词汇学第三章
词汇学 _ 《现代汉语词汇》笔记
词汇学 | 《现代汉语词汇》笔记第⼀章绪论词汇学与词汇词汇学：以语⾔中的词汇为研究对象的学科，是语⾔学的分⽀之⼀词汇：语⾔中词语的总和，包括词和固定语固定语：语⾔中可以把词作为构成部分的、同词⼀样作为⼀个整体来运⽤的语⾔单位。
包括熟语和专⻔⽤语词汇学分类普通词汇学（⼀般词汇学）：研究词汇的普遍规律具体词汇学（个别词汇学）：如汉语词汇学、英语词汇学等汉语词汇学汉语历史词汇学：历时发展演变汉语描写词汇学：共时某时现象上古汉语词汇学中古汉语词汇学近代汉语词汇学现代汉语词汇学－本课内容词汇学的产⽣和发展（了解）前身：中国古代语⾔研究三“⼩学”—⾳韵学、训诂学、⽂字学古代语⾔学名著《尔雅》训诂学第⼀本义类词典《⽅⾔》⽤通⾔解释⽅⾔《释名》语⾔考理据《说⽂解字》第⼀本⽂字学书籍字形考理据“五四”—40年代以来词汇研究汉语词汇学建⽴与发展20c50y：汉语词汇学真正建⽴：涌现了⼀批专家与著作，确定研究的对象、任务和范围60y：研究⽅法更新，词语意义的结构70y：引进义素分析法80y：由定性研究逐渐转为定量研究21c初：计量分析主导词汇学研究总体情况词汇学研究内容：以现代汉语词汇为研究对象，研究词的性质、创造和结构、词义内容、词义发展、词的各种关系、词汇划分与关系等现代汉语词汇特点语素以单⾳节为主，词以双⾳节为主，但单⾳节词使⽤频率更⾼多⾳节词主要来源古代汉语：仿佛徘徊犹豫其他语⾔：咖啡巧克⼒沙发词语呈现双⾳化趋势为什么？内在驱动⼒：词义表达复杂化的需求与有限词形之间的⽭盾社会发展：旧词新义、⾳变构词、两个词复合构词语⾳系统简化（避免同⾳）明确表意：新产⽣的双⾳词意义明确；原有单⾳节词部分义项被取代⽽减少审美追求（双⾳节的韵律形式）句法词汇化受外来词影响结果：⻓度增加，表义明确途径单⾳节语素前或后加上辅助性相关成分：眼泪头发⽑笔松⿏⽉亮眉⽑单⾳节语素的前⾯或后⾯添加⼀个不表示具体意义的附加成分：⽼⻁阿姨桌⼦⽯头意义相同、相近或相对的单⾳节语素联合起来使⽤：国家意义寻找⽛⻮⽪肤忘记停⽌单⾳节语素重叠：哥哥妈妈爸爸仅仅静静紧紧星星单⾳节词替换成与原语素⽆关的双⾳节词：眼睛（⽬）筷⼦（箸）匣⼦（椟）⼤腿（股）三⾳节词省略其中⼀个因素照相机—相机外国语—外语电视机—电视四⾳节及其以上的词语缩略：对外贸易—外贸国有企业—国企复合词为主，内部构造与短语⼤体⼀致：并列偏正动宾动补主谓同义词数量多，同⾳语素多：适应不同需要，之间互补，具有多样性和可伸缩性词汇与⾮词汇界限模糊，切词困难语素构词理据性强，即语素义对词义有明显提示作⽤少量语素构成⼤量合成词缺少词形变化成语⼀般由四个⾳节组成⾳节相对⽽⾔较短量词、语⽓词丰富离合词多，使⽤频率⾼叠⾳词多，重叠形式较为丰富词汇学与语⾔学相关学科的关系（了解）与语⾳学：语⾳是语⾔的物质外壳，是词语的存在形式词的意义靠语⾳⼿段来表现，语⾳是词的⾳响形式。
现代汉语(黄伯荣、廖序东版)课件--第三章 词汇
词汇
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第三章 词汇 第一节 词汇概述 第二节 词的构成 第三节 词义 第四节 义素分析和语义场 第五节 词汇的构成
第六节 词语的解释和运用 第七节 词典和字典
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第一节词汇概述 词汇是语言的建筑材料，没有词汇，任何语言都是不可想象的。 要使自己的语言 生动活泼， 就要掌握丰富的词汇；要掌握词汇， 这就要求我们学习有关词汇的基本知识，了解词的内部 结构规律， 正确地理解和解释词义，以便提高我们的阅读和表达能力。 一、词和词汇 (一)词 词是能够自由运用的、最小的语言单位。它代表一定的意义，具 有固定的语音形式 。 所谓“能够自由运用”，是指词本身具有一定的语法功能，可以 独立地自由地用来造 句，能 自由地从一句话换到另一句话里去。 例如“小红吃葡萄”里的三个词，都可以分别自由地用 来造句， 并不是一定要这样固定地结合在一起，我们也可以说“小红爱学 习”、“他吃苹果 ”、“葡萄丰收了”等。
多音节语素数量不多，在现代汉语语素中不占主要地位，一般也比较容 易辨认。
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(2)实语素和虚语素
实语素是具有比较实在的词汇意义的语素，虚语素是没有实在的词 汇意义的语素。 例如：“ 改革”中的“改”和“革”，以及“胖 子”“阿姨” “以前”中的“胖”“姨”“前”都有 实在的词汇意义， 都是实语素；其中的“子”“阿”“以”都没有实在的词汇意义(只表示 一些语法意义或抽象的词汇意义)，都是虚语素。 汉语的语素中绝大部分是实语素，虚语素的数量很少。汉语中多音 节语素基本上都是实语素 ，单音节语素中绝大多数都是实语素，极少数 是虚语素。 虚语素可以分两种：一种是具有抽象的词汇意义的，主要用来构成 汉语的虚词，其构词能力 很弱，数量也十分有限，如“以前”中的“以” 和“因而”中的“因”和“而”；另一种是 具有特定的语法意义的，其 构词能力很强，数量也不多。 这后一种由于在词中的位置比较固定，处 于词的前部的叫前缀，处于词的后 部的叫后缀 。总起来叫词缀，跟词缀 相对的叫词根(是词中表示基本意义 的语素)。例如：“阿姨”“胖子” 中的“阿 ”和“子”，分别是前缀和后缀(都是虚语素)，“姨”和“胖” 则是词根(都是实语素)。
词汇学-第三章
Main points
• Morpheme • Allomorph • Types of morphemes • 1) Free morpheme • 2) Bound morpheme
Main points
• a. bound root • b. affixes • i. inflectional affixes • ii. derivational affixes • prefixes • suffixes • Root and stem
Morphemes
Undesirability---Undesirability----un+ -desire+ -able+ -ity Improvement---Improvement----im+ -prove+ -ment
Definition of the morpheme
• MORPHEME is the smallest unit in
English Lexicology
Chapter 3 Word formation I
Abstract
• This chapter aims to analyze the
morphological structures of words and gain a working knowledge of the different word forming elements. It also expounds the basic conceptions of morpheme, allomorph, classify morphemes and differentiate root and stem.
Types of morphemes
词汇语义学第三章
• 4、物物桥(thing meaning-thing meaning bridge)
• 具有引申关系的两个义位分别属于不同 的物类语义场，它们之间的语义桥就叫 做物物桥。如：动物义︽物义。腥：猪 肉→生味，︽的义素是[生肉的气味]；节： 竹节→骨节，关节，︽的义素是[像竹子 的形状]（形状相似上来进行引申的）。
• 2、总分桥(holonym-meronymy bridge) • 部分义︽整体义 • 脸：颧骨部分→脸，︽的义素是[面部主 要部分]功：从事某项工作所做出的成就 →功劳，功勋，︽的义素是[成就]；国： 国家→首都，︽的义素是[所在的位置]； 色：脸色→妇女的美貌，︽的义素是[相 貌]
• 3、物人桥（thing meaning-human meaning bridge） • 多义词词位内部的一个义位（属于物语 义场或人语义场），通过性质、功能等 相似或具有某方面的联系而引申出另一 义位（人语义场或物语义场）。它们之 间的关系反映到语义桥上就是“物人 桥”，具体包括以下几种桥。
语义场中的义位结构
• 2、连锁型结构 如“手心”的“手掌的中心”义 连锁型结构（concatenation structure）中 和“比喻所控制的范围”义，后 多义词每个义位都只与最近的义位生直 者是前者通过比喻手段产生出的 意义，二者具有时间上的先后关 接的联系，是呈线性扩展的。具体来说， 系。“手心”属于链条型的多义 初始义位A只有一个可作为生长点的义素 结构。 由此引申演变出一个义位B；同理，B又 引申出C，C又引申出D，等等。
（二）语义场中的义结构
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“有心”就属于辐射型的多义结构，它的 “有心计”“有志向”“有情意，有爱 应用拓扑结构理论，根据多义词各个义 心”“有意、故意”等几个义位很难说具 位之间相互关联的性质，可以划分出三 有前后相继的引申关系。
现代汉语词汇学第三章 造词法
50年代后开始有所区分，关于其关系的几种观点：
1. 概念纠缠不清
张寿康《构词法和构形法》：作为一门科学， 构词法就是研究咱们语言中词的构造的规律的 学问。产生新词的时候，新词的结构就是按构 词法产生的。
构形法：构形是词的形态变化的问题。一个词通过不同的形态 变化，来表现不同的语法意义。词的形态变化的方法就是构 形法。
有从事物颜色方面进行说明的
白茫茫、白蒙蒙、白皑皑、白晃晃等；
有从事物情状进行注释说明的
白食、白干、自给、白搭、白吃、白送等；
有从事物的方式进行说明
表白、辩白、独白、道白、告白、剖白等。
有从事物的内涵方面进行说明的
4. 刘叔新 《汉语描写词汇学》（1990）：
其造词法系统是迄今为止最科学、最合理 的一个体系，其科学性与合理性主要得益 于其分类原则的科学性，即一次划分只能 使用一个准则。
第三章 造词法
一、关于造词法和构词法
在构词法研究的早期，构词法系统中 除了对词语作结构分析外，还常常包括 对造词手段的探讨。
译音之字
琉璃、琵琶、般若
合名为词
乔松（《史记·蔡泽传》称王乔、赤松子） 伊管（《邹阳传》称伊尹、管仲）
破字为词
言午（许）、弓长（张）
截名为词
蔺相（《费凤碑》称蔺相如） 葛亮（《晋书》称诸葛亮）
* 外号——号外 年终——终年
（3）变调法 古汉语中： 风（N）——风（V）、冠（N）——冠（V） 好（A）——好（V）、饮（上）——饮（去） 现代汉语中： 男人——男人 女人——女人 肚子——肚子 老公——老公 老子——老子 孙子——孙子
（4）合音法 多咱 俩人 甭说了 不可 之于
河南沛县： 泡（pào）——扑燎（pǔliɑo） 啥（shà）——什么 zuà ： 相声大师侯宝林在他的《戏剧与方言》段 子里，讲到两个河南人对话：“谁？” “我！”
第三章 英语词汇学
3.3.2 Bound morphemes
6. Bound Morphemes —— The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are found in derived words. 粘附词素——它们主要粘附在别的词素上才能构成词。 粘附词素主要出现在派生词里。 e.g. recollection （re + collect + ion） collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）
词素变体有些词素根据他们在词中的位置不同可以有一个以上的不同形素实现这些不同的形素叫词素变体
Chapter 3
Word Formation Ⅰ
It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning. However, structurally, a word is not the smallest unit because many word can be separated into even smaller meaningful unit.
What is the smallest unit of a language?
3.1 Morphemes
1. Morpheme —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.） 词素是最小的有意义的语言单位。（最小的功 能单位） 比较：a word is a minimal free form of a 比较 language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
第三章 词汇语义学
B. 义素和义位的关系 比较两对概念：a. 音素／音位 a. 音素／音位 ⅰ. 音位 ＝ {[音素１]，[音素２]，[音素３]……} ⅱ. 音位和音素的关系是“类别”和“成员” 例如：英语中，音位[k]的成员包括/k/和/k'/两个音素 b. 义素／义位 ⅰ. 义位 ＝ [义素１] 并且 [义素２] 并且 [义素３] ⅱ. 义位和义素的关系是“整体”和“部分” 例如：“男孩”这个义位由[+男]、[-成年]、[+人]三个义 位构成，必须同时满足这三个条件 和 b. 义素／义位
b. 第二层：概括一词类中部分词的“语义·语法义素”，如： 名词：生物、非生物；具体、抽象 动词：及物、不及物；状态、心理 形容词：颜色、形状、质料 上表中四个词的第二层义素是“不及物”、“非心理” c. 第三层：一个义场的各义位的“上位语义义素” 也就是是各个义位所共有的“共性义素”，也叫“类素” 在上表四词中是“人或鸟兽的脚”和“移动” d. 第四层：下位语义义素中主要的个性义素 这类义素表示的是主要区别特征 在上表四词中是“方向”和“速度”
二、义位的微观结构 1. 义位的微观结构和宏观结构 a. 义位的微观结构是指义位的内部结构 b. 义位的宏观结构是指义位和义位之间的结构 2. 微观结构中的相关概念 ① 义值和义域 A. 义值和义域是义位的下位概念，两者共同构成义位 B. 义值是词的形式所表示的意义——是义位的质 C. 义域是义位的意义范围和使用范围——是义位的量 a. 笔 写字画图的工具。（《现汉》）——义值 b. 笔 包括了铅笔、钢笔、圆珠笔、粉笔、画笔 、 毛笔等等。——义域
2. 给义位作定义的不同角度 ① 义位相当于词的一个义项 ② 义位是自由的最小语义单位 区别于义素、素义、义丛 ③ 义位是最基本的语义单位 ④ 义位是义素的综合体 给 = [+使（谁），+具有] 获得 = [+开始，+具有] 丢失 = [+停止，+具有] 保存 = [-停止，+具有] ⑤ 义位是语义系统中的抽象常体 书：装订成册的著作（《现代汉语词典》） A. 什么书？古书、旧书、新书、丛书、禁书、兵书、辞书、福 音书、工具书、黄书、教科书、经书、历书、琴书、史书、 闲书、小人书、医书、韵书、字书
英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案
Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words We have discussed the historical, cultural and social factors that facilitate (使……容易；推动) the development of the English vocabulary. Borrowing, as we see, has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary. In modern times, however, vocabulary is mainly enlarged on an internal basis. That is, we use word-building material available in English to create new words. But before we discuss the actual ways and means to make new words, we need to have a clear picture of the structure of English words and their components (成分) —word-forming elements. This chapter will discuss morphemes(语素；词素), their classification(分类) and identification(辨别), the relationship between morphemes and word-formation(构词法).3.1 MorphemesTraditionally, words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules(句法规则). Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take decontextualization for example. This is one word, but can be broken down into de-, con-, text, -a/ , -iz(e), -ation , each having meaning of its own. These segments (部分) cannot be furtherdivided; otherwise, none of them would make any sense. Though -ation has a number of variants (变体) such as -tion, -sion, -ion, they belong to the same suffix as they have the same meaning and grammatical function and occur owing to (因为；根据) different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes (morphe is the Greek word for 'form'; -eme as in 'phoneme' (音素) means 'class of' ). In view of word-formation, the morpheme is seen as 'the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words' (Crystal 1985). Syntactically(从句法上看), however, a morpheme is the minimal form of grammatical analysis (语法分析). For instance, each of the word-forms studies, studying, studied, consists of the morpheme study + ; the forms -es in studies, -ing in studying, -ed in studied are morphemes, which express grammatical concepts (语法概念) instead of deriving new words (See Classifying Morphemes).3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs(词素变体)Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units (具体单位) known as morphs(形素). 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning' (Bolinger and Sears 1981:43). In other words the phonetic or orthographic strings(语音串或拼写字串)or segments (切分成分；节) which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs' (Bauer 1983:15). The morpheme isto the morph what a phoneme (音位) is to a phone (音素). Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, green , sad, want, desire, etc. . These morphemes coincide (巧合) with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a set of morphs in different sound context, e. g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in matches /iz/. The alternates (作为替换的事物) /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are three different morphs. The same is true of the link verb morpheme {be}. Its past tense is realized by two distinct orthographic forms was , were, each of which happens to be a word-form, realizing {preterit} and {singular}, and {preterit} and {plural} respectively and each has its own phonetic form /woz/ or /wə:/. Therefore, both was, were and their phonetic forms /woz/ and /wə: / are morphs (See discussion in Bauer, p15).An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. Just as we class phones(音素) together as allophones (音位变体) of a single phoneme(音位), so we class morphs together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Take the plural morpheme {-s} again. Phonetically, it is realized by /s/, /z/, /iz/, all of which are allomorphs. In English, many morphemes canhave more than one allomorph, particularly those freestanding morphemes which are functional words in their own right. Once they occur in connected speech, they may be realized by different forms, depending on whether they are accented or weakened (Look at the data in the table).Morphem e AllomorphStrong Weak{am} /aem/ /əm/, /m/{ was} /woz/ /WəZ/{have } /haev/ /həv/, /v/{would } /wud/ /wəd/, /əd/,/d/{he} /hi:/ /i:/, /i/{his} /hiz/ /iz/{for} /fo:/ /fə/{to} /tu:/ /tu/, /tə/Then what is the difference between morphs and allomorphs? The relationship can be illustrated by the diagram below.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph →allomorph/wud/ /wəd/ /əd/ /d/3.3 Classifying MorphemesMorphemes vary in function. Accordingly, we can classify morphemes into several general categories: free versus bound, derivational versus inflectional, and lexical versus grammatical. However, their boundaries are not as clear-cut as they appear to be due to some overlapping(重叠). For the sake of discussion, we shall define each type in terms of its characteristics.1. Free versus Bound Morphemes(自由词素与粘着词素)This is the easiest and most preferred classification in morphological studies, discussed in Hatch and Brown (1995), Crystal (1985), Fromkin and Rodman (1983), Bauer (1983), Bolinger and Sears (1981) and Matthews (2000). Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with(与……完全相同) words, for example, man, earth, wind, car and anger.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particulargrammatical function.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words (派生词). Let us take recollection, idealistic and ex-prisoner for example. Each of the three words comprises three morphemes: recollection (re- collect-ion) , idealistic (ideal-ist-ic) , ex-prisoner (ex- prison -er). Of the nine morphemes, collect, ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes. All the rest re-, -ion , -ist, -ic, ex-and -er are bound as none of them are freestanding units.Free morphemes are all roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words like collect, ideal, prison , whereas bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes, most of which can be used to create new words like -dict- , -ced- (接近；去), re-, -ion, -ist, -ic and ex-(前). But there are a few affixes which can only indicate such grammatical concepts as tense, aspect, number and case, for example, the -ing in watching, -er in easier, -s in books, and -ed in worked.The English language possesses a multitude of (大量的) words made up of merely bound morphemes, e. g. antecedent, which can be broken down into ante-, -ced- and -ent. Among them, -ced- is a root meaning 'approach, go to', ante-, a prefix meaning 'before' and -ent, a noun suffix meaning 'a person, a thing', thus the whole word antecedent meaning 'something that goes before'(前例；前事；先行词；祖先). These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root (See Root, Stem, Base) and affix.2. Derivational versus Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes (派生词素) because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.In English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes. For example, a + mor + ai, clear + ance, Life + Like and homo + gen + eous are results of such morphological processes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折词素), in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios and potatoes; the same forms can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular such as likes, works and goes; the form -'s is used to denote the possessive case of nouns such as the children ' s library, the man ' s role and the mother-in-law' s complaints; the suffixes -er, -est are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative degrees like happier—happiest,harder—hardest. Apart from these, there is the past tense marker -ed and progressive marker -ing added to verbs. The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes can be summarized as follows (See Hatch and Brown, p266): Inflectional Derivational(1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem (1) Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.(2) Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(3) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs at margins of words.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.3. Content versus Grammatical MorphemesOn a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content and grammatical morphemes (Traugott and Pratt 1980:90; Bolinger and Sears, pp66~70; Hatch and Brown, p267). Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used as wesee above to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. These morphemes, whether free or bound, have a lexical content, hence the name. Grammatical morphemes, on the other hand, function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, -while, -where, but and that, which are traditionally called functional words.3.4 Identifying Morphemes(词素的区分)Since morphemes are the minimal distinct units, they should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution. Generally speaking, lexical morphemes are easy to define:Mono-morphemic: land, skyDouble-morphemic: chill + y, mis + takeTriple-morphemic: anti + govern + ment, sports + man + shipFour-morphemic:un + friend + li + ness, morph + olog( i) + cal + lyOver-four-morphemic: inter + nation + al + iz(e) + ationIf the morphemes are always consistent in form and meaning, there should be no difficulty in identification(区分). However, thereis often mismatch(不一致)between form and meaning. Some morphemes are identical(相同的) in form but different in meaning, for instance, -er in teacher, clearer and eraser. -er in teacher means 'one who', but -er in clearer indicates 'the comparative degree', and -er in eraser denotes 'an object'. Therefore, -er in each case is a different morpheme.Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation(单独)but acquire meaning by virtue of(通过)their connection in words (Fromkin and Rodman, p116). The classic examples are cranberry(越橘), huckleberry (黑果；乌饭树浆果)and boysenberry(博弈增莓), each seeming to be a kind of berry. But when cran-, huckle- and boysen- are isolated, they are meaningless and they are incapable of forming new words with other morphemes rather than with berry. There are other morphemes which occur in many words, but their meaning is difficult to define, for instance, -ceive in conceive (想象；设想), perceive(感觉，察觉；认为)and receive. Some forms are meaningful, but not morphemes, such as fl- meaning 'moving light' in flash , flame and flicker(闪烁，忽隐忽现), and gl-meaning 'static light' in glow(发光，燃烧)，glisten (闪耀；反光)and glitter(闪光；光彩夺目). These are only sound symbols often employed by poets in their literary creation but do not qualify as morphemes.The identification of inflectional morphemes is more problematic. In most cases, an inflectional morpheme can be segmented (切分)from the stem of a word and naturally can be added to the stem like the plural morpheme {s} in gloves, tables and classes. But what is the plural morpheme in men, sheep and feet ? The same is true of the past tense morpheme {ed} , which is explicit and segmentable in walked, loaded and danced. How can we isolate the past tense morpheme from knew, taught and cut ? To solve the problem, we have to resort to other ways.3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationWe know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.1. AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes because none of them can stand as words in their own right. According to the functions of affixes, we can divide them into inflectional affixes like -s, -ed and -ing, and derivational affixeslike pre-, ex-, de-, -less, -dom and -ic. Derivational and inflectional affixes are identical with derivational and inflectional morphemes. In view of their distribution in the formation of words, affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Prefixes are all derivational, i.e. they are used to form new words whereas suffixes embrace(包括) both derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes. Accordingly, the above-mentioned affixes can be further grouped into prefixes: pre-, ex- and de-y and suffixes: -less, -dom, -zc, -5, -ed and -ing.2. Root, Stem, BaseBefore we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes, there are some basic concepts that need clarifying(澄清). The processes of derivation and compounding involve different word-forming elements: affixes and root or stem or base. Indeed, some people use root or stem undiscriminatingly (不加区别地) on all occasions. But these three terms are not the same, and they denote to a greater or lesser degree different concepts despite the semantic overlapping between them.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity (Crystal 1985). As mentioned earlier, the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the maincomponent of meaning in a word. In the word internationalists, removing inter- , -at, -ist, -s leaves the root nation. If we further divide nation as * na/tion or * at /ion, though -tion and -ion coincide with the noun suffix, the other part is meaningless and the original lexical identity is totally lost. Therefore, nation defies(使不能；使落空)further analysis. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a 'root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed' (Bauer 1983). Take internationalists again. After the removal of the inflectional affix -s and the derivational affixes -ist, -al and inter-, nation is what is left and thus is the root.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, understatement. To make things more clearly, we say that the stem is used only when we deal with inflectional affixes. As Bauer defines, a stem is 'that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed' (ibid). In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem. Consider the word internationalists again. Nation is a root as well as a stem as the plural -s can be added to it; national is not a root as it can be further divided, but a stem because an inflectionalaffix -s can be added to it when used as a noun; similarly, international is not a root but a stem for the same reason. This is also true of internationalist, which is a stem.A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. In the case of internationalists, nation is a base, national is a base, so are international and internationalist.nation(root, stem, base)national(stem, base)international(stem, base)internationalist (stem, base)InternationalistsIt should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base. This is not true. In many cases, a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem, but only a base. This often happens when we deal with derivational affixes exclusively, for example impracticality(不切实际；无用；不现实). Removing the derivational affix -ity leaves only the base form impractical, and by further removing im- we have the base form practical left and by still further analysis, only practice remains.impracticalityimpractical (base)practical(base)practice(root, stem, base)Therefore, in the chapters to follow, we shall employ only the term base to refer to any basic word-building element.英语词汇学第三单元课后练习及答案Questions and Tasks1. Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions.a. a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( )b. one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( )c. a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme ( )d. a morpheme that can stand alone ( )e. a morpheme attached to a base, stem or root ( )f. an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( )g. an affix that forms new words with a base, stem or root ( )h.what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( )i. that part of a word that can take inflectional affixes ( ) j. a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( )2. What is the difference between grammatical and lexicalmorphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes?Give examples to illustrate their relationships.3. Analyze the words in terms of root, stem and base.individualistic undesirablesanize the following terms in a tree diagram to show their logical relationships.affix morphemederivational affix free rootbound root inflectional affixprefix free morphemebound morpheme suffix参考答案1. a. morphemeb. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affixh. rooti. stemj. base2. Inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end ofwords to denote grammatical concepts such as -s (-es) , -ed,-ing and -est (to show superlative degree of adjectives andadverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes andsuffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un- , -lion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles,auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and was; lexicalmorphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixesand suffixes.3.individualisticindividualist+ic[stem, base]individual+ist[stem, base]individu+al[stem, base]in+dividu[root, stem, base]undesirablesun+desirable[stem, base]desir+able[root, stem, base]4. morpheme free morpheme=free rootbound morpheme bound rootaffix inflectional affixderivational affix prefixsuffix。
词汇学 第三单元
专有名词变为一般名词
Eponyms
Eponyms are words derived from proper names and are another of the many creative ways that the vocabulary of a language expands.
二、逆生法
Back-formation
For example, peddle was derived from peddler on the mistaken assumption that the er was the agentive seffix. Such words are called back formations.
Back formation(reversion)
In all these cases the verb was made from the noun by sebstructing what was mistakenly associated with the English suffix-er.
首字母缩略词
Initialism
Another reduction process is the use of initialization in words such as FBI,UCLA,or BYU,where each letter in the word is pronounced.
Abbreviations and the use of special symbols
Abbreviation is marked most generally by a single period following an initial letter or shortened form of a word，as in Gen.Bradley，U.K.,i.e.,etc.（but some printers ，as in this book，conventionally italicize i.e. and e.g. without periods）.
英语词汇学教程课件第3章English Lexicology 3
Lecture Three
The Development of English
The 5000 or so languages of the world can be grouped into about 300 language families, on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammars.
The early English settlers do not seem to have made much of an effort to understand the language of the Britons. They did not learn many words from the Celts. The English added only a handful of Celtic words to their language, like clout, cradle, crock, dun, slough, cumb (valley), torr (hill). Place names formed a large group. Thames, Wye and Avon are Celtic river names, and so are some city names like York, London, Kent. These words came into English as the result of daily contact between Celt and Anglo-Saxon.
Because of these and other influences, the English vocabulary changed enormously and became the largest and most complex in the world, and the grammar changed its emphasis from inflections to word order.
词汇学第三单元ppt课件
例：萧伯纳 George Bernard Shaw (G.B.S.)
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Ⅲ.首字母拼音词
• 把首字母组成的缩略词拼读成一个词，就是首字 母拼音词。
• 涉及面：科技用语；组织名称；产品名称；国际 机构等
截短词有鲜明的文体色彩，只适用于口语或非正 式场合。例如，exam（考试）、prof（教授） 拼写稍作改动，以便发音。例如dub double（为 电影配音）
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II. 首字母缩略词
• 首字母缩略法是将社团名称、特殊名词短语或专 业术语的第一个字母组合在一起的构词方法。利 用第一个词的首字母代表一个词组的缩略词，就 叫做首字母缩略词。
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• 个别截短词演变出新的词义
例如，fan（体育运动、电影等爱好者）来自fanatic （狂热者，入迷者）。
• 截短词和原词同时存在，但截短词是通用的词， 而原词却不常用，甚至带有书卷气。
例如：lunch luncheon（午餐）、movie movie picture（电影） 词义有分工，例如，cute（小巧可爱的） acute （敏锐的）、mend（修理） amend（修订、改 良）、spy（间谍） espy（窥见）
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IV.拼缀词
拼缀法：将两个词的某一部分合并，或者在一个词上加上另一 个词的一部分而构成新词的一种方法，拼缀法只能裁剪两个词 中的一个，把一个不完整的词和一个完整的词拼成另一个词，
这样的构词方法叫做“拼缀词”，“合成词”“混成词 （teleseope word）”或者“行囊词（portmanteau word）”
英语专业【词汇学】课件：III. classification of words
smoke eater 消防员 clock watcher 磨洋工的人 Let‟s hit the road. 我们出发吧.
Bottle-man: drunkard
Semi-detached → 与他屋一侧相连的（房舍）→ 与妻子分居而未离婚的男子
oomph: 喘气的拟声词，‘秀色迷人、性感’、精力、热 情 Marilyn Monroe had lots of oomph. 玛丽莲· 梦露十分性感迷人。 It’s not a bad song, but it needs more oomph. ……但尚需更多的热情。
6) literary words:
words mainly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches.
Tomato→ a beautiful girl Chicken→ coward nut, dome, upper→ head merry, comfortable, boiled→ drunk cancer stick 香烟
The tube 1. (Am.E) 电视 2. （ Austr. E) 一瓶/罐啤酒 3. 香烟 4. v.i (Am.E) 做得很差
Obvious Characteristics: 1)All National Words of the basic word stock belong to people as a whole, not to a limited group, a certain region or a certain profession.
词汇学Chapter-3-Morphological-structure-of-English-words
Allomorph 词素变体
• An allomorph refers to a number of a set of morphs, which present one morpheme. 词素变体指一套形素中的一个成员，表征一个 词素。
When the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog, and horse, it is pronounced differently as /-s, -z,
but they cannot be further divided, otherwise they will not make any sense.
Morphemes may have some variants, e.g. - ation. May also be -tion, -sion,-ion, but they
9. Stupig 笨猪
decontextualization
decontextualization
• de-; 否定、非、相反：destruction, dematerialize… 除去、取消、毁：desalt, de-oil, de-water…
• con-; 共同,一起;加强意义：conclude, condense… • text; 编制: context, pretext, textbook, textile • -al; 表示属于…的、具有…性质的：
personal, global, natural… 构成抽象名词，表示行为、状况、事情：
refusal, removal, arrival… • -iz(e); 表示“…化”、按照…样子去做、按…方式去处理：
modernize, realize, organize, popularize… • -ation; 表示行为、情况、状态：starvation, invitation…
词汇学第三章
词汇学第三章第三章词语结构1我们已经讨论了历史文化社会因素对英语词汇发展的促进作用。
尽管借词正如所说，在词汇的扩张中扮演了重要的角色，但是在现代，词汇还是依靠内部基础进行扩充。
也就是说，我们使用英语中存在的材料，不管是本土的还是国外的，去创造一些新词。
在我们开始涉及词语构成的方法之前，我们需要分析词语的语形结构获得用来构成新词的不同构词元素的积极认识。
Facilitate减轻Internal内部的Morphological语形学Morphemes词素Denaturalization非自然性Variant变体Suffix后缀Owe to 由于3.1词素通常来说一个词是能独自表达意义的最小语言单位。
然而从结构上说，一个词并非最小单位因为许多词可以被划分成更小的意义单位。
以denaturalization为例，这是一个词，却能分为de- nature –al –ize –ation,每部分有它自己的含义。
这些碎片不能够进一步划分，否则，他们将不能表示任何意义。
尽管－ation有一些变体，象是-tion –sion –ion，但是当它们有同样的意义和语法功能时它们属于同一个后缀。
这些不同的形式出现是因为存在不同的发声环境。
这些最小的意义单位叫做“词素”。
换句话说，词素是“词语中最小的功能单位”。
3.2语素变体语素是抽象的单位，在话语中被认知通过分开的单位，这单位叫做“形素”。
它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体。
语素是一个音素发音的形素。
大多数语素通过单个的形素实现，象是“鸟“”树“”绿色“”悲伤“”想要“”需要“等等。
这些语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。
这种词叫做单一语素词。
然而，一些语素被按照形素在其中排列而认识，那些替换的形素被称为”语素变体”。
例如复数语素（S）在不同的语言环境存在一些变体，象是在cats中，在“包”中，在“比赛”中。
语素变体不是随机发生的，是语音条件下可以预测的。
英语词汇学课件 Unit 3
#.前缀（主要改变词义）
Negative prefixes: a-/dis-/in-/non-/unReversative prefixes: de-/dis-/unPejorative prefixes: mal-/mis-/pseudoPrefixes of degree or size: arch-/extra/hyper-/macro-/micro-/mini-/over-/sub/super-/sur-/ultra-/underPrefixes of orientation and attitude: anti/contra-/counter-/proLocative prefixes: extra-/fore-/inter/transPrefixes of time and order: ex-/fore-/post/pre-/reNumber prefixes: bi-/multi-/poly-/semi/hemi-/tri-/uni-/monoMiscellaneous prefixes: auto-/neo-/pan/vice-
3.3.2 Nouns V. →n. (*contrast, abstract) Adj. →n (full & partial conversion)
the poor
3.3.3 Adjectives
名词做定语：street light VP →Adj. nonce word（临时词）：本身是自由词组或习语，但 用连字符连接起来构成单个的词。 stay-at-home, forget-me-not, ahead-of-schedule
最古老的构词方法之一。 语义关系: 第一部分限定或修饰第二部分（也有例外） 形式相同的复合词其内部的语义关系可能是各不相同的。 (Ex.5) 词性：复合介词，复合连接词，复合副词，复合代词，复 合数词，句式复合词，等等。
词汇学第三章Morphological-structure-of-English-words---p
• Did you get the right answer? Because No. 1,4, and 5 divide the words according to their syllables. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit, but in No. 1,4 and 5, ….are all meaningless, so they cannot be regarded as morphemes.
Allomorph 词素变体
• An allomorph refers to a number of a set of morphs, which present one morpheme. 词素变体指一套刑素中的一个成员，表征一个 词素。
When the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog, and horse, it is pronounced differently as /-s, -z,
➢ Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. 自由语素是能独立运用的语素，它有完整的意 义，在句中充当一个自由的语法单位。
英语专业词汇学第3章
Motivation（理据）
Definition:
• Motivation deals with the connection between name (word-symbol) and its sense (meaning). It is the relationship between the word structure and its meaning. •Motivation refers to the connection between
II. The Debate over the Connection between Sound and Meaning
– The naturalists maintain there is a natural/intrinsic connection between sound and meaning. – The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a word is a kind of linguistic social contract.
III. Types of Motivation
– Onomatopoeic Motivation – Semantic Motivation – Logical Motivation – Morphological Motivation – Etymological Motivation
1. Onomatopoetic Motivation （拟声理据）
They are closely connected but not identical. • They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. • Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on. • But meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words.
词汇学第三章
Homophones 同音异义词
Same sound but Different spelling and meaning
Example: Lead v. [liːd] 带领 Lead n. [led] 铅 Son n. [sʌn] 儿子 Sun n. [sʌn] 太阳
謝 謝 觀 賞
morphologicalclassification形态学上的分类semanticclassfication语义上的分类semanticclassification语义上的分类twotypesofantonymsmorphologicalclassification形态学上的分类contraries相对性反义词complementaries互补反义词conversives换位反义词morphologicalclassification形态学上的分类rootantonyms词根反义词derivativeantonyms派生反义词clearvaguelargesmallupdownexamples
Example:
Angle n. [‘æŋg(ə)l] Angle v. [‘æŋg(ə)l]
角度，角 钓鱼
Ball n. [bɔːl]
Ball n. [bɔːll homonyms 部分同音同形异义词
Homographs 同形异义词
Same spelling but Different sound and meaning
Word Meaning & Semantic Relations
Some general remarks on semantics and meaning
◆Semantics is a major branch of linguistics devoted to the study of meaning. It means the development and change of meaning.
词汇学Chapter3
第二十二页，编辑于星期五：二十点 三十一分。
Morphemes
Characteristics
1. All the morphemes have their own meanings, and they cannot be further divided, otherwise they will not make any sense.
第十五页，编辑于星期五：二十点 三十一分。
Morphemes and Syllables
A morpheme is different from a syllable
la.dy; croc.o.dile. Often the syllabic structure of a word and its morphemic structure do not correspond, as shown in the above examples
eco-, crisis mean, -ing, -ful, -ness pre-, -dict-, -ion -in, equal, -ity -under, state, -ment -un, develop, -ed down, size, -ing moon, -scape -super, nature, -al
Downfall
down, fall
Power-drunk
power, drink, an allomorph of –ed
第二十一页，编辑于星期五：二十点 三十一分。
Exercises
Ecocrisis Meaningfulness Prediction Inequality understatement Undeveloped Downsizing Moonscape supernatural
词汇学第三章
Chapter 31 – Morphemes 词素(形位)定义：最小语义/功能单位These different forms occur owing to different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. , the morpheme is "the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words"2 - Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.词素是个抽象单位，由分立的形素在话语中具体实现的。
They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.形素是实际说出来的最小意义携带体。
The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.形位同形素的关系同音位与音素的关系一样。
3 - monomorphemic words单语素词定义：词素与词一致，在句子中可以独立起作用，这类词叫单语素词。
Morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called4 – allomorphs定义：Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph （alternative morphs）according to their position in a word. 词素根据在词中的位置不同可由一个以上的不同形素实现，这些不同形素叫词素变体。
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Content / lexical vs. grammatical morphemes
Lexical 词 汇 / content 实 义 morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words (blackbird is coined on the basis of 2 lexical morphemes: black and bird.), and derivational morphemes such as –ship, -ize. Grammatical morphemes function primarily as grammatical markers. They include both inflectional affixes(-books) and free morphemes ( in, and, do, have, they…functional words)
• E.g., bound root: -dict-, -cedaffix: -ion, -ist, -ic
A multitude of words made up of merely bound morphemes, eg: ante-ced-ent. -ced- 是词根，‘接近’， ante- 是前缀，‘在…前’， -ent 是后缀，‘人，物’，-ant pollutant stimulant
3 things about ―word‖
• The sound------phoneme • -lexeme
Classification of Words
• Source and origin: native words and loan words; • Structure: simple, compound and complex; • usage: content and function
What is an allomorph?
• An allomorph is one of the variants of the same morpheme. • 语素/形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。
When the plural marker {s} is added to cat, dog and lie, and horse (sizes, batches, oranges, garages, fishes), it is pronounced differently as /-s, -z, -iz/ and thus has three phonological forms; the three forms are just the variants of the same morpheme {s}, i.e. the allomorphs of morpheme {s}.
派生语素附着于其它语素可派生出新词。英语中 派生词和合成词都是由这样的语素构成的。
• Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes.
3.5 Morpheme and Word-formation In word-formation, morphemes are labeled root, stem, base and affix.
在构词法中, 语素被分为词根、词干、词基和词缀。
Affix
Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes.
Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes 派生语素与屈折语素
• What are derivational and inflectional morphemes?
Derivational morphemes are used to derive new words when they are added to another morpheme. In English derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes.
1. Morpheme
• What is a morpheme？ It is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Or it is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 语素/词素/形位是最小的有意义的单位。它是 语言中最小的构词单位 mis-fortune
• 屈折语素作为语法标记表示词的语法意义，屈折 语素只限于后缀。
What’s the difference between them?
Inflectional Doesn’t change meaning or part of speech of the stem. (teacher—teachers) Indicates syntactic relations between different words in a sentence. ( grammatical meaning) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(works, likes,etc.) Occurs at margins of words. (radio—radios)
• 粘着语素不能独立成词，只能依附于其他语素上 以构成词或担当一定的语法功能。 Bound root and affix prefix and suffix mis- cats
• Free morphemes are all roots /free roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words. • 自由语素都是词根, 也叫自由词根, 能用作词或作 为构成新词的构词要素。 • Bound morphemes consist of either roots (bound roots) or affixes. • 粘着语素包括词根（粘着词根）和词缀。
Free vs. bound morphemes 自由语素与粘着语素
Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. 自由语素是能独立运用的语素，它有完整的意 义，在句中充当一个自由的语法单位。 E.g., man, wind, open, tour
词缀都是粘着语素，依附在词根上构成新词或表 示词的语法意义。 Two types of affixes: Inflectional affixes and Derivational affixes 屈折词缀和派生词缀
• Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. 表示词 的语法意义的是屈折词缀。 • They express the following meanings:
3. Classifications of morphemes
• Free vs. bound morphemes in terms of their capacity of occurring alone • Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes applying to affixes only • Content / lexical vs. grammatical morphemes on a semantic and syntactic basis
Chapter 3 Morphological structure of English words
Teaching focus:
– Definition of morphemes – Definition of allomorphs – Types of morphemes
free morpheme bound morpheme – Definitions of affixes, root, stem and base
Morpheme, word, syllable
2. Morph and allomorph
The definition of morphs： The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are termed ‘morphs’. 语素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素。 Morphs are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning. 形素是口语中最小的意义载体。
3.4 Identifying Morphemes