronics can be divided into five major categories as shown in Table I.The operating temperature of the electronics is a function of location, power dissipation by the electronics, and the thermal design. The automotive electronics industry defines high-temperature electronics as electronics operating above 125 ℃. However, the actual temperature for various electronics mounting locations varies considerably. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems recently published the typical continuous maximum temperatures as reproduced in Table II [3]. The corresponding underhood temperatures are shown in Fig. 1. The authors note that typical junction temperatures for integrated circuits are 10 ℃to15℃ higher than ambient or baseplate temperature, while power devices can reach 25 ℃ higher. At-engine temperatures of 125℃ peak can be maintained by placing the electronics on theintake manifold.Fig. 1. Engine compartment thermal profile (Delphi Delco Electronic Systems) [3].TABLE III THEAUTOMOTIVEENVIRONMENT(GENERALMOTORS ANDDELPHIDELCO ELECTRONICSYSTEMS) [4]TABLE IV REQUIREDOPERATIONTEMPERATURE FORAUTOMOTIVEELECTRONIC SYSTEMS(TOYOTAMOTORCORP. [5]TABLE VMECHA TRONICMAXIMUMTEMPERA TURERANGES(DAIMLERCHRYSLER,EA TONCORPORA TION, ANDAUBURNUNIVERSITY) [6]Fig. 2. Automotive temperatures and related systems (DaimlerChrysler) [8].automotive electronic systems [8]. Fig. 3 shows an actual measured transmission transmission temperature temperature temperature profile profile profile during during during normal normal normal and and excessive excessive driving drivingconditions [8]. Power braking is a commonly used test condition where the brakes are applied and the engine is revved with the transmission in gear.A similar real-world situation would be applying throttle with the emergencybrake applied. Note that when the temperature reached 135135℃℃,the over temperature light came on and at the peak temperature of 145145℃℃,the transmission was beginning to smell of burnt transmission fluid.TABLE VI2002I NTERNA TIONAL T ECHNOLOGY R OADMAPFOR S EMICONDUCTORS A MBI ENTOPERA TINGTEMPERA TURES FORHARSHENVIRONMENTS (AUTOMOTIVE) [9]The 2002 update to the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) did not reflect the need for higher operating temperatures for complex integrated circuits, but did recognize increasing temperature requirements for power and linear devices as shown in Table VI [9]. Higher temperature power devices (diodes and transistors) will be used for the power section of power converters and motor drives for electromechanical actuators. Higher temperature linear devices will be used for analog control of power converters and for amplification and some signal processing of sensor outputs prior to transmission to the control units. It should be noted that at the maximum rated temperature for a power device, the power handling capability is derated to zero. Thus, a 200℃ rated power transistor in a 200℃ environment would have zero current carrying capability. Thus, the actual operating environments must be lower than the maximum rating.In the 2003 edition of the ITRS, the maximum junction temperatures identified forharsh-environment complex integrated circuits was raised to 150℃through 2018 [9]. Theambient operating temperature extreme for harsh-environment complex integrated circuits was defined as 40℃to 125℃ through 2009, increasing to 40℃to 150℃for 2010 and beyond. Power/linear devices were not separately listed in 2003.The ITRS is consistent with the current automotive high-temperature limitations. Delphi Delco Electronic Systems offers two production engine controllers (one on ceramic and one on thin laminate) for direct mounting on the engine. These controllers are rated for operation over the temperature range of 40℃to 125℃. The ECU must be mounted on the coolest spot on the engine. The packaging technology is consistent with 140℃ operation, but the ECU is limited by semiconductor and capacitor technologies to 125℃.The future projections in the ITRS are not consistent with the desire to place controllers on-engine or in-transmission. It will not always be possible to use the coolest location for mounting control units. Delphi Delco Electronics Systems has developed an in-transmission controller for use in an ambient temperature of 140℃[10] using ceramic substrate technology. DaimlerChrysler is also designing an in-transmission controller for usewith a maximum ambient temperature of 150℃ (Figs. 4 and 5) [11].II. MECHATRONICSMechatronics, or the integration of electrical and mechanical systems offers a number ofadvantages in automotive assembly. Integration of the engine controller with the engine allows pretest of the engine as a complete system prior to vehicle assembly. Likewise with the integration of the transmission controller and the transmission, pretesting and tuning to account for machining variations can be performed at the transmission factory prior to shipment to the automobile assembly site. In addition, most of the wires connecting to a transmission controller run to the solenoid pack inside the transmission. Integration of the controller into the transmission reduces the wiring harness requirements at the automobile assembly level.Fig. 4. Prototype DaimlerChrysler ceramic transmission controller [11]Fig. 5. DaimlerChrysler in-transmission module [11].The trend in automotive design is to distribute control with network communications. As the industry moves to more X-by-wire systems, this trend will continue. Automotivefinalassembly plants assemble subsystems and components supplied by numerous vendors to build the vehicle. Complete mechatronic subsystems simplify the design, integration, management, inventory control, and assembly of vehicles. As discussed in the previous section, higher temperature electronics will be required to meet future mechatronic designs.III. PACKAGINGCHALLENGES AT125℃Trends in electronics packaging, driven by computer and portable products are resulting in packages which will not meet underhood automotive requirements at 125℃. Most notable are leadless and area array packages such as small ball grid arrays (BGAs) and quadflatpacks no-lead (QFNs). Fig. 6 shows the thermal cycle test 40 ℃to 125℃ results for two sizes of QFN from two suppliers [12]. A typical requirement is for the product to survive 2000–2500 thermal cycles with<1% failure for underhood applications. Smaller I/O QFNs have been found to meet the requirements.Fig. 7 presents the thermal cycle results for BGAs of various body sizes [13]. The die size in the BGA remained constant (8.6 *8.6 mm). As the body size decreases so does the reliability. Only the 23-mm BGA meets the requirements. The 15-mm BGA with the 0.56-mm-thick BT substrate nearly meets the minimum requirements. However, the industry trend is to use thinner BT substrates (0.38 mm) for BGA packages.One solution to increasing the thermal cycle performance of smaller BGAs is to use underfill. Capillary underfill was dispensed and cured after reflow assembly of the BGA. Fig. 8 shows a Weibull plot of the thermal cycle data for the 15-mm BGAs with four different underfills. Underfill UF1 had no failures after 5500 cycles and is, therefore, not plotted. Underfill, therefore, provides a viable approach to meeting underhood automotive requirements with smaller BGAs, but adds process steps, time, and cost to the electronics assembly process.Since portable and computer products dominate the electronics market, the packages developed for these applications are replacing traditional packages such as QFPs for new devices. The automotive electronics industry will have to continuedeveloping assembly approaches such as underfill just to use these new packages in current underhood applications.IV. TECHNOLOGY CHALLENGES ABOVE125 ℃The technical challenges for high-temperature automotive applications are interrelated, but can be divided into semiconductors, passives, substrates,interconnections, and housings/connectors. Industries such as oil well logging have successfully fielded high-temperature electronics operating at 200℃ and above. However, automotive electronics are further constrained by high-volume production, low cost, and long-term reliability requirements. The typical operating life for oil well logging electronics may only be 1000 h, production volumes are in the range of 10s or 100s and, while cost is a concern, it is not a dominant issue. In the following paragraphs, the technical challenges for high-temperature automotive electronics are discussed.Semiconductors: The maximum rated ambient temperature for most silicon basedintegrated circuits is 85℃, which is sufficient for consumer, portable, and computing product applications. Devices for military and automotive applications are typically rated to 125℃. A few integrated circuits are rated to 150℃, particularly for power supply controllers and a few automotive applications. Finally, many power semiconductor devices are derated to zero power handling capability at 200℃.Nelmset al.and Johnsonet al.have shown that power insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and metal–oxide–semiconductorfield-effect transistors (MOSFETs) can be used at 200℃[14], [15]. The primary limitations of these power transistors at the higher temperatures are the packaging (the glass transition temperature of common molding compounds is in the 180℃ to 200℃range) and the electrical stress on the transistor during hard switching.A number of factors limit the use of silicon at high temperatures. First, with a bandgap of 1.12 eV, the silicon p-n junction becomes intrinsic at high temperature (225℃ to 400℃depending on doping levels). The intrinsic carrier concentration is given by (1)As the temperature increases, the intrinsic carrier concentration increases. When the intrinsic carrier concentration nears the doping concentration level, p-n junctions behave as resistors, not diodes, and transistors lose their switching characteristics. One approach used in high-temperature integrated circuit design is to increase the doping levels, which increases the temperature at which the device becomes intrinsic. However, increasing the doping levels decreases the depletion widths, resulting in higher electricfields within the device that can lead to breakdown.A second problem is the increase in leakage current through a reverse-biased p-n junction with increasing temperature. Reverse-biased p-n junctions are commonly used in IC design to provide isolation between devices. The saturation current (I,the ideal reverse-bias current of the junction) is proportional to the square of the intrinsic carrier concentrationwhere Ego=bandgap energy atT= 0KThe leakage current approximately doubles for each 10℃rise in junction temperature. Increased junction leakage currents increase power dissipation within the device and can lead to latch-up of the parasitic p-n-p-n structure in complimentary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) devices. Epitaxial-CMOS (epi-CMOS) has been developed to improve latch-up resistance as the device dimensions are decreased due to scaling and provides improved high-temperature performance compared to bulk CMOS.Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology replaces reverse-biased p-n junctions with insulators, typically SiO2 , reducing the leakage currents and extending the operating range of silicon above 200℃. At present, SOI devices are more expensive than conventional p-njunction isolated devices. This is in part due to the limited use of SOI technology. With the continued scaling of device dimensions, SOI is being used in some high-performance applications and the increasing volume may help to eventually lower the cost.Other device performance issues at higher temperatures include gate threshold voltage shifts, decreased noise margin, decreased switching speed, decreased mobility, decreased gain-bandwidth product, and increased amplifier input–offset voltage [16]. Leakage currents also increase for insulators with increasing temperature. This results in increased gate leakage currents, and increased leakage of charge stored in memory cells (data loss). For dynamic memory, the increased leakage currents require faster refresh rates. For nonvolatile memory, the leakage limits the life of the stored data, a particular issue for FLASH memory used in microcontrollers and automotive electronics modules.Beyond the electrical performance of the device, the device reliability must also be considered. Electromigration of the aluminum metallization is a major concern. Electromigration is the movement of the metal atoms due to their bombardment by electrons (current flow). Electromigration results in the formation of hillocks and voids in the conductor traces. The mean time to failure (MTTF) for electromigration is related to the current density (J)and temperature(T) as shown in (3)The exact rate of electromigration and resulting time to failure is a function of the aluminum microstructure. Addition of copper to the aluminum increases electromigration resistance. The trend in the industry to replace aluminum with copper will improve the electromigration resistance by up to three orders of magnitude [17].Time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) is a second reliability concern. Time to failure due to TDDB decreases with increasing temperature. Oxide defects, including pinholes, asperities at the Si–SiO2 interface and localized changes in chemical structure that reduce the barrier height or increase the charge trapping are common sources of early failure [18]. Breakdown can also occur due to hole trapping (Fowler–Nordheim tunneling). The holes can collect at weak spots in the Si–SiO2 interface, increasing the electricfield locally and leading to breakdown [18]. The temperature dependence of time-to-breakdown(tBD) can be expressed as [18]Values reported for Etbd vary in the literature due to its dependence on the oxidefield and the oxide quality. Furthermore, the activation energy increases with breakdown time [18].With proper high-temperature design, junction isolated silicon integrated circuits can be used to junction temperatures of 150℃ to 165℃, epi-CMOS can extend the range to 225℃to 250℃ and SOI can be used to 250℃ to 280℃ [16, pp. 224]. High-temperature, nonvolatile memory remains an issue.For temperatures beyond the limits of silicon, silicon carbidebased semiconductors are being developed. The bandgap of SiC ranges from 2.75–3.1 depending on the polytype. SiC has lower leakage currents and higher electric field strength than Si. Due to its wider bandgap, SiC can be used as a semiconductor device at temperatures over 600℃. Theprimary focus of SiC device research is currently for power devices. SiC power devices may eventuallyfind application as power devices in braking systems and direct fuel injection. High-temperature sensors have also been fabricated with SiC. Berget al.have demonstrated a SiCbased sensor for cylinder pressure in combustion engines [19] at up to 350℃ and Casadyet al.[20] have shown a SiC-based temperature sensor for use to 500℃. At present, the wafer size, cost, and device yield have made SiC devices too expensive for general automotive use. Most SiC devices are discrete, as the level of integration achieved in SiC to date is low.Passives: Thick and thin-film chip resistors are typically rated to 125 ℃. Naefeet al.[21] and Salmonet al.[22] have shown that thick-film resistors can be used at temperatures above 200℃ if the allowable absolute tolerance is 5% or greater. The resistors studied were specifically formulated with a higher softening point glass. The minimum resistance as afunction of temperature was shifted from 25℃to 150℃to minimize the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) over the temperature range to 300℃. TaN and NiCr thin-film resistors have been shown to have less than 1% drift after 1000 h at 200℃ [23]. Thus, for tighter tolerance applications, thin-film chip resistors are preferred. Wire wound resistors provide a high-temperature option for higher power dissipation levels [21].High-temperature capacitors present more of a challenge. For low-value capacitors, negative-positive-zero (NPO) ceramic and MOS capacitors provide low-temperature coefficient of capacitance (TCC) to 200℃. NPO ceramic capacitorshave been demonstrated to 500℃ [24]. Higher dielectric constant ceramics (X7R, X8R, X9U), used to achieve the high volumetric efficiency necessary for larger capacitor values, exhibit a significant capacitance decrease above the Curie temperature, which is typically between 125℃ to 150℃. As the temperature increases, the leakage current increases, the dissipation factor increases, and the breakdown strength decreases. Increasing the dielectric tape thickness to increase breakdown strength reduces the capacitance and is a tradeoff. X7R ceramic capacitors have been shown to be stable when stored at 200℃ [23]. X9U chip capacitors are commercially available for use to 200 C, but there is a significant decrease in capacitance above 150℃.Consideration must also be given to the capacitor electrodes and terminations. Ni is now being substituted for Ag and PdAg to lower capacitor cost. The impact of this change on hightemperature reliability must be evaluated. The surface finish for ceramic capacitor terminations is typically Sn. The melting point of the Sn (232℃) and its interaction with potential solders/brazes must also be considered. Alternate surfacefinishes may be required.For higher value, low-voltage requirements, wet tantalum capacitors show reasonable behavior at 200℃ if the hermetic seal does not lose integrity [23]. Aluminum electrolytics are also available for use to 150℃. Mica paper (260℃) and Teflonfilm (200℃) capacitors can provide higher voltage capability, but are large and bulky [25]. High-temperature capacitors are relatively expensive. V capacitors are relatively expensive. Volumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, olumetrically efficient, high-voltage, highcapacitance, high-temperature and low-cost capacitors are still needed.Standard transformers and inductor cores with copper wire and teflon insulation are suitable for operation to 200℃. For higher temperature operation, the magnetic core, the conductor metal (Ni instead of Cu) and insulator must be selected to be compatible with the higher temperatures [16, pp. 651–652] Specially designed transformers can be used to 450℃ to 500℃, however, they are limited in operating frequency.Crystals are required for clock frequency generation for microcontrollers. Crystals with acceptable frequency shift over the temperature range from 55℃to 200℃ have been demonstrated [22]. However, the selection of packaging materials and assembly process for the crystal are key to high-temperature performance and reliability. For example, epoxies used in assembly must be compatible with 200℃ operation.Substrates: Thick-film substrates with gold metallization have been used in circuits to 500℃ [21], [23]. Palladium silver, platinum silver, and silver conductors are morecommonly used in automotive hybrids for reduced cost. Silver migration has been observed with an unpassivated PdAg thick-film conductor under bias at 300℃ [21]. The time-to-failure needs to be examined as a function of temperature and bias voltage with and without passivation. Low-temperature cofired ceramic (LTCC) and high-temperature cofired ceramic (HTCC) are also suitable for high-temperature automotive applications. Embedded resistors are standard to thick-film hybrids, LTCC, and some HTCC technologies. As previously mentioned, thick-film resistors have been demonstrated at temperatures 200℃. Dielectric tapes for embedded capacitors have also been developed for LTCC and HTCC. However, these embedded capacitors have not been characterized for high-temperature use.High-Tg laminates are also available for fabrication of hightemperature printed wiring boards. Cyanate esters [Tg=250℃by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)], polyimide (260℃by DSC), and liquid crystal polymers(Tm>280℃）provide options for use to 200℃. Cyanate ester boards have been used successfully in test vehicles at 175℃, but failed when exposed to 250℃ [26]. The higher coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the laminate substrates compared to the ceramics must be considered in the selection of component attachment materials. The temperature limits of the laminates with respect to assembly temperatures must also be carefully considered. Work is ongoing to develop and implement embedded resistor and capacitor technology for laminate substrates for conventional temperature ranges. This technology has not been extended to high-temperature applications.One method many manufacturers are using to address the higher temperatures whilemaintaining lower cost is the use of laminate substrates attached to metal. The typical design involves the use of higher Tg( +140℃ and above) laminate substrates attached to an aluminum plate (approximately 2.54-mm thick) using a sheet or liquid adhesive. To assist in thermal performance, the laminate substrate is often thinner (0.76 mm) than traditional automotive substrates for under-the-hood applications. While this design provides improved thermal performance, the attachment of the laminate to aluminum increases the CTE for the overall substrates. The resultant CTE is very dependent on the ability of the attachment material to decouple the CTE between the laminate substrate and the metal backing. However, regardless of the attachment material used, the combination of the laminate and metal will increase the CTE of the overall substrate above that of a stand-alone laminate substrate. This impact can be quite significant in the reliability performance for components with low CTE values (such as ceramic chip resistors). Fig. 9 illustrates the impact of two laminate-to-metal attachment options compared to standard laminate substrates [27], [28]. The reliability data presented is for 2512 ceramic chip resistors attached to a 0.79-mm-thick laminate substrate attached to aluminum using two attachment materials. Notice that while one material significantly outperforms the other, both are less reliable than the same chip resistor attached to laminate without metal backing.This decrease in reliability is also exhibited on small ball grid array (BGA) packages. Fig. 10 shows the reliability of a 15-mm BGA package attached to laminate compared to the same package attached to a laminate substrate with metal backing [27], [28]. The attachment material used for the metal-backed substrate was the best material selected from previous testing. Notice again that the metal-backed substrate deteriorates the reliability. This reliability deterioration is of particular concern since many IC packages used for automotive applications are ball grid array packages and the packaging trend is for reduced packaging size. These packaging trends make the use of metal-backed substrates difficult for next generation products.One potential solution to the above reliability concern is the use of encapsulants and underfills. Fig. 11 illustrates how conformal coating can improve component reliability for surface mount chip resistors [27], [28]. Notice that the reliability varies greatly depending on material composition. However, for components which meet a marginal level of reliability, conformal coatings may assist the design in meeting the target reliability requirements. The same scenario can be found for BGA underfills. Typical underfill materials may extend the component life by a factor of two or more. For marginal IC packages, this enhancement may provide enough reliability improvement toall the designs to meet under-the-hood requirements. Unfortunately, the improvements provided byencapsulants and underfills increase the material cost and adds one or more manufacturing processes for material dispense and cure.Interconnections: Methods of mechanical and electrical interconnection of the active and passive components to the board include chip and wire,flip-chip, and soldering of packaged parts. In chip and wire assembly, epoxy die-attach materials can beused to 165℃ [29]. Polyimide and silicone die-attach materials can be used to 200℃. For higher temperatures, SnPb ( >90Pb), AuGe, AuSi, AuSn, and AuIn have been used. However,with the exception of SnPb, these are hard brazes and with increasing die size, CTE mismatches between the die and the substrate will lead to cracking with thermal。
电子行业电子产品英文术语大全
电子行业电子产品英文术语大全1. IntroductionIn the electronic industry, there are numerous terms and acronyms used to describe different electronic products and technologies. This comprehensive guide ms to provide a thorough list of commonly used English terms and acronyms in the electronic industry. Understanding these terms is essential for professionals and enthusiasts in this field.2. Common Terms and AcronymsHere is a detled breakdown of various terms and acronyms used in the electronic industry: 2.1 Analog•ADC: Analog-to-Digital Converter•AGC: Automatic Gn Control•DAC: Digital-to-Analog Converter•OP-AMP: Operational Amplifier•PWM: Pulse Width Modulation2.2 Digital•ASIC: Application-Specific Integrated Circuit•CPU: Central Processing Unit•DSP: Digital Signal Processor•FPGA: Field Programmable Gate Array•RAM: Random Access Memory•ROM: Read-Only Memory•UART: Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter2.3 Power Supply•AC: Alternating Current•DC: Direct Current•PSU: Power Supply Unit•SMPS: Switched-Mode Power Supply •UPS: Uninterruptible Power Supply 2.4 Components•LED: Light Emitting Diode•IC: Integrated Circuit•PCB: Printed Circuit Board•LCD: Liquid Crystal Display•OLED: Organic Light Emitting Diode•SMD: Surface Mount Device•BGA: Ball Grid Array2.5 Communication•UART: Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter•SPI: Serial Peripheral Interface•I2C: Inter-Integrated Circuit•CAN: Controller Area Network•USB: Universal Serial Bus•LAN: Local Area Network•WLAN: Wireless Local Area Network•Bluetooth: Bluetooth Wireless Technology2.6 Sensors•IR: Infrared•UV: Ultraviolet•PIR: Passive Infrared•MEMS: Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems •IMU: Inertial Measurement Unit•LDR: Light Dependent Resistor2.7 Displays•LCD: Liquid Crystal Display•LED: Light Emitting Diode•TFT: Thin Film Transistor•OLED: Organic Light Emitting Diode•AMOLED: Active Matrix Organic Light Emitting Diode2.8 Connectivity•Wi-Fi: Wireless Fidelity•Bluetooth: Bluetooth Wireless Technology•NFC: Near Field Communication•GPS: Global Positioning System•RFID: Radio Frequency Identification •Zigbee: Low-power, low-data-rate wireless communication protocol2.9 Memory•ROM: Read-Only Memory•RAM: Random Access Memory•EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory•EEPROM: Electrically ErasableProgrammable Read-Only Memory•Flash: Flash Memory3. ConclusionThis list serves as a comprehensive reference for common terms and acronyms used in the electronic industry. It covers a wide range of topics including analog and digital, power supply, components, communication, sensors, displays, connectivity, and memory. Familiarizing oneself with these terms is crucial for individuals workingin the electronic field to effectively communicate and collaborate with others in the industry.。
电子信息专业英语AT89S52中英文翻译
中文翻译描述at89s52是美国ATMEL公司生产的低电压，高性能CMOS8位单片机，片内含4Kbytes的快速可擦写的只读程序存储器（PEROM）和128 bytes 的随机存取数据存储器（RAM），器件采用ATMEL公司的高密度、非易失性存储技术生产，兼容标准MCS-51产品指令系统，片内置通用8位中央处理器（CPU）和flish存储单元，功能强大at89s52单片机可为您提供许多高性价比的应用场合，可灵活应用于各种控制领域。
主要性能参数：与MCS-51产品指令系统完全兼容4K字节可重复写flash闪速存储器1000次擦写周期全静态操作：0HZ－24MHZ三级加密程序存储器128*8字节内部RAM32个可编程I/O口2个16位定时／计数器6个中断源可编程串行UART通道低功耗空闲和掉电模式功能特性概述AT89S52提供以下标准功能：4K 字节flish闪速存储器，128字节内部RAM，32个I/O口线，两个16位定时／计数器，一个5向量两级中断结构，一个全双工串行通信口，片内振荡器及时钟电路。
同时，at89s52可降至0HZ的静态逻辑操作，并支持两种软件可选的节电工作模式。
空闲方式停止CPU的工作，但允许RAM，定时／计数器，串行通信口及中断系统继续工作。
掉电方式保存RAM中的内容，但振荡器停止工作并禁止其它所有部件工作直到下一个硬件复位。
方框图引脚功能说明Vcc：电源电压GND：地P0口：P0口是一组8位漏极开路型双向I/O口，也即地址/数据总线复位口。
作为输出口用时，每位能吸收电流的方式驱动8个逻辑门电路，对端口写“1”可作为高阻抗输入端用。
在访问外部数据存储器或程序存储器时，这组口线分时转换地址（低8位）和数据总线复用，在访问期间激活内部上拉电阻。
P1口：P1是一个带内部上拉电阻的8位双向I/O口，P1的输出缓冲级可驱动（吸收或输出电流）4个TTL逻辑门电路。
对端口写“1”，通过内部的上拉电阻把端口拉到高电平，此时可做熟出口。
电气专业英语—专业词汇中英文翻译2
一、根据英文单词，写出中文意义（每个 1 分，共 15分）第一组1.alternator2. semiconductor3. impedance4. charge5. inductor6. dielectrics7.oscillator8.emitter9.amplifier 10.wavelength 11.capacitor 12.resistance 13.insulator 14.conductor 15.formula1交流发电机、2半导体、3阻抗、4电荷、5电感、6电介质、7振荡器 8发射器、9放大器、10波长、11电容、12电阻、13绝缘体、14导体、 15公式第二组1.generator2.cross-section3.current flow4.cycle5.terminallivolt7.microvolt8.neutral state 9.electric field 10.magnetic field 11.root-mean-sqare 12.peak value 13.instantaneous value 14.peak-to-peak value 15.three-phase AC发电机横截面电流周期终端毫伏微伏中性状态电场磁场均方根峰值瞬时值峰峰值三相交流电第三组1、sine wave 正弦波2、positive direction 正向3、negative direction 负向4、trigonometric fuction 三角函数5、effective value 有效值6、battery 电池7、voltmeter 电压表8、ammeter 电流表9、Ohm’s Law 欧姆定律 10、series circuit 串联电路 11、parallel circuit 并联电路 12、 series resistance 串联电阻 13、equal value resistor 等值电阻 14、compound circuit 复合电路 15、electromagnet 电磁铁第四组parallel branch 并联分支 lowest common multiple 最小公倍数 series-parallel 串并联 diode 二极管 transistor 晶体管 physics types 物理模型 carbon family 碳族outer electron 外层电子 perodici table 元素周期表 positive charge 正电荷PN junction PN结number system 数字系统compound circuit 复合电路 N region第五组numerical value 数字值binary system 二进制系统decimal value 十进制programmable controller 可编程编码控制器 switch 开关 conversion of number 数字转换 laptop 手提电脑 truth table 真值表 inverter switch 转向开关 pull-up resistor 牵引电阻 Very Large Scale Integration 超大规模集成电路 linear speed 线速度external force 外力 acceleration 加速度第六组1.permanent magnet2. south pole3. magnetic lines4. DC motors5. electromotive force6. closed-loop7. controller8. feedback9. disturbance 10. over time 11. self-regulation12. dead time 13. sampling period 14. external force 15. acceleration永久磁铁南极磁力线直流电动机电动势闭环控制器反馈干扰超时自调整死区采样周期外力加速度第七组1.series resonance2. rectifier3. amplifier4. voltage divider5. end-to-end6.equivalent circuit7.oscillator8.emitter9.amplifier 10.wavelength11.capacitor 12.resistance 13.insulator 14.conductor 15.formula串联谐振整流器放大器分压器首尾相连等效电路7振荡器 8发射器、9放大器、10波长、11电容、12电阻、13绝缘体、14导体、 15公式第八组1. neutral state2. Alternator3. magnetic lines4. Effective value5. counter electromotive force6. Root-mean-square7. equation root8. feedback9. disturbance 10. over time11. self-regulation 12. dead time 13. sampling period 14. external force 15. acceleration中性状态南极磁力线有效值反电动势均方值（均方根）方程根反馈干扰超时自调整死区采样周期外力加速度第九组1.alternator2. semiconductor3. impedance4. charge5. inductor6. dielectrics7.oscillator8. feedback9. disturbance 10. over time 11. self-regulation 12. dead time 13. sampling period 14. external force 15. acceleration1交流发电机、2半导体、3阻抗、4电荷、5电感、6电介质、7振荡器反馈干扰超时自调整死区采样周期外力加速度第十组1. open-loop2. controller3. feedback4. disturbance5. over time6. self-regulation7. dead time8.emitter9.amplifier 10.wavelength11.capacitor 12.resistance 13.insulator 14.conductor 15.formula1开环 2控制器 3反馈 4干扰 5超时 6自调整 7死区8发射器、9放大器、10波长、11电容、12电阻、13绝缘体、14导体、 15公式。
中英文翻译对照表
CHINESE
说明书 泡沫袋 双面泡沫袋 麦克风 卡拉OK 包装 液晶显示器 液晶钟面显示器 金属膜电容 谐振器 带通滤波器 陷波滤波器 中音频滤波器 磁芯 微调线圈 磁铁
立体声耳机
PAPTOR CASSETTE
RESISTOR CARBON FILM
DOUBLE SHIELD WIRE
COPPER SHAFE
PIGMENT 08-08-2012
螺丝 螺母 金属介子 机芯 彩盒 贴纸 胶纸 插座 双芯屏蔽线 颜色
制作:蔡火祥
ENGLISH
DIAL CORD DIAL SPRING EAR RING
SPRING CLASS DOOR ELECT
CHINESE OR ENGLISH TRANSLATION 中文与英文翻译 CHINESE NO ENGLISH
FLXING DIAL POINTER
KNOB PLAY KNOB RECORD KNOB REWIND KNOB F.FWD KNOB STOP/EJECT KNOB PUSE KNOB POWER/DBB
KNOB BALANCE/TONE KNOB ALARM
BUTTON FAST/SLOW KNOB SNOOZE LENS CASETTE DOOR SILVER PADER(LABEL) LENS DIAL CUP SILVER LABEL CABLE TIE 5" CABLE TIE #NT-70 WIRE WRAP 4" BATTERY SNAP KEY BOARD CRACKLF CONTACT PLATE
SOLDERING PLATE SPEAKER GRILL SPEAKER CLIP MOUNTING CLIP
电子类常用中英文翻译对照表
M(motor) 电动机
MCT(MOS controlled gyrator) 场控晶闸管
MIC(microphone) 话筒，微音器，麦克风
EPROM(erasable programmable read only memory) 可擦可编程
只读存储器
EEPROM(electrically EPROM) 电可擦可编程只读存储器
ESD(electro-static discharge) 静电放电
BCR(buffer courtier reset) 缓冲计数器
BZ(buzzer) 蜂鸣器，蜂音器
C(capacitance，capacitor) 电容量，电容器
CATV(cable television) 电缆电视
CS(control signal) 控制信号
D(diode) 二极管
DAST(direct analog store technology) 直接模拟存储技术
DC(direct current) 直流
分微分(控制器)
LAS(light activated switch)光敏开关
LASCS(light activated silicon controlled switch) 光控可控
硅开关
LCD(liquid crystal display) 液晶显示器
ADM(adaptive delta modulation) 自适应增量调制
ADPCM(adaptive differential pulse code modulation) 自适应
差分脉冲编码调制
毕业设计机电工程系中英文翻译对照
English translationThe E- Behind EverythingElectricity and magnetism run nearly everything we plug in or turn on. Although it’s something we take for granted, it has taken hundreds of years of experimentation and research to reach the point where we flick a switch and the lights go on.People knew about electricity for a long time. Ancient Greeks noticed that if they rubbed a piece of amber, feathers would stick to it. You’ve experienced a similar thing if you’ve ever had your hair stick up straight after you combed it, or had your socks stick together when you removed them from the drier. This is called static electricity, but back then nobody knew how to explain it or what to do with it.Experiments using friction to generate static electricity led to machines that could produce large amounts of static electricity on demand. In 1660 German Otto von made the first electrostatic generator with a ball of sulfur and some cloth. The ball symbolized the earth, and he believed that this little replica of the e arth would shed part of its electric “soul” when rubbed. It worked, and now scientists could study electric shocks and sparks whenever they wanted.As scientists continued to study electricity, they began thinking of it as an invisible fluid and tried to capture and store it. One of the first to do this was Pieter van, Holland. In 1746 he wrapped a water-filled jar with metal foil and discovered that this simple device could store the energy produced by an electrostatic generator. This device became known as the jar. were very important in other people’s experiments, such as Benjamin Franklin’s famous kite experiment. Many people suspected that lightning and static electricity were the same thing, since both crackled and produced bright sparks. In 1752 Franklin attached a key to a kite and flew it in a storm-threatened sky. (NOTE that Franklin did not fly a kite in an actual storm. NEVER do that!) When a thundercloud moved by, the key sparked. This spark charged the jars and proved that lightning was really electricity. Like many experimenters and scientists Franklin used one discovery to make another. Franklin was not the only scientist inspired to conduct experiments with electricity. In the 1780s, the Italian scientist Luigi m ade a dead frog’s leg move by means of an electric current. called this “animal electricity.” He thought that the wet animal tissue generated electricity when it came in contact with metal probes. He even suggested that the soul was actually Italian Alessandro Volta was skeptical of con clusions. In 1799 he discovered that it wasn’t animal tissue alone producing the electric current at all. Volta believed that the current was actually caused by the interaction of water and chemicals in the animal tissue with the metal probes. Volta stacked metal disks separated by layers of cardboard soaked in salt water. This so-called voltaic pile produced an electric current without needing to be charged like a jar. This invention is still around today, but we call it the battery.Volta’s pile was a lot different from the batteries you put in your Discman. It was big, ugly, and messy, but it worked, making Volta the first person to generate electricity with a chemical reaction. His work was so important that the term volt—the unit of electrical tension or pr—is named in his honor. As for Galvani, although he was proven wrong, his work stimulated research on electricity and the body. That research eventually proved that nerves do carry electrical impulses, an important medical discovery. Like electricity, magnetism was baffling to the earliest researchers. Today manufactured magnets are common, but in earlier timesthe only available magnets were rare and mysterious rocks with an unexplainable attraction for bits of iron. Explanations of the way they work sound strange today. For example, in the 1600, English doctor William Gilbert published a book on magnetism. He thought that these strange substances, called “lodestones,” had a soul that accounted for the attraction of a lodestone to iron and steel. The only real use for lodestones was to make compasses, and many thought the compass needle’s movement was in response to its attraction to the earth’s “soul.” By 1800, after many years of study, scientists began wondering if these two mysterious forces—electricity and magnetism—were related. In 1820 Danish physicist Hans Oersted showed that whenever an electric current flows through a wire, it produces a magnetic field around the wire. French mathematician André-Marie used algebra to come up with a mathematical formula to describe this relationship between electricity and magnetism. He was one of the first to develop measuring techniques for electricity. The unit for current, the ampere, abbreviated as amp or as A, is named in his honor. Groundbreaking experiments in electromagnetism were conducted by British scientist Michael Faraday. He showed that when you move a loop of a wire in a magnetic field, a little bit of current flows through the loop for just a moment. This is called induction. Faraday constructed a different version of it called the induction ring. In later years, engineers would use the principle of the induction ring to build electrical transformers, which are used today in thousands of electrical and electronic devices. Faraday also invented a machine that kept a loop of wire rotating near a magnet continuously. By touching two wires to the rotating loop, he could detect the small flow electric current. This machine used induction to produce a flow of current as long as it was in motion, and so it was an electromagnetic generator. However, the amount of electricity it produced was very tiny. There was still another use for induction. Faraday also created a tiny electric motor—too small to do the work of a steam engine but still quite promising. For thousands of years electricity and magnetism were subjects of interest only to experimenters and scientists. Nobody thought of a practical way of using electricity before the 1800s and it was of little interest to most people. But by Faraday’s time invento rs and engineers were gearing up to transform scientific concepts into practical machines.Telegraphs and TelephonesOne of the most important ways that electricity and magnetism have been put to use is making communication faster and easier. In this day o f instant messaging, cell phones, and pagers, it’s hard to imagine a time when messages had to be written and might spend weeks or even months reaching their destination. They had to be carried great distances by ships, wagon, or even by horseback—you coul dn’t just call somebody up to say hello. That all changed when inventors began using electricity and magnetism to find better ways for people to talk to each other. The telegraph was first conceived of in the 1700s, but few people pursued it. By the 1830s, however, advancements in the field of electromagnetism, such as those made by Alessandro Volta and Joseph Henry, created new interest in electromagnetic communication. In 1837, English scientist Charles Wheatstone opened the first com telegraph line between London and Camden Town, a distance of 1.5 miles. Building on, Samuel Morse, an American artist and inventor, designed a line to connect Washington, DC and Baltimore, Maryland in 1844. Morse’s telegraph was a simple device that used a battery, a switch, and a small electromagnet, but it allowed people miles apart to communicate instantly. Although Morse is often credited with inventing the telegraph, his greatest contribution was actually Morse, a special language designed for the telegraph. Morse'scommercialization of the telegraph spread the technology quickly. In 1861 California was connected to the rest of the United States with the first transcontinental telegraph line. Five years later, engineers found a way of spanning the Atlantic Ocean with telegraph lines, thus connecting the United States and Europe. This was an enormous and challenging job. To do it engineers had to use a huge ship called The Great Eastern to lay the cable across the ocean. It was the only ship with enough room to store all that cable. The world was connected by wire before the nation was connected by rail—the transcontinental railroad wasn’t completed until 1869! The telegraph was the key to fast, efficient railroad service. The railroads and the telegraph expanded side-by-side, crisscrossing every continent, except Anta, in the late 1800s. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, telegraphy became a very lucrative business for companies such as Western Union. It also provided women with new career options. As convenient as the telegraph was, people dreamt of hearing the voices of loved ones who lived far away. Pretty soon, another instrument to communicate across distances was invented. Alexander Graham Bell, a teacher and inventor, worked with the deaf and became fascinated with studying sound. In 1875, Bell discovered a way to convert sound waves to an undulating current that could be carried along wires. This helped him invent the telephone. The first phone conversation was an inadvertent one between Bell and Watson, his ass istant in the next room. After spilling some acid, Bell said “Mr. Watson, come here.I want you.” He patented his device the same year. Early phone service wasn’t as portable and convenient as today’s. At first, telephones we connected in pairs. You could call only one person, and they could only call you. The telephone exchange changed all that. The first exchange was in New Haven, Connecticut in 1878. It allowed people who subscribed to it to call one another. Operators had to connect the calls, but in 1891 an automatic exchange was invented. Some problems had to be solved, though, before long-distance telephoning could work. The main one was that the signal weakened with distance, disappearing if the telephone lines were too long. A solution was found in 1912 with a way to amplify electrical signals, and transcontinental phone calls were possible. A test took place in 1914, and the next year, Bell, who was in New York, called Watson, who was in San Francisco. He said the same thing he had said during the first phone conversation. Watson’s answer? “It will take me five days to get there now!”Plc development1.1 MotivationProgrammable Logic Controllers (PLC), a computing device invented by Richard E. Morley in 1968, have been widely used in industry including manufacturing systems, transportation systems, chemical process facilities, and many others. At that time, the PLC replaced the hardwired logic with soft-wired logic or so-called relay ladder logic (RLL), a programming language visually resembling the hardwired logic, and reduced thereby the configuration time from 6 months down to 6 days [Moody and Morley, 1999].Although PC based control has started to come into place, PLC based control will remain the technique to which the majority of industrial applications will adhere due to its higher performance, lower price, and superior reliability in harsh environments. Moreover, according to a study on the PLC market of Frost and Sullivan [1995], an increase of the annual sales volume to 15 million PLCs per year with the hardware value of more than 8 billion US dollars has been predicted, though the prices of computing hardware is steadily dropping. The inventor of the PLC, Richard E Morley, fairly considers the PLC market as a 5-billion industry at the present time.Though PLCs are widely used in industrial practice, the programming of PLC based control systems is still very much relying on trial-and-error. Alike software engineering, PLC software design is facing the software dilemma or crisis in a similar way. Morley himself emphasized this aspect most forcefully by indicating [Moody and Morley, 1999, p. 110]:`If houses were built like software projects, a single woodpecker could destroy civilization.” Particularly, practical problems in PLC programming are to eliminate software bugs and to reduce the maintenance costs of old ladder logic programs. Though the hardware costs of PLCs are dropping continuously, reducing the scan time of the ladder logic is still an issue in industry so that low-cost PLCs can be used.In general, the productivity in generating PLC is far behind compared to other domains, for instance, VLSI design, where efficient computer aided design tools are in practice. Existent software engineering methodologies are not necessarily applicable to the PLC based software design because PLC-programming requires a simultaneous consideration of hardware and software. The software design becomes, thereby, more and more the major cost driver. In many industrial design projects, more than SO0/a of the manpower allocated for the control system design and installation is scheduled for testing and debugging PLC programs [Rockwell, 1999].In addition, current PLC based control systems are not properly designed to support the growing demand for flexibility and reconfigurability of manufacturing systems. A further problem, impelling the need for a systematic design methodology, is the increasing software complexity in large-scale projects.1.2 Objective and Significance of the ThesisThe objective of this thesis is to develop a systematic software design methodology for PLC operated automation systems. The design methodology involves high-level description based on state transition models that treat automation control systems as discrete event systems, a stepwise design process, and set of design rules providing guidance and measurements to achieve a successful design. The tangible outcome of this research is to find a way to reduce the uncertainty in managing the control software development process, that is, reducing programming and debugging time and their variation, increasing flexibility of the automation systems, and enabling software reusability through modularity. The goal is to overcome shortcomings of current programming strategies that are based on the experience of the individual software developer.A systematic approach to designing PLC software can overcome deficiencies in the traditional way of programming manufacturing control systems, and can have wide ramifications in several industrial applications. Automation control systems are modeled by formal languages or, equivalently, by state machines. Formal representations provide a high-level description of the behavior of the system to be controlled. State machines can be analytically evaluated as to whether or not they meet the desired goals. Secondly, a state machine description provides a structured representation to convey the logical requirements and constraints such as detailed safety rules. Thirdly, well-defined control systems design outcomes are conducive to automatic code generation- An ability to produce control software executable on commercial distinct logic controllers can reduce programming lead-time and labor cost. In particular, the thesis is relevant with respect to the following aspects.Customer-Driven ManufacturingIn modern manufacturing, systems are characterized by product and process innovation, become customer-driven and thus have to respond quickly to changing system requirements. A majorchallenge is therefore to provide enabling technologies that can economically reconfigure automation control systems in response to changing needs and new opportunities. Design and operational knowledge can be reused in real-time, therefore, giving a significant competitive edge in industrial practice.Higher Degree of Design Automation and Software QualityStudies have shown that programming methodologies in automation systems have not been able to match rapid increase in use of computing resources. For instance, the programming of PLCs still relies on a conventional programming style with ladder logic diagrams. As a result, the delays and resources in programming are a major stumbling stone for the progress of manufacturing industry. Testing and debugging may consume over 50% of the manpower allocated for the PLC program design. Standards [IEC 60848, 1999; IEC-61131-3, 1993; IEC 61499, 1998; ISO 15745-1, 1999] have been formed to fix and disseminate state-of-the-art design methods, but they normally cannot participate in advancing the knowledge of efficient program and system design.A systematic approach will increase the level of design automation through reusing existing software components, and will provide methods to make large-scale system design manageable. Likewise, it will improve software quality and reliability and will be relevant to systems high security standards, especially those having hazardous impact on the environment such as airport control, and public railroads.System ComplexityThe software industry is regarded as a performance destructor and complexity generator. Steadily shrinking hardware prices spoils the need for software performance in terms of code optimization and efficiency. The result is that massive and less efficient software code on one hand outpaces the gains in hardware performance on the other hand. Secondly, software proliferates into complexity of unmanageable dimensions; software redesign and maintenance-essential in modern automation systems-becomes nearly impossible. Particularly, PLC programs have evolved from a couple lines of code 25 years ago to thousands of lines of code with a similar number of 1/O points. Increased safety, for instance new policies on fire protection, and the flexibility of modern automation systems add complexity to the program design process. Consequently, the life-cycle cost of software is a permanently growing fraction of the total cost. 80-90% of these costs are going into software maintenance, debugging, adaptation and expansion to meet changing needs [Simmons et al., 1998].Design Theory DevelopmentToday, the primary focus of most design research is based on mechanical or electrical products. One of the by-products of this proposed research is to enhance our fundamental understanding of design theory and methodology by extending it to the field of engineering systems design. A system design theory for large-scale and complex system is not yet fully developed. Particularly, the question of how to simplify a complicated or complex design task has not been tackled in a scientific way. Furthermore, building a bridge between design theory and the latest epistemological outcomes of formal representations in computer sciences and operations research, such as discrete event system modeling, can advance future development in engineering design. Application in Logical Hardware DesignFrom a logical perspective, PLC software design is similar to the hardware design of integrated circuits. Modern VLSI designs are extremely complex with several million parts and a product development time of 3 years [Whitney, 1996]. The design process is normally separated into acomponent design and a system design stage. At component design stage, single functions are designed and verified. At system design stage, components are aggregated and the whole system behavior and functionality is tested through simulation. In general, a complete verification is impossible. Hence, a systematic approach as exemplified for the PLC program design may impact the logical hardware design.1.3 Structure of the ThesisFigure 1.1 illustrates the outline of the following thesis. Chapter 2 clarifies the major challenges and research issues, and discourses the relevant background and terminology. It will be argued that a systematic design of PLC software can contribute to higher flexibility and reconfigurability of manufacturing systems. The important issue of how to deal with complexity in engineering design with respect to designing and operating a system will be debated. The research approach applied in this thesis is introduced starting from a discussion of design theory and methodology and what can be learnt from that field.Chapter 3 covers the state-of-the-art of control technology and the current practice in designing and programming PLC software. The influences of electrical and software engineering are revealed as well as the potentially applicable methods from computer science are discussed. Pros and cons are evaluated and will lead to the conclusion that a new methodology is required that suffices the increasing complexity of PLC software design.Chapter 4 represents the main body of the thesis and captures the essential features of the design methodology. Though design theory is regarded as being in a pre- scientific stage it has advanced in mechanical, software and system engineering with respect to a number of proposed design models and their evaluation throughout real-world examples. Based on a literature review in Chapter 2 and 3 potential applicable design concepts and approaches are selected and applied to context of PLC software design. Axiomatic design is chosen as underlying design concept since it provides guidance for the designer without restriction to a particular design context. To advance the design concept to PLC software design, a formal notation based on statechart formalism is introduced. Furthermore, a design process is developed that arranges the activities needed in a sequential order and shows the related design outcomes.In Chapter 5, a number of case studies are given to demonstrate the applicability of the developed design methodology. The examples are derived from a complex reference system, a flexible assembly system. The achieved insights are evaluated in a concluding paragraph.Chapter 6 presents the developed computerized design tool for PLC software design on a conceptual level. The software is written in Visual Basic by using ActiveX controls to provide modularity and reuse in a web-based collaborative programming environment. Main components of the PLC software are modeling editors for the structural (modular) and the behavioral design, a layout specification interface and a simulation engine that can validate the developed model. Chapter 7 is concluding this thesis. It addresses the achievements with respect to the research objectives and questions. A critical evaluation is given alongside with an outlook for future research issues.电力的故事当我们插上电源,打开旋钮,电和磁差不多在每样东西上都运行着,今天我们知道这是什么,这一些花了人们上百年时间的实验和研究来达到这一点—当我们按下按钮时,光亮已经开始，人们对电的了解已经有很长一段时间了.古希腊人注意到,摩擦一块琥珀,羽毛将能被吸住.你已经经历过相类似的事情,当你梳头时,头发将垂直竖起,当你从干燥机中拿袜子时,袜子也会粘在一起.这被称作静电.但是在以前人们不知道如何解释此类现象或如何应用这种现象，使用摩擦产生的静电来带动机器的实验可以产生大量所需要的静电.在1660年,德国人Otto von Guericke用一个硫磺球和一些布制造了第一台静电发电机.硫磺球象征大地,他深信这种小型地球复制品被摩擦时将流出电的灵魂,他成功了,现在的科学家可以在任何想要的时候来研究电击和电火花.随着科学家们持续对电的研究,他们开始认为它以一种看不见的方式流动,并试图去捕获并储存.第一次去做这项研究的是荷兰Leyden的Pieter van Musschenbroek.1746,他用一个金属箔片包一个装满水的罐子,发现这种简单的设备能储存由静电发电机产生的能量.这个设备后来著名的莱顿瓶.莱顿瓶在其他人的实验中有非常重要的作用.如Benjamin Franklin著名的风筝实验.许多人认为闪电和静电是同一种东西,由于双方碰撞产生明亮的电火花.1752年, Franklin将一把钥匙绑在风筝上,在一个暴风即将来临的天气里放飞(请记住Franklin不是在一个真正的暴风寸中放飞的,永远不要这样做),当一块雷雨云经过时,钥匙被闪电击中,闪电充满莱顿瓶,由此证明闪电实际也是一种电力.同其他实验人和科学家一样, Franklin用一个发现来做另外一个. Franklin并不是唯一的在电力实验方面灵光突现的科学家.18世纪80年代,意大利的科学家Luigi Galvani用电流让一只切断的青蛙的腿移动. Galvani称之为生物电.他认为当潮湿的动物组织同金属探测针接触时产生电能.他甚至大胆预测精神也是一种电能。
电子专业中英文翻译
电子专业中英文翻译电子专业中英文翻译是在电子工程学科中进行的一项重要工作，在国际交流和合作中发挥着不可替代的作用。
随着信息技术的快速发展，电子专业所涉及到的课程和知识点日益增多，涵盖广泛，因此在进行翻译时也需要对相关的专业词汇和术语进行深入了解和分析。
电子专业中英文翻译的难点在于词汇和术语的特殊性。
例如，电子线路板的英文表述为“printed circuit board”，其中“printed”和“circuit”两个词汇均用于表示电路板的性质和组成，但是在中文中往往直接使用“PCB”进行称呼。
此类现象在专业术语中更为普遍，涉及到电路、元器件、高频、通信、控制以及计算机等多个方面的内容。
因此，翻译人员需要准确理解各种专业词汇，加强与领域专家的沟通和交流，并及时更新和修订相关的专业术语库和词汇表。
在电子专业中英文翻译中，除了词汇和术语的翻译外，还需要充分考虑语境和句式的处理。
在翻译时需要对原文进行整体认识，理解文章中的主旨和具体意义。
例如，文章中出现的一些缩写和首字母缩写，不仅仅是简单的表述，而且与文章的内容有着密切的联系，同时也体现了该领域的专业性和发展趋势。
此外，英文和中文的语序和表达方式也有所不同，在翻译时需要根据具体的语境和句式进行灵活处理，确保翻译准确、流畅和自然。
为了有效地进行电子专业中英文翻译，翻译人员需要具备一定的专业知识和技能。
首先，翻译人员需要具备扎实的英语语言基础，包括英语语法、词汇和听说读写能力等方面的技能。
其次，需要对电子专业的相关知识有一定的了解和掌握，熟悉电子工程的基本原理和最新技术发展趋势。
最后，需要具备翻译技能，包括较强的独立思考、分析和处理能力，以及对翻译工具和软件的熟练应用和管理能力。
总之，电子专业中英文翻译是一项复杂而重要的工作，需要翻译人员具备扎实的英语和专业知识背景，同时还需要精通翻译技能和熟练应用现代化工具和技术。
只有通过不断学习和积累经验，并与相关领域专家充分交流和合作，才能够达到翻译的精确、准确和高效。
电子专业英文求职信带翻译
电子专业英文求职信带翻译[Your Name][Your Address][City, State ZIP Code][Email Address][Phone Number][Date][Hiring Manager's Name][Company Name][Company Address][City, State ZIP Code]Dear Hiring Manager,I am writing to express my interest in the Electrical Engineering position at [Company Name] as advertised on [where you found the job posting]. With a Bachelor's degree in Electrical Engineering from [University Name], strong technical skills, and hands-on experience in the field, I am confident in my ability to contribute to your team and help drive innovation in your company. During my time at [University Name], I gained a solid foundation in electrical engineering principles and developed strong problem-solving skills through various projects and internships. I also honed my technical skills by working on projects such as designing and implementing electronic circuits, programming microcontrollers, and troubleshooting electrical systems. Additionally, I have a solid understanding of programming languages such as C, Java, and MATLAB, which have been instrumental in my ability to analyzeand solve complex technical problems.One of the highlights of my academic career was my involvement in a research project on renewable energy systems, where I worked with a team to design and implement a solar power system for a rural community in need of sustainable energy solutions. This experience not only enhanced my technical skills but also gave me a deeper appreciation for the impact that electrical engineering can have on improving people's lives.In addition to my academic achievements, I have also completed internships at [Company Name] and [Company Name], where I gained practical experience in designing, testing, and troubleshooting electrical systems. These experiences have equipped me with the hands-on skills necessary to excel in a fast-paced engineering environment and have given me a solid foundation in project management, teamwork, and communication.I am particularly excited about the opportunity to work at [Company Name] because of your commitment to innovation and your focus on developing cutting-edge technologies. I am confident that my strong technical skills, passion for electrical engineering, and ability to work collaboratively with multidisciplinary teams make me a strong fit for this role.Thank you for considering my application. I am excited about the opportunity to contribute to your team and help drive the success of [Company Name]. I look forward to the possibility of discussing my application with you further.Sincerely,[Your Name][Translation]亲爱的招聘经理，我写信是为了表达我对贵公司电气工程职位的兴趣，这个职位是在[您在哪里找到职位广告]上广告的。
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基于单片机控制的光收发器设计1 引言在“三网合一”的推动下，光纤到户等光纤接入方案的应用日益广泛。
在光进铜退的呼声下，光网络迅速发展。
光收发器在光通信中起到光电、电光转换的作用，是光通信必不可少的器件。
由于涉及到高速电路设计、精密机械加工和光学设计，光收发器的成本占据了光纤通信系统和的重要部分，而较高的光收发器价格成了制约光纤接入推广的瓶颈。
进一步降低光收发器的成本将有利于光接入的应用推广，加快光进铜退的步伐。
光收发器主要由电路部分、光发送组件和光接收组件组成。
其中电路部分又包括激光驱动、光接收信号放大和控制部分。
目前市场上的光收发器的电路部分使用的是三个专用芯片。
一直有公司在研究把激光驱动和接收信号放大电路集成在一个器件上，控制器使用普通的嵌入式处理器的方案。
由于只使用一个专用芯片和一个通用芯片，这样就可以大幅降低电路部分的成本。
PHYWORKS 公司研制的PHY1076芯片就是一款这样的芯片。
它主要针对1.25Gbps 到2.5Gbps的光收发器，具有外围电路简单，控制电路只需要普通的8位单片机就可以实现的特点。
本文主要研究了PHY1076 的性能，选择了ATMEL 公司的ATMEGA88 单片机进行控制，设计出光收发器样品，并进行了性能测试，最终成功设计了1.25G 光收发器。
2 光收发器设计方案及工作原理讨论光收发器在发展的过程中，有许多种不同的外形封装。
SFP（小型化可热插拔光收发一体模块）是目前在5Gbps以下速率中最先进的一种封装形式，具有小型化、可热插拔、功耗小、系统可集成度高以及能够进行数字诊断功能等特点。
本设计中使用激光驱动电路和光接收放大电路集成的PHY1076 作为专用芯片，使用ATMEL 的AVR 单片机ATMEGA88 进行控制和实现DDM 功能，加上相应的TOSA（光发射组件）,ROSA（光接收组件）和结构件，设计了一款工作在1.25Gbps 传输距离为10km 的SFP 光收发器。
系统方框图如图1 所示：图 1 光纤收发器的内部结构图1) 发射部分工作原理：系统的串行数据信号从TX+/-端以差分信号形式输入到PHY1706 的激光器驱动部分。
驱动电路进行放大处理后，转换成差分调制电流信号加载到TOSA（光发射组件）上，控制TOSA 中的激光器发出光脉冲，耦合入光纤发送到远端。
2) 接收部分工作原理：光脉冲信号输入到ROSA（光接收组件），ROSA 将光脉冲信号转换成差分电压信号输出到PHY1076 的限幅放大部分。
该信号经过限幅放大处理后，从PHY1076 的RX+/-端输出差分电压串行数字信号。
3) 控制及DDM 部分：PHY1076 是一款模拟数字混合芯片，其内部包括多个模数(A/D)、数模转换(D/A)器。
发射和接收通路上的参数都是通过ADC 转换成数字量存入状态寄存器进行监视，通过DAC 把设置寄存器的值转换成模拟量来进行控制的。
这些寄存器都可以由外部控制器进行读取和设置。
DDM(Digital Diagnostic Monitor)，数字诊断和监控是指的光纤收发器能够对发射功率（Tx_power），接收功率（Rx_power），激光器偏置电流（Ibias），工作电压（Vcc），模块内部温度（Temperature）这些参数进行实时监视，并能够在各项参数超过设定值时设置报警标志位的功能。
PHY1076 内部集成的ADC 能够对发射功率、接收功率和偏置电流进行监测。
工作电压和温度传感则需要另外ADC 进行转换。
而所有这些报警的实现则需要外部控制器来实现。
ATMEL 公司的AVR 单片机ATMEGA88 是一款8 位单片机，内部集成FLASH、RAM、EEPROM、内部时钟和ADC。
无需任何外围电路即可构成系统，支持在线编程下载和单步调试。
系统设计和软件调试都很方便。
集成硬件I2C模块，可直接对外提供符合SFP-MSA 规范要求的外部I2C接口。
而且此单片机是一款在家电和工业控制领域使用广泛的芯片，用量大，性能稳定可靠，价格低。
本设计选用此芯片控制PHY1076 的工作参数和实现DDM 功能。
3 关键参数控制和实现在光纤通信系统中，发射光脉冲的平均光功率和消光比是两个非常重要的参数。
根据传输距离不同，需要设定不同的值。
对具体某一个光收发器则希望其发光功率和消光比能够长期维持在一定范围内。
要维持稳定的光功率则需要使用APC(自动功率控制)电路。
又由于激光器的温度特性和老化特性，其发光效率会变化，所以又需要进行温度补偿。
消光比的自动控制则需要根据温度变化而实时的调整调制电流的大小。
早期的光收发器中，大都使用专用模拟器件，所以要实现功率APC、温度补偿和消光比自动控制都非常困难，或者很难得到满意的效果。
PHY1076 是一个模数混合器件，其高速通道部分使用模拟设计，而其功率控制、调制电流则是使用寄存器进行的。
从而只要外部控制器能够监测温度，就能根据温度调整寄存器的值，达到自动更改输出功率和调制电流，使功率和消光比维持在一定得范围内的目的。
1) 平均光功率的控制实现：PHY1076 内部APC 电路如图2 所示。
TOSA 内部集成了一个激光发射二极管和一个光电感应二极管。
激光器的发光功率与电流成正比，激光器的阴极接到PHY1076 的Laser_bias 引脚。
PHY1076 内部功率设置寄存器的数据直接输入到DAC，DAC 产生一个模拟电压输出控制压控电流源的输出电流，此电流源输出电流经过电感耦合后给激光器的提供直流偏置电流。
因此修改功率设置寄存器的值就可以直接修改激光器的输出光功率。
光电感应二极管的反向漏电流与激光器的发射功率成正比。
该电流从MPD 引脚接入PHY1076 内部，经过放大和转换成电压信号后，作为负反馈信号引入到压控电流源的控制端，起到自动功率控制的作用。
但是APC 能够控制的功率变化范围是有限的。
当温度变大时，由于激光器的发光效率降低，APC 将不能提供足够大的电流来保持功率稳定。
此时就需要调节功率设置寄存器的值来获得更大的偏置电流以保持功率稳定。
本设计中是通过外接单片机来根据温度进行寄存器设置，达到温度补偿的目的。
图2 APC 工作原理图2) 消光比控制的实现：PHY1076 内部调制电流控制电路如图3 所示。
消光比在光纤通信系统中定义为发送数据为1 时与发送0 时的光功率的比值。
其值的大小会影响通信系统的误码率,因此需要控制在一定范围内。
在使用交流耦合的调制激光器的电路中，平均发射功率受直流偏置电流影响，消光比的大小受调制电流的影响。
在PHY1076 的内部，激光器的调制电流由专门的寄存器进行设置后，经过模数转换器（DAC）输出控制电压，进而控制输出调制电流的大小。
因此适当设置该寄存器的值就可以得到理想的消光比。
由于没有办法检测工作中消光比的大小，因此无法引入反馈电路实现消光比自动控制。
比较可行的办法是寻找消光比与温度变化的统计规律，然后通过外部控制器依规律进行温度补偿。
图3 调制电流控制原理图3) ATMEGA88 的控制算法分析和DDM 实现：从上面的分析可以看出，光收发器的关键参数平均发射功率和消光比都是通过对PHY1076 的内部寄存器的设置来控制的,而PHY1076 提供I2C 接口进行访问。
本设计中，使用ATMEGA88 单片机进行控制。
ATMEGA88 单片机内部有一个标准的硬件I2C 接口，可以用来为系统设备提供SFP-MSA （SFP 多源协议）要求的对外I2C。
为了与PHY1076进行通信，本设计中用软件模拟了一个I2C 接口。
单片机的主要工作内容包括：为功率控制提供温度补偿功能；为消光比提供自动控制功能；设置PHY1076 的接收放大部分的一些工作参数；对PHY1076 进行初始化；提供DDM 功能和记录产品信息。
ATMEGE88 与PHY1076 的连接如图4 所示。
SCL图4 ATMEGA88 与PHY1076 连接图激光器的发光效率和阈值电流与环境温度成反比，即当环境温度升高时，激光器的发光效率会降低，阈值电流会升高。
为了达到输出光功率和消光比的稳定性，就要根据温度变化来响应调节激光器的偏置电流和调制电流。
本设计中采用查表法来设置偏置和调制电流。
具体就是建立两个数据表，功率设置表和调制电流设置表，每个值对应一段温度下的功率设置寄存器的值。
如图4 所示,调制电流设置表为80 个字节，每两摄氏度占一个字节；功率设置表占用40 个字节，每4 摄氏度占用一个字节；温度范围都是-40~120℃，满足工业温度的要求。
给单片机外接一个温度传感器,单片机通过模数转换器把温度传感器送来的电压转换成温度值，然后根据温度查表，找到对应的数据，把数据分别送往PHY1076 的功率设置寄存器和调制电流设置寄存器，调整激光器的偏置电流和调制电流，由此调整输出光功率和消光比。
数据表的数值确定则使用测试的方法得出。
在收发器的调试过程中，对样品在每个温度下的输出眼图进行测试，并修改对应温度下的数据，使得光收发器的输出光眼图、光功率和消光比满足要求。
最后把这些数据保存到温度查找表中，并同时保存到ATMEGA88 内部的EEPROM 中。
收发器在实际的应用环境下，重新加电后，就先从EEPROM 中把数据加载到RAM 区，然后就可以在全温度范围内稳定平均输出光功率和消光比。
4 设计结果及测试分析本设计根据以上讨论的方案，选择PHY1076 专用芯片和ATMEGA88 单片机，外加适当的外围电路设计电路板，把TOSA、ROSA 焊接到一起装入定制外壳，实现了一款1.25Gbps 的SFP 光收发器。
调试PHY1076 内部寄存器使光收发器各项参数符合802.3z 协议中对10km 千兆以太网光接口的要求。
同时设计的上位机调试软件对ATMEGA88 的温度查找表进行调试，确定了具体每个温度下的值。
由此完成了整个光收发器的设计工作。
然后对光收发器在低温，常温，高温三种环境下的所有参数进行测试。
结果如表1 所示。
表1 光收发器的参数测试结果从表中可以看出。
激光器的输出光功率和消光比都在参数要求范围内，且变化小。
测试了各个温度下的眼图，发现光收发器在低温，常温，低温下的性能都比较好。
由于温度变高时需要提供较大的调制电流，因此信号的下冲比较明显，表现在眼图中就是在眼图中的“0”信号出现轻微双眼线。
但总体上模板测试余量都大于40%。
由此验证了此设计方案的可行性和正确性。
5 总结经过方案讨论、硬件设计、软件设计和样品调试、测试。
最终成功设计了1.25GSFP 单芯片SFP 光收发器。
此方案的特点是把激光驱动和接收放大部分集成在一起，使用了普通单片机进行控制,理论上能够降低了产品的成本和提高生产效率。
由于此方案是一个新的方案，技术成熟度有待提高，系统兼容性和市场应用的潜在问题有待验证。