语言学chapter总结
新篇简明英语语言学-Chapter--Four---Syntax
Chapter Four Syntax 句法学一、定义1. syntax句法学：Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法学是一门研究语言的规则,这些规则控制句子的形成。
〔把单词凑在一起形成句子〕二、知识点4.2 Category 范畴Syntactic category 句法类型: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called Syntactic category. 单词可以被组成数量相对较小的类别，称为句法类型。
This classification reflects a variety of factors, (1) including the type of meaning that words express, (2) the type of affies that they take, (3) and the type of structures in which they can occur.这种分类反映出各种不同的因素：〔1〕包括单词所表达的意义的类别，〔2〕它们所带词缀的类别，〔3〕它们所能出现的结构的类别。
word level category词层面类型〔对于句法学而言最核心的类型〕1. Major lexical categories 主要词汇类型〔词性〕：名、动、形、副词N, V, Adj, Adv〔open开放性词类,can add new words〕P43图〔在句子构成中起重要作用〕1〕主要词类又称开放词类，可以不断地出现新词。
在英语，它们主要有四类：名词〔N〕： student linguistics lecture动词〔V〕： like red go形容词〔adj〕： tall lovely red副词〔adv〕： loudly constantly hardP134中2. Minor lexical categories 次要词汇类型〔词性〕：限定、程度、量词、助动、介、代、连、叹Det, Deg, Qual, Aux, Prep, Pron, Conj, Int 〔close封闭性词类, words are fixed不添加新词〕P43图2〕次要词类又称闭合词类。
语言学知识点概括
语言学知识点概括Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rul es of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
胡壮麟第四版语言学教程第一章大题总结
Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Why study language?2.What is language? Explain it in details.3.What makes language unique to human beings?4.What are the design features of language? List out at least three of them.5.In what sense we say linguistic is a science?6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrariness.7.What is the function of language?8.Do you understand the distinction between the langue and paroleintroduced by Saussure?9.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive10.Synchronic vs. Diachronicpetence vs. Performance1.Why study language?First, language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be considered a worthy job for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to other fields of knowledge rather than as a subject in and of itself. However, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socio-economic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.Second, for a student learning language, some knowledge of language is of both interest and important. To know the general properties of language can help the student have an overview of its. No necessary question to ask for human language, they can understand the details of its different features thereof.Third, let us mention the broader educational concerns. We can note that language plans a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. The understanding of language should not be confined to linguistics, as language is a vital human resource that of us share.2.What is language? Explain it in details.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic, human-specific.It is system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense(从某种意义上说) that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and explained by the fact that different language have different “books” : “book” in English, 书in Chinese, “check” in Korean.It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human language, developed or “new”. The term” human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrarinessArbitrariness is the core feature of language. Saussure holds the idea that the forms of linguistics signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There seems to be differentlevels of arbitrariness:1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its means. You may object to this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words that sound like the sounds they describe. e. g. in Chinese 叮咚,轰隆,叽里咕噜. These linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to be describe the sound. For example, the dog barks bowwow in English but汪汪in Chinese. But there are some misunderstandings about the onomatopoeia effect. As a matter of fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeia effect may work at the same time.2)Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelBy syntax we refer to the ways that sentences areconstructed according to the grammar of arrangement. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence clauses and the rule happenings. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as in this kind of order is concerned. Compared:a)He came in and set down.b)He set down and came in.c)He set down after he came in.Sentence (a) means the man came in first and then set down, but (b) means the opposite perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled(推进去) himself into the room. In (c), with the word “after” help, we can reverse the order of the clauses.3)Arbitrariness and conventionIn fact, the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Here we have to look at the other side of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of foreign language, it is conventionality of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. That may be why when we are burying ourselves memorizing idioms, we feel nothing of the arbitrariness of the language but are somewhat tortured (折磨) by its conventionality.8-12 important distinctions in linguistics8.Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studiedprescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.9.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history.E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language is successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.ngue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.petence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.12.Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful viafinal resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.13.Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics14.What are the differences between traditional grammar and modernlinguistics?Illustrate with your own understanding.As we all know, linguistic is concerned with observing facts about language, setting up hypotheses, testing their validity and accepting or rejecting them accordingly. To avoid biases of the kinds mentioned above, modern linguists differ from traditional grammarians in adopting empirical rather than speculative or intuitive approaches in their study. Here are some differences I can find according the text books and my understanding.The first difference: modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive. That is linguists try to make statements which are testable, and take language as it is rather than say how it should be.The second difference: modern linguistics regards spoken rather than written language as primary. Traditional grammar tends to emphasize the importance of written language and the writings.The third difference: modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. In the past, Latin was considered the language that provided a universal grammar for all languages.Here is a form I found from the internet and it can show the differences betweenAt last, we should know when criticizing traditional grammar for being unscientific, modern linguistics do not deny altogether the contributions of traditional grammar to the development of modern linguistics. A balance view on traditional grammar is needed in order to track down the continuity of Western linguistic theories from the earliest times to the present day.15.Illustrate the difference between langue and parole with examples you canfind.F. De Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract while parole is concrete. In fact, langue is not spoken by any individual; parole is always a really happening event. Langue is systematic; on the contrary, parole is a pile of complicated speech. Langue exists in our brain, not the words we say. Parole is the words we human beings use to communicate with each other. In a word, langue is the totality of a language or the abstract language system shared by all the members of a speech of a speech community, while parole is the realization of langue in actual use, that is, the concrete act of speaking at a particular time and in a specific situation.Example1: when we Chinese says “do you have dinner?” to an American. The sentence uttered by the Chinese is parole, and how the American understands the sentence is langue.Example2: when Jack said I love you to Rose in the street, the sentences itself is the parole. And how Rose understands this sentence is all about the langue.To sum up, langue is our potential ability to speak while parole is the actual use of language in concrete situation. Langue is social, but parole is individual.End of Chapter 1。
Chapter6pragmatics语言学整理的资料
Chapter 61.pragmatics:自测：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. (T/F)术语：pragmatics语用学解释：语用学处理的是语言的实际意义，是在应用中的意义，而不是固有的意义。
术语：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。
解释：Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader. Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context. Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.语用学对意义的研究主要关注的是说者或作者要交流的是什么，听者或读者读到的是什么。
并且根据语境分析要表达的意义。
语言学第四章要点
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学1．W hat is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。
该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。
句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。
排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。
合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。
句法是一个规则系统。
2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。
英语语言学概论整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish itfrom any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehendingindefinitely large quantities of sentences in their native language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivatedrelationship between a linguistic form and its meaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that representssomething else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a languageare meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language canbe used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds,the other of meaning, is known as duality of structure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passedon from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability(互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both aproducer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★(Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions ofchildren’s language? And what are the three functional components of adult language?I. H alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. A dult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics(普通语言学与描写语言学) The former dealswith language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics(共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachroniclinguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copeswith languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics (微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only thestructure of language system whereas the latter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by allthe members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all thelinguistic regulation systems whereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing iswritten codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为)People actually says on a certain occasion to a certain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The formerdescribes the horizontal dimension of a language while the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication (言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use oflanguage as a means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy andsimplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theoryand the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significantgeneralizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s nativelanguage.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words andmeaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.Chapter 3 Phonetics语音学1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds iscalled articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission ofspeech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.4. consonant(辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is eithercompletely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in anyway and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restrictedby the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediatelyreleasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lipsforming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs(双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to anotherthrough intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowelposition to another and then rapidly and continuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q] 12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tensevowels and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is calledarticulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speechsounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is calledauditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.Chapter 4 Phonology 音位学1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones(音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particularphoneme.3. phones(单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called aphone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by onesound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environmentand the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the sameenvironment ,then they are said to be in complementary distribution.7. free variation(自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and thesubstitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features(区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes onephoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features(超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply togroups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10. tone languages(声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning atword level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguishmeaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture(连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcategrammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds,while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstractdescription of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distributionbecause substituting [m] for [n] will result in a change of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] arein complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially ina stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and/dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What arethe suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus haveeffect on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segmentare known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may applyto a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone language s and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic tran scriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of alanguage.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots(词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principalmeaning.affixes(词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, butdo not change its part of speech.derivational affixes(派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both aword and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largestgrammatical units that constitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combinedinto new words are said to be morphological rules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes offorming new words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes andaffixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and boundmorphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications ofmorphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of bothfunction and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words whilederivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in aconstruction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements withina sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at anylevel within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis (标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing(方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression,derived from deep structure by transformational rules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures.5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. Theyare used to break a natural language sentence down into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deepstructures correspond to the meaningful grouping of sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meaningsof sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the o rder of generating sentences? Do we start with surface structures or with deepstructures? How differently are they generated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.Chapter 7 Semantics 语义学1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation(外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguisticexpression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of themeaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into itscomponents.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items,but is organized into areas, within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusiveword and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy(同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? Andhow does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory ofsemantic theory in defining meaning of words?。
英语语言学知识整理1
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。
《语言学教程》Chapter-2-ics
语法
语法
语法是语言中词和句子的结构规律和 规则，是语言的组织原则。语法包括 词法和句法两部分。词法研究词的内 部结构和变化规律；句法研究短语和 句子的结构规律和规则。
语法的特点
语法具有抽象性、生成性、层次性和 系统性等特点。抽象性是指语法规则 是对语言中具体实例的抽象概括；生 成性是指语法能够生成无限多的合乎 语法的句子；层次性是指语法结构分 为若干层次，不同层次之间存在递归 关系；系统性是指语法规则相互联系 、相互制约，形成一个完整的系统。
新的词汇、表达方式和语法结构等可能会随着时间的推移而出 现，丰富和发展语言的表达和沟通功能。
05
语言与社会文化的关系
语言与文化的关系
语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化 传承和发展的载体。语言中蕴含着丰 富的文化信息，反映了特定民族的历 史、传统、信仰、价值观等。
语言与文化相互影响，语言使用中的 词汇、语法、表达方式等都受到文化 的影响，同时语言也影响了人们对世 界的认知和表达方式。
语音的生理属性
语音的生理属性包括发音机制和听觉机制。发音机制包括呼吸系统、声源系统、调制系统 和共鸣系统；听觉机制包括听觉接收器和大脑处理声音信息的过程。
词汇
词汇
词汇是语言中所有词的总和，是语言的建筑材料。词汇由词和固定词组构成，包括实词和虚词两大类。实词表示事物 、概念、动作等具体内容；虚词表示语法关系和语气等抽象内容。
语法的作用
语法在语言中起着非常重要的作用。 首先，语法保证语言的正确性和规范 性，使人们能够准确地表达思想、传 递信息。其次，语法使语言具有生成 性，能够生成无限多的合乎语法的句 子。最后，语法使语言具有开放性， 能够吸收外来文化和方言的影响，不 断丰富言演变的原因
语言学重点章节介绍
语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics 这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
语言学前八章节小结
语言学前八章节小结Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1 Definition of language: it is a means of verbal communication.2 Design feature of language:①Arbitrariness: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.②Duality: is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.③Creativity: language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.④Displacement: human language enables their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.3 Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.Chapter 2 speech sounds1 Maximal onset principle, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.Chapter 3 from morpheme to phrase1 Roof: a roof is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.2 Affix: an affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme, so affix is naturally bound.3 Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflectional affix:those are not used to produce new words but to indicate the grammatical meaning of the words.Derivational affix: those are not used to make new words and are often used to make words of different category.The differences between them:①Inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes.②Inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to.③That whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often onother factors within the phrase or sentence at stake.4 A minimum free form: this was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated that sentence should be treaded as the Maximum free form while words as the minimum free form.5 Blending: it is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.6 Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which hasa heavily modified headword.Chapter 4 from word to text1 Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually 名词短语动词短语形容词性短语属于向心结构2 Exocentric construction is just the opposite of endocentricconstruction. It refers toa group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is. There is no definable centre or head inside the group.Usually 简单句介词短语介宾结构Chapter 5 meaning一types of meanings:1 conceptual meaning: logical, cognitive, or denotative content2 connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to3 social meaning what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.4 affective meaning what is communicated of the feeling and attitudes of the speaker.5 reflected meaning what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.6 collocative meaning7 thematic meaning二the referential theory1 definition: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.2 A theory which explicitly employed the notion “concept” is the semantic triangle proposed by Ogden and Richards in The Meaning of Meaning.3 antonymy(1) gradable antonymy 等级反义词（2）complementary antonymyDifferences between them1 intermedia ground2 criterion complementary3 cover term(3) converse antonymyTe chnically, the cover term is called “unmarked”, and the covered “marked”, or unusual. That mean s, in general, it is the cover term that is more often used. If the covered is used, then it suggested that there is something odd, unusual here. The speaker may already know that somebody /something is young, small, near, and he wants to know the extent in greater detail.Chapter 6 language and cognition1Cognition: another definition of cognition is the mental processor faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. 2Psycholingistics is the study of psychological aspects of language；it usuallystudies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.Chapter 7 language culture and societyLanguage is an indispensable carrier of culture.1Context of situation① A leading figure i n a linguistic tradition later known as the London school, triedto set up a model to illustrate the close relationship between language use and its co-occurrent factors. In the end, he developed his own theory of context of situation.②A: the relevant fea tures of the participants, persons, personalities.B: the relevant objects.C: the effect of the verbal action.2Speech community refers to a group of people who share not only the same rules of speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well3SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESESWhat this hypothesis suggests is this: Our language helps mould our ways of thinking and, consequently , different languages may probably express speakers＇unique ways of understanding the world. On the one hand, language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other, similarity between languages is relative.The strong version of the theory refers to the claim the original hypothesis makes, emphasizing the decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking patterns.The weak version of this hypothesis, however, is a modified type of its original theory, suggesting that there is a correlation between language, culture and thought, but the cross-cultural differences thus produced in our ways of thinking are relative, rather than categorical.3William Labov, a famous sociolinguist, he turned out that class and style are two major factors influencing the speakers＇choice one phonological variant over another. Based on these findings, Labov explicitly delineated the patterns of stratification by class and, more importantly, successfully introduced class as an indispensiblesociolinguistic variable.Chapter 8 Language in use一Speech act theory 言语行为理论Performatives and constativesA theory of the illocutionaryDefinition: when we speak we move our vocal organs andproduce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.Locutionary act 发话行为Illocutionary act 行事行为Illocutionary force 行事语力Perlocutionary act 取效行为二the cooperative principle 合作原则1 Definition：Make your conventional contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.QuantityQualityRelationManner2 Characteristic of implicature①Calculability ②cancellability ③non-detachability 不可分离性④non-conventionalityAt the end of the discussion, we may summarize conversational implicature as a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.。
语言学复习重点Chapter 3
Chapter Three ——Morphology(形态学）Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed.Word is a minimal free form with a unity of sound and meaning.The classification of words ：1、variableand invariable words（可变化词和不变词）Variable words are those words which can take inflective endings;E.g write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.invariable words are those that cannot.E.g since, when, seldom, through, etc.2、grammatical and lexical words(语法词和词汇词)词汇词也即实词，又译作notional/content word ;语法词也即虚词，又称function/form word 功能词/形式词3、c1osed- class and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词)According to their membership:c1osed- class and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词)An close class is one whose membership is in principle fixed or limited. （封闭类：连介代冠）An open class is one whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited. (开放类：名动形副数叹)一、Morph Morpheme AllomorphMorph:The phonological and orthographic forms that represent morpheme are called morphs.[swi:t]{sweet}SweetMorpheme：The smallest unit of language.It can be represented as1-morpheme un-,-ish,-s.-ed1-morpheme word boy,desire2-morpheme wordboy+ish, desir(e)+ableAllomorphA morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.im possible{in} in convenientir regular tax.il logical-s [-s] book books{plural} -es [-iz] box boxes-i [-ai] mouse miceConclusion:All the allomorphs should have the same meaning.All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.The allomorphs with the same meaning should function the same in the language grammar structure.二、Classification of morpheme1、Free vs. Bound morphemesFree morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves,e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone,e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, i.e. it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.e.g. Dislike, impolite, production,Membership, carelessnessfriend as in unfriendliness.Root may befree: those that can stand by themselves,e.g. black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves,e.g. -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided intoprefix (dis-, un-) andsuffix (-en, -ify).Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added,e.g.friend root > basefriendly root/base + suffix > baseunfriendly prefix + base > baseStem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,e.g. friend+-s;friendship swrite+-ing,possibility+-es.Note:A stem can be equivalent to a root.A stem may contain a root and aderivational affix.2、Derivational vs Inflectional morphemeInflection indicates:case and number of nouns,tense and aspect of verbs,degree of adjectives or adverbs.Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, e.g. friend+-ly > friendly.三、Word-formationCompoundingAffixationOther formation1、CompoundingTwo or more free roots combine to make a new word.✧Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill✧Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit✧Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree✧Preposition compounds: into, throughoutEndocentric& exocentricEndocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; e.g. self-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, e.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crowbreakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compoundsSolid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguardHyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-lengthOpen: coffee table, washing machineFree variation:businessman, business-man, business manwinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottleno one, no-one, noone2、Affixation✧Nominal forms: boys, boy’s✧Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting✧Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallest3、DerivationClass-changing:✧N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard✧N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless✧V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant✧V>A: acceptable, adorable✧A>N: rapidness, rapidity✧A>V: deafen, sweeten✧Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly4、Other formations:1）Blendingtransfer+resistor>transistorsmoke+fog>smog2）Acronym①AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome②ASAP: as soon as possible3）Abbreviation/InitialismAI: artificial intelligencea.s.a.p.: as soon as possibleECU: European Currency Unit4）ClippingBack-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)sFore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quakeFore-and-aft clippings: (de)tec(tive)5）Back-formationdiagnose < diagnosisenthuse < enthusiasmlaze < lazy6）Invention/CoinageMostly brand names:Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, LycraCoca-cola, Orlon and Dacron7)BorrowingFrench: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasySpanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate,8)Conversion 转换e.g. to butter the bread, take a look, empty a box, up the price9）Eponymsare words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.e.g. Sandwich (originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling)ExerciseI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.1. A morpheme must convey a lexical meaning.2. All words can be said to contain a root morpheme.3. Free morphemes can be further classified into inflectional and derivational morphemes.4. All words have morphs but not necessarily allomorphs.5. The word “modernizations”is made up of three morphemes.6. Derivational morphemes never change the class of the words to which they are attached.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with a proper word.Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the ___ ___ of words and the____ by which words are formed.[-t], [-d], and [-id] are ___of the morpheme –ed.“Careless”is the __ of the word “carelessness”.__ affixes,__affixes, and __roots are all bound morphemes.III. Questions1. Analyze and then tell how many morphemes each of the following words contain. unselfishness, justifiable, sporting2. What constitutes the internal structure of words?3. List the allomorphs of the morpheme plural.。
语言学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版
语⾔学第四章知识点总结胡壮麟版Chapter 44.1 syntactic（句法的）relations4.1.1 positional relation(位置关系）For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause.Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential（有序的）arrangement of words in a language.Positional relation are a manifestation(表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relationsWord order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.4.1.2 relation of substitutability(可代替性）Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure.Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is what Saussure called associative(联想的）relations or in Hjemslev’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence(共现）Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical constructionAny syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain complex lexemes(词位）4.2.2 immediate constituents(直接成分）Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: SNP VPDe t V NPDe tThe girl ate the appleThis is tree diagram. 在句⼦结构分析中，成分⽤来指任何语⾔单位，⽽该单位⼜是更⼤语⾔单位的⼀部分，如在The girl ate the apple 本⾝的（A）the boy（B) ate the apple (C）都是⼀个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更⼤的单位，如果两个成分B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成⼀个更⾼的成分AWord-levelN=nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionPhrasalNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clauseTo dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric ConstructionsEndocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions4.2.3.1Endocentric（相信结构）Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.4.2.3.1 Exocentric（并列结构）Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre”or “Head”inside the group, usually includingthe basic sentence,the prepositional phrase,the predicate (verb + object) construction, andthe connective (be + complement) construction.2.4 Coordination and SubordinationEndocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Coordination of NPs:[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]Coordination of VPs:[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]Coordination of PPs:[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]Coordination of APs:[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]Coordination of Ss:[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].Subordination（从属）refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:4.3. Syntactic（句法）FunctionThe syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 SubjectIn English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject”and “logical subject”Word orderSubject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:Pro-formsThe first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:Agreement with the verbIn the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbContent questionsIf the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in4.4Category （范畴）The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 NumberNumber is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.4.4.2Gende(性）Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.4.4.3Case（格）The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.4.4.4Agreement.Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).4.5Phrase, Clause and Sentence4.5.1phrasePrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses.4.5.3SentenceBasic sentence types: QuirkSVC Mary is kind.a nurse.SV A Mary is here.in the house.SV The child is laughing.SVO Somebody caught the ball.SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.SVOA I put the plate on the table.SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6Recursiveness(递归性）Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within anotherconstituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.4.6.1ConjoiningConjoining: coordination.Conjunctions: and, but, and or.联系⼀个⼩句或者其他并列或链接的过程，通过这种过程组成的句⼦即并列4.6.2Embedding（嵌⼊）Embedding: subordination.Main clauses and subordinate clauses.Three basic types of subordinate clauses:Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause:。
语言学第一章概括
Summary of chapter oneChapter one mainly talks about linguistics and language.To begin with, linguistics does not refer to any particular language, but it is a general idea of language. It is defined as the scientific study of language.The study of languages which is often called general linguistics includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Phonetics refers to the study of sound used in linguistic communication. And phonology refers to how to put the sounds together and convey meaning in communication. Morphology refers to how to arrange and combine the sounds to form words. Syntax refers to making the words form in understandable sentences by rules. Semantics refers to study the meanings that words convey. Pragmatics refers to the context of language use. The study of language or general linguistics is not isolated from human society. That is to say, it is connected with other branches of social studies, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and applied linguistics. Sociolinguistics refers to studying all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form. Psycholinguistics refers to the study of language to psychology in linguistics. Applied linguistics refers to using the findings in linguistics studies to solve the practical problems.And next, language, I have mentioned above, is defined officially as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. And there are some important points that should be emphasized. First of all, language is a system and it has its rules suited for itself. Second, language is arbitrary. Different languages have different words for the same thing, which is arbitrary. Third the term vocal is primary medium for all the language. In an addition, words are symbols. They contain objects, actions, ideas and so on. And the last important term is human. Only human can communicate with each other by using language. Furthermore the animals’ sound is not a language at all.And to learn design features of language, we can better distinguish between human language and the nature of language. The features include arbitrariness, productivity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission. Arbitrariness means there is nological connection between meanings and sounds. Productivity means to make possible construction and interpretation of new signals in language. Duality means language consists of two sets of structures: sounds and units. Displacement refers to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. The last one means each language system is not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.At last, language has three main functions: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function. The first one means to convey factual information. The second one supples information about the user’s feelings. The last one means to support the social relations between people.于野09301089。
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter一、引言英语语言学是一门研究英语语言的学科，通过对英语语言中的语音、语法、词汇、语义以及社会文化背景等方面进行深入分析，以探寻语言的本质规律和使用方式。
本章将介绍戴炜栋英语语言学概论中的第一章，旨在为读者提供对英语语言学的整体概念和研究对象的基本了解。
二、语言学的定义及分支领域1. 语言学的定义语言学是研究语言的科学，关注语言的结构、发展、演变以及语言与思维的关系，旨在了解语言的规律和作用。
2. 语言学的分支领域- 语音学：研究语音的产生、传播和感知。
- 语法学：研究语言的句法结构和词法规则。
- 语义学：研究语言的意义和概念的表达方式。
- 语用学：研究语言的使用方式和交际功能。
- 语言变化学：研究语言的历史演变和变异现象。
- 社会语言学：研究语言与社会文化背景的关系。
三、基本语言单位1. 音素音素是语言中的最小发声单位，可以通过音标或符号进行表示。
2. 音节音节是由一个或多个音素组成的音序单位，每个音节至少包含一个核心音素。
3. 词汇词汇是语言的基本单位，是由一个或多个音节组成的，具有独立意义的单位。
4. 句子句子是语言中表达完整意义的单位，由一个或多个词汇组成，具有主谓宾结构。
四、语音学的基本概念1. 发音器官发音器官是人类用于发出语音的器官，包括呼吸器官（肺部、气管）、声带、腔道（口腔、鼻腔）等。
2. 语音语调语音语调是指人们在语音交流中所表达的语言节奏、音调和语气等。
不同语言的语音语调差异较大，是语言交流中的重要组成部分。
3. 音素分类音素可分为元音和辅音两大类，元音是声音发出时不产生任何阻塞的音，而辅音是声音发出时经过喉头或口腔等部位的阻塞或摩擦的音。
五、语法学的基本概念1. 词类和词汇词类是对词汇进行分类的方法，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等。
每个词类都有相应的语法特征和功能。
2. 语法关系语法关系是指词汇之间在句子中的语义或句法关联关系，包括主谓关系、动宾关系、定状补关系等。
语言学Chapter
语言学ChapterChapter 1: Introduction to Language StudyLanguage plays a crucial role in our daily lives, allowing us to communicate, express our thoughts and emotions, and connect with others. As the study of language, linguistics encompasses various subfields, such as phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. In this chapter, we will explore the fundamentals of language, its structure, and its functions.Section 1: What is Language?Language can be defined as a system of communication used by a particular community or country. It is a complex system consisting of sounds, words, and rules for combining them. Human language differs from other forms of animal communication in its complexity and flexibility.Section 2: Components of Language2.1 Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics is the study of the physical sounds of human speech, while phonology focuses on the patterns and rules governing these sounds within a specific language. It is through the study of phonetics and phonology that we understand how sounds form meaningful units in language.2.2 MorphologyMorphology is the study of the internal structure of words. It investigates how meaningful units, called morphemes, are combined to create words.Morphemes can be classified as free morphemes, which can stand alone as words, or bound morphemes, which must be attached to other morphemes.2.3 SyntaxSyntax deals with the rules governing the arrangement of words to form grammatically correct sentences. It explores how words are combined to create phrases and sentences and how the order of words affects meaning. Syntax allows us to create an infinite number of grammatically correct sentences.2.4 SemanticsSemantics is concerned with the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences. It examines how words and their combinations convey meaning and how meaning is interpreted in different contexts. Semantics explores the relationship between language and the world around us.2.5 PragmaticsPragmatics focuses on the way language is used in everyday interactions. It studies how context, speaker intentions, and social norms influence meaning. Pragmatics investigates how people use language creatively to achieve specific goals and convey intended messages.Section 3: Language AcquisitionLanguage acquisition refers to the process of learning a language. Children acquire their first language effortlessly, absorbing the grammar and vocabulary of their environment. This process, known as first language acquisition, occurs naturally during early childhood. Second languageacquisition, on the other hand, involves learning an additional language later in life.Section 4: Sign LanguageAlthough spoken languages are the most common form of communication, sign languages are also fully-fledged languages used by deaf communities worldwide. Sign languages have their own grammar, vocabulary, and linguistic features, making them unique systems of communication.Chapter 2: ConclusionThis chapter has provided an overview of the basics of language study. We have explored the components of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Additionally, we discussed language acquisition and the importance of sign languages. The study of language allows us to better understand human communication and the intricate systems that underlie it. Linguistics continues to deepen our knowledge of language and its role in our society.。
Chapter 4 语言学第四章总结
Chapter 41.SyntaxSyntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentence in a language, or the study of the interrelation between elements in sentence structure. It studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. Syntax is a brand of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Syntactic Relation:a.Positional relation (word order) is a manifestation of oneaspect of syntagmatic relation, also called horizontalrelation or chain relationb.Relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets ofword substitutable for each other grammatically insentences with the same structure. It refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set. Itcalled associative relations, vertical relations, choicerelations.c.Relation of co-occurrence2．Grammatical construction (construct)The boy ate the apple.A: the boy B and C: ate the appleA: external B and C: internal (immediate constituent)To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called immediate constituent in this way is called immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis.3.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituent.Exocentric construction is a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.4.Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English andother languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction.(and ,but, or)Subordination refer to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.5.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguisticform and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.a.Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.It includes grammatical subject and logical subject. Its characteristics include word order, pro-forms, agreement with verb content question, tag questionb.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentencestructure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.c.Object include direct object and indirect object6.Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow senseand refers to the defining properties of these general units.a.Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis ofword classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural.b.Gender display such contrasts as masculine, feminine,neuter.c.Case is used in the analysis of word class to identify thesyntactic relationship between word in a sentence accusative, nominative, detived.Agreement (concord)7.Phrase is a single element of structure containing more thanone word and lacking the subject-predicate structure typicalof classes. Sentence is the minimum part of languages that express a compete thought.8.Recursiveness: there is no limit to the number of embeddingone relative classes into another relative classes.Conjoining refer to the process where one clause s coordinated or conjoined with another.Embedding refer to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.Sentential connection include hypotactic and paratactic.Cohension is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refer to relations of meaning that exist within the text. (conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collection, lexical repetition, reference, substitution)9.Categories: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfillthe same or similar functions in a particular language such asa sentence, a new phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories: a fundamental fact about words in all human languages is that they can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes.Word-level categories: major lexical categories (N.V.A.P.) and minor lexical categories (determiner, degree words meaning, inflection, distribution qualifier, auxiliary,conjunction)Phrase categories: syntactic unit that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. It contains: head, specifier, complement10.P hrase structure ruleSuch special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase.NP----(Det) N (PP)…VP---(Qual) V (NP)…AP---(Deg) A (PP)…PP---(Deg) P (NP)…XP rule: XP---(specifier) X (complement)The coordination rule: X---X’ Con X11.P hrase elementsSpecifier semantic roles：help make more precise themeaning of the headSyntactic roles: mark a phrase boundary Complement are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and location whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.The XP rules (revised)XP---(specifier) X (complement)’Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (CS). The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause. The whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase (CP) and the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.Modifiers: specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.The Expanded XP rule:XP---(spec) (mod) X (complement’) (mod)。
胡壮麟第四版语言学教程第一章大题总结-推荐下载
Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Why study language?2.What is language? Explain it in details.3.What makes language unique to human beings?4.What are the design features of language? List out at least three of them.5.In what sense we say linguistic is a science?6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrariness.7.What is the function of language?8.Do you understand the distinction between the langue and paroleintroduced by Saussure?9.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive10.Synchronic vs. Diachronicpetence vs. Performance1.Why study language?First, language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be considered a worthy job for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to other fields of knowledge rather than as a subject in and of itself. However, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socio-economic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.Second, for a student learning language, some knowledge of language is of both interest and important. To know the general properties of language can help the student have an overview of its. No necessary question to ask for human language, they can understand the details of its different features thereof.Third, let us mention the broader educational concerns. We can note that language plans a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. The understanding of language should not be confined to linguistics, as language is a vital human resource that of us share.2.What is language? Explain it in details.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic, human-specific.It is system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense(从某种意义上说) that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and explained by the fact that different language have different “books” : “book” in English, 书in Chinese, “check” in Korean.It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human language, developed or “new”. The term” human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrarinessArbitrariness is the core feature of language. Saussure holds the idea that the forms of linguistics signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There seems to be different levels of arbitrariness:1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its means. You mayobjectto this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words thatsound like the sounds they describe. e. g. in Chinese 叮咚,轰隆,叽里咕噜. These linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to be describe the sound. For example, the dog barks bowwow in English but汪汪in Chinese. But there are some misunderstandings about the onomatopoeia effect. As a matter of fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeia effect may work at the same time.2)Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelBy syntax we refer to the ways that sentences areconstructed according to the grammar of arrangement. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence clauses and the rule happenings. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as in this kind of order is concerned. Compared:a)He came in and set down.b)He set down and came in.c)He set down after he came in.Sentence (a) means the man came in first and then set down, but (b) means the opposite perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled(推进去) himself into the room. In (c), with the word “after” help, we can reverse the order of the clauses.3)Arbitrariness and conventionIn fact, the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Here we have to look at the other side of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of foreign language, it is conventionality of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. That may be why when we are burying ourselves memorizing idioms, we feel nothing of the arbitrariness of the language but are somewhat tortured (折磨) by its conventionality.8-12 important distinctions in linguistics8.Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.9.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history.E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language is successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.ngue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. petence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.12.Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemicsanalyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.13.Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics14.What are the differences between traditional grammar and modernlinguistics? Illustrate with your own understanding.As we all know, linguistic is concerned with observing facts about language, setting up hypotheses, testing their validity and accepting or rejecting them accordingly. To avoid biases of the kinds mentioned above, modern linguists differ from traditional grammarians in adopting empirical rather than speculative or intuitive approaches in their study. Here are some differences I can find according the text books and my understanding.The first difference: modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive. That is linguists try to make statements which are testable, and take language as it is rather than say how it should be.The second difference: modern linguistics regards spoken rather than written language as primary. Traditional grammar tends to emphasize the importance of written language and the writings.The third difference: modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. In the past, Latin was considered the language that provided a universal grammar for all languages.Here is a form I found from the internet and it can show the differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics simply.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive DescriptiveOver-emphasize written words Spoken language is primaryForce languages into a Latin-based frameworkDo not judge one language by standards of anotherAt last, we should know when criticizing traditional grammar for being unscientific, modern linguistics do not deny altogether the contributions of traditional grammar to the development of modern linguistics. A balance view on traditional grammar is needed in order to track down the continuity of Western linguistic theories from the earliest times to the present day.15.Illustrate the difference between langue and parole with examples you can find.F. De Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, orthe realization of langue.Langue is abstract while parole is concrete. In fact, langue is not spoken by any individual; parole is always a really happening event. Langue is systematic; on the contrary, parole is a pile of complicated speech. Langue exists in our brain, not the words we say. Parole is the words we human beings use to communicate with each other. In a word, langue is the totality of a language or the abstract language system shared by all the members of a speech of a speech community, while parole is the realization of langue in actual use, that is, the concrete act of speaking at a particular time and in a specific situation.Example1: when we Chinese says “do you have dinner?” to an American. The sentence uttered by the Chinese is parole, and how the American understands the sentence is langue.Example2: when Jack said I love you to Rose in the street, the sentences itself is the parole. And how Rose understands this sentence is all about the langue.To sum up, langue is our potential ability to speak while parole is the actual use of language in concrete situation. Langue is social, but parole is individual.End of Chapter 1。
语言学复习重点 第一章
Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics(这一章主要探讨什么是语言，语言的功能是什么，语言的起源和分类，以及，什么是语言学，语言学的研究范围是什么)1.1 The nature of language---什么是语言？一句话总结，Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (systematic, symbolic, arbitrary, primarily vocal, human specific, used for communication)nguage is systematic 系统性（重点：语言的双重性duality）解释：language is systematic since element in it are arranged to certain rules.(e.g.only certain combination of sounds are possible in English)双重性duality: Each language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sound and a system of meaning.nguage is symbolic 符号性（重点：Icon, Index, Symbol 的区分）解释：there is no or little connection between the sounds that people use and objects to which the sounds refer.（这句话丝毫没重点，不过没办法，PPT上这么说，我觉得对符号性的理解应该是people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs 才有逻辑）因为：伟大的现代语言学之父Saussure: linguistics is a subdivision（分支）of semiology(符号学), dealing with language as a special means of human communication. （语言学是符号学的分支，是研究语言作为以一种特殊交流方法的学科。
语言学一至三章重点
语言学一至三章重点Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.1 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2 What are the design features of language?The features that refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication can be called design features.1]ArbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There are different levels of arbitrariness.2] Duality aBy duality is meant the property of having two levels of structure that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. We call sounds here primary units as opposed to such secondary units as words, since the primary units are meaningless and the secondary units have distinct and identifiable meaning.3] CreativityCreativity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language. By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.4] DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent at the moment of communication.1.3 What are the functions of language?1] Informative functionIt is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar. Language serves for the expression of content: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.2] Interpersonal functionBy far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.3] Performative functionThe perfomative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons.4] Emotive functionIt is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against some or something. It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.5] Phatic functionThe phatic function refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or marinating social contact rather than exchanging information or ideas. It refers to the social interaction of language.7] Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about itself. This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking.1.4 What is linguistics?Linguistics is a branch of science which takes language as its object of investigation.1.5 What is the difference between descriptive study and prescriptive study?A linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for correct language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on high written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It believes that whatever occurs in natural speech should be describe in the analysis.1.6What is the difference between synchronic description and diachronic description?The description of a language at some point of time is a synchrony study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.1.7 What are langue and parole? What is the difference between them?F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualizes language, or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints.For F. de Saussure parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instancesof parole, to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.8 What are competence and performance? What is the difference between them?According to N. Chom sky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowle dge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sound2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made,transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected.2.2 What is IPA?On the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time, the International Phonetic Association devised the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in 1888.2.3 What’s the difference between broad and narrow transcriptions?Narrow transcription is meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including the minute shades, while broad transcription is intended to indicate only those sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.2.4 The description of English consonantConsonant Description = voice/voiceless + places of articulation + manners of articulation[p] voiceless bilabial stop2.5 What is phonology?Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.2.6 What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms are supposed to form a minimal pair for example, pill and bill, pill and till, till and dill, till and kill.2.7 What are phone, phoneme and allophone?Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning.A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is unit that is ofdistinctive value.The phones representing a phoneme are called its allophones. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is morpheme?Morpheme: it is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. A morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?A free morpheme is one that ma y constitute a word by itself, such as “bed”, “tree” and “sing”.A bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “-al” in “national”.3.3 What are compound word and derivation word?It refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.According to semantic criteria, compounds fall into two classes:The first class is called endocentric compounds comprising words like armchair (a kind of chair) and houseparty (a kind of party). In each, one constituent is the center and the other is the modifier.The second class is exocentric compounds, consisting ofwords like redskin and birdbrain, in which there is no focal element and the whole refers to something else rather than what either the constituents. Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.3.4 What are lexical changes? Explain them respectively.(1) InventionPeople can create new word coping with the new entities appeared during the social and economic development.(2) BlendingIt is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.(3) AbbreviationA new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial and final parts.(4) AcronymIt is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified head word.(5) Back-formationBack-formation occurs when a real or supposed affix (that is,a prefix or suffix) is removed from a word to create a new one.(6) Analogical creationIt can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.(7) Borrowingi. loanwords: ii. loanblend：iii. loanshif：iv. loan translation：。
语言学 总结
Chapter 1 introductionDefinition of linguisticsThe scientific study or systematic study of languages.Science--linguistics----------literatureScopes of linguisticsMicrolinguistics微观语言学The study of language itself; it studies the various aspects of language, including sound, form and meaning.Sound: phonetics, phonologyForm: morphology, syntaxMeaning: semantics, (pragmatics)MacrolinguisticsThe study of language in relation to other disciplines (interdisciplinary studies): Psycholinguistics: language and mind, language acquisition, comprehension and productionNeurolinguistics: language processing and representationStylistics: science of literature, etc.Some Linguistic Distinctions1.Descriptive & prescriptive grammars2.Synchronic & diachronic linguistics共时语言学历时语言学ngue 语言& parole言语by Saussurepetence语言能力& performance语言应用by Chomsky5.Syntagmatic & paradigmatic relations（横）组合关系和（纵）聚合关系6.Functionalism 功能主义& formalism 形式主义`A system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationsDesign Features-- -- Features that define our human languageI.Arbitrariness 任意性II.Duality 双重性/两重性III.Productivity创造性IV.Interchangeability互换性V.Displacement 移位性VI.Specialization 专门性VII.Cutural transmission传递性VIII.Discreteness 离散性IX.Learnability习得性II Design Features of Language1. Arbitrariness: forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningII Design Features of LanguageIn other words, it is impossible to predict the meaning from the form, or vice versa. Look at the following diagram.wordform meaningonomatopoeia象声词1Apes gibber.猴子唧唧叫Roosters crow. 公鸡喔喔叫Hens cluck. 母鸡咯咯嗒Chicks peep. 小鸡唧唧唧Bulls bellow. Cows moo 老牛哞哞哞Ducks quack.鸭子嘎嘎嘎Cats mew. 小猫喵喵叫Frogs croak.青蛙呱呱呱Goats bleat.小羊咩咩咩Pigs grunt. 小猪呼噜噜Mice squeak. 老鼠吱吱叫Dogs bark. 小狗汪汪叫onomatopoeia象声词2 Bees buzz; they go bzzz.Birds chirp; they go tweet tweet. Cuckoos go cuckoo.Donkeys bray; they go hee-haw.Doves coo.Geese honk.Horses neigh or whinney.Lions roar.Owls hoot; they go hoo.Roosters crow; they go cock-a-doodle-doo.Turkeys go gobble gobble.Wolves howl.Design Features of LanguageAnimals make much the same sounds around the world, but each language expresses them differently.Arbitrary and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time.―It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the fo rm is appropriate.‖ (Widdowson)II Design Features of LanguageThe arbitrary link between a linguistic sign and its meaning, however, is also conventional.Read the following jokeA naughty boy beginning to learn ABC is bothering his teacher repeatedly:―Why we shall read it A?‖―Why we shall read it B?‖ ……The annoyed teacher pinched his nose.―Auch, my nose!‖The annoyed teacher pinched his ear.―Auch, my ear!‖Then the teacher asked:―Why you call it your ear and nose?‖―It is so named and so called.‖―Alright, ABC is so named and so called.‖Design Features of Language:dualityAlso called double articulation( 双重性）: the property of having two levels of structure. 人类语言的双重性主要是指（1 ）用本身无意义的语音构成有意义的语言单位这一事实；（2 ）此外，还指用一个层次上的成分构成另一个层次上的更大单位。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is Word?As different criteria may identity and define different phenomena, it is hard to define “word” scientifically. However, it is agreed that there are three ways of defining “word”, though they can’t cover everything.3.11 Three Senses of “WORD”reference:指称论（the relationship between symbols and the things in outside world that refers to）Sense:词与词的关系（use other words to explain a word, just as we look up the dictionary to find the meaning of a word）(1)A physical definable unitLanguage is produced as a continuous stretch of speech or writing, but one can still pauses and blanks every now and then. Thus, word maybe seen asa set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.For example: It is wonderful.Phonological: /it is wandәful/Orthographic: it’s wonderful(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific termWord may be used both as a general term (then boy and boys are just one word) and as specific terms ( boys and boy are two words). For example:Write/writes/wtote/writing/written(3) A grammatical unitThe grammar of a language contains a set of layers, and word is one of them. ( rank-----hierarchical scale 等级)Clause complex---clause---phrase/ word group---word---morpheme 3.1.2 Identification of words(1) Stability:A word can’t be rearranged, but a sentence can.Word: nothingness **nessnothing(F)Sentence: a. John is a clever boyb. A clever boy John is(2) Relative uninterruptibility:A word can’t be separates or insertedwith other elements, but a sentence can.Word: disappointment *dis(#)appoint(#)mentSentence: Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.(3) A minimum free form: Word is the smallest unit that can be used, byitself, as a complete utterance.Expression: ---Is Jane coming this evening?--- PossiblyException: ----what is missing in a sentence such as ”Dog isbarking ”----- A3.1.3 Classification of Word(1) Variable and invariable wordsWord including①variable words (having inflective changes. E.g.follow/follows/followed/following)②invariable words (not having inflective changes.E.g. since, when, hello)(2) Grammatical words(虚词) and lexical words（实词）①Grammatical words, known as FOUNCTION WORDS, mainly workfor constructing group, phrase, clause, clause, complex clause, such asconj., prep, articles, pron..②Lexical words, known as CONTENT WORDS, mainly work forreferring to substance, action and quality, such as noun, verb, adj., adv.(3) Closed- class and opened-class words①Closed-class word is one whose membership is fixed or limited, thiskind of words can’t easily odd or deduce a new member. such aspronouns, prep, articles and others.②Opened-class word is one whose membership is in principle orunlimited. As noun, verb, adjective, adv.③exception: auxiliary verbs some preposition(regarding, by means of)(4) Word class⑴9 word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,conjunction, interjection, and article.⑵other word classes:①Particles(小品词，语助词): e.g. infinite marker “to”; negative marker “not”②Auxiliaries(助词)：can，has, seems③Pro-form(代动词)：pro-adj(so is mine); pro-v(did);pro-adv(so);pro-locative(there)④Determiners(限定词)：a. Pre-determiners: all, both, half, twiceb. Central-determiners: this, those, every, no, either, yourc. Post-determiners: cardinal numerals(基数)，ordinal numerals(序数)，general ordinals(next, last, other, several, little, a great deal of)3.2 The Formation of Word3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology①Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in language.②Morphology is the study of morpheme and a branch of linguistics. Itstudies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed.3.2.2 Types of Morphemes(1) Free morpheme and bound morpheme①Free morpheme can make up words by itself.(dog, nation)②Bound morpheme must appear with at least another morpheme. (-dis,-ed)(2) Root, affix, and stem①Root is the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyedwithout destroying its meaning(NOTICES: a. Root can be free morpheme or bound morpheme.b. I t can be bound morpheme, such as –ceive inconceive and perceive; -mit in commit and permit.c. I t can be both free morpheme and bound morpheme.Child and child- in children))②Affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be usedonly when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), including prefix(para-, mini-, un-,) , suffix(-ise, -tion),infix(abso-bloomingly-lutely)③Stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added. For example:a.friend- in friends shows that a stem may be the same as a rootb.friendship- in friendships indicates that a stem may contain a rootand one, or more than one, derivational affix.3) Inflective affix and derivational affixThe differences between inflective affix and derivational affix:①.inflective affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes;②.inflective affixes do not change the word class of the word they attach to,while derivational affixes often change the lexical lexical meaning;③.inflective affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final(e.g.-s). But derivational affixes can both be prefixes(e.g. sub-, de-) andsuffixes(e.g. -er, -able )3.2.3 Inflection and word formationTo be more specific, there are two fields that morphology is concerned with: (ⅰ).The study of inflections( also called as INFLECTIONA MORPHOLOGY);(ⅱ). The study of word formation( often referred to as LEICAL or DERIV ATIONAL MORPHONOLOGY)⑴INFLECTION indicates grammatical relations by addinginflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect andcase; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical classof the stem(to which they are attached) will not change. Forexample,(a)number: table/tables(b)person: finiteness and aspect;open/opens/opening/opened(c)case: boy/boy’s⑵Word formationWord-formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how words are formed.Two sub-types: a. the compositional type(COMPOUND)b. the derivational type(DEROV ATION)ⅰ、Compound⑴(a)NOUN COMPOUNDS(构成词是名词)e.g. day+brea k→daybreak(b)VERB COMPOUNDS（构成词是动词）e.g. lip+rea d→lipread(c)ADJECTIVE COMPOUNDS(构成词是形容词)e.g. dut y+free→dutyfree(b)PREPOSITION COMPOUNDS（构成词是介词）e.g. in+t o→into⑵two kinds of compound: (a)endocentric compound(self-control)(b)exocentric compound(breakthrough)⑶the ways of written(a) as a single word(wardrobe, birdseed, bodyguard)(b)joined with a hyphen”-”(rest-room, wedding-ring)(c)with ordinary space between two words(washingmachine)ⅱDerivationDerivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes, and make the word class of the original word either changed (length--lengthen)or unchanged (non+smoker=nonsmoker)3.2.4 Sememe & Morpheme and Phoneme & Morpheme⑴Sememe vs. morphemeSememe is the smallest component of meaning, while morpheme is smallest unit of meaning①one morpheme vs. one sememe②one morpheme vs. more than one sememe③one sememe vs. more than one morpheme④morphemes that have no specific sememe⑤function changes in both sememe and moepheme without morphemechange⑵Morpheme vs. phoneme①a single phoneme vs. a single morpheme②a single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme③allomorph④morphemic conditionsa. phonological conditionedb. morphonologically conditioned3.3 Lexical Change3.3.1 Lexical change proper⑴Invention: Coke, Nylon, granola⑵Blending: transfer(initial)+resister(final)=transistor. digital(initial)+computer(initial)=digicomAnother sort of blending is called FUSION, such as rippe(ripple+shuffle), stample(trample+stample), and spinwheels(pinwheel+spin)(3) Abbreviatiom(also called CLIPPING)缩写词e.g. advertisemen t→adbicylc e→bike(4) Acronym(缩略词)e.g. CI A→Central Intelligence Agency(5) Back-formation: editor---edit(6) Analogical creation: work→wrough t→worked; sla y→sle w→slayed(7)Borrowing: a Loanwords: borrow both form and meaning(au pair fromFrench);b .Loanblend: borrow the meaning, the form isblended(china-town);c Loanshift: meaning is borrowed and the form isnative(bridge); loan translation(翻译借词):：black humor 3.3.2 Morph-Syntactical Change(词素句法变化)(1) Morphological change: third person; plural form, possessive case(2) Syntactical changes:--Split infinitive:e.g.. I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it--Postponed Preposition:e.g.The person is impossible to work with--Objective case of relative pronoune.g. The girl who(m) he talked about is a violinist3.3.3 Semantic change(1) Broadening is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from itsoriginally specific sense to a relatively general one.e.g. “holiday”→”holy day” in religious Englis h→”a day for rest”(2) Narrowing is contrary to broadening: the original meaning of a word canbe narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.e.g. meat→“food”→the edible flesh of mammals.(3) Meaning shift here understood in its narrow sense, that is, the change of meaning has nothing to do with generalization or restriction as mentioned above.e.g. “bead”→“the prayer bead”→“small, ball-shaped piece of glass,metal or wood”(4) class shift: By changing the word class one can change the meaning of aword from a concrete or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as ZERO-DERIV ATION, or CONVERSIONe.g. hog→N(a pig)→V(to take and keep (all of something) foroneself )(5) folk stymology(民俗词源学) refers to the change of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaningof the term, or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenlytaken to be analogous.e.g. Spanish cucaracha changed into English cokroach3.3.4 Phonological change(1) loss(省音)：temperature /’tempәrәt ә/----/’temprәt /(2) Addition(增音)：a(n) article(3) Metathesis(换位)：is a process involving a change in the sequence ofsound.e.g. They taxed him with his failures. (accused)They took him to task for his failures. ( scolded)(4) Assimilation: 同化cap----can3.3.5 Orthographic changea. The same day went Iesus(sun)out of the house, and sate by theseaside.b. And when the Sunne (sun) was up, they were scorched11 / 11。