农村区域发展专业英语

Foreword填空1：Development studies is a multidisciplinary branch of social science which addresses issues of concern to developing countries. It has historically placed a particular focus on issues related to social and economic development, and its relevance may therefore extend to communities and regions outside of developing world.Development studies is offered as a specialized Master’s degree in a number of universities, and, less commonly, as an undergraduate degree. It has grown in popularity as a subject of study since the early 1990s, and has been most widely taught and researched in the third world. In China, this course has been taught in different college of Agronomy. In China Agricultural University, this course has been taught in College of Humanities and Development (the former College of Rural Development). It has also been taught in countries with a colonial history, such as the UK, where development studies originated. As a subject, it is mainly composed of 3 parts: development theory, development research and development practice.答题1——举3个例子说明发展援助并不总是有效的（有无效的时候）2.4 EffectivenessAid effectiveness Is the degree to which development aid works ,and is , a subject of significant disagreement. Dissident economists such as Peter Bauer and Milton Friedman argued in the 1960s that aid Is ineffective. Many econometric studies in recent years have supported the view that development aid has no effect on the speed with which countries develop. Negative side effects of aid can included as unbalanced appreciation of recipient’s currency(known as Dutch Disease) increasing corruption, and adverse political effects such as postponements of necessary economic and democratic reforms.There is also much debate about which form development aid should take in order to be effective. It has been argued that much government-to-government aid was ineffective because it was merely a way to support strategically important leaders. A good example of this Is the former dictator of ZAIRE, Mobuto Sese Seko, who lost support from the West after the Cold War had ended. Mobuto, at the time of his death, had a sufficient personal fortune (particularly in Swiss banks) to pay off the entire external debt of Zaire.Besides some instances that only the president (and/or his close entourage) receives the mone resulting from development aid, the money obtained is often badly spent as well. For example, in Chad, the Chad Export Project, a oil production project supported by the World Bank, was set up. The earnings of this project were used to obtain arms. The government defended this purchase by stating that “development was not possible without safety”. However, the Military of had is notorious for severe misconduct against the population and did not even defend the population in distress. In 2008, the World Bank retreated from the project that thus increased environmental pollution and human suffering.Another criticism has been that Western countries often project their own needs and solutions onto other societies and cultures. In response, western help in some cases has become more ‘endogenous’, which means that needs as well as solutions are being devised in accordance with local cultures.It has also been argued that help based on direct donation creates dependency and corruption,and has an adverse effect on local production. As a result, a shift has taken place towards aid based on activation of local assets and stimulation measures such as microcredit.Aid has also been argued that help based on direct donation creates dependency and corruption, and has an adverse effect on local production. As a result, a shift has taken place towards aid based on activation of local assets and stimulation measures such as microcredit. Aid has also been ineffective in young recipient countries in which ethnic tensions are strong: sometimes ethnic conflicts have prevented efficient delivery of aid.In some cases, western surpluses that resulted from faulty agriculture-or other policies have been dumped in poor countries, thus wiping out local production and increasi ng dependency.In several instances, loans that were considered irretrievable( for instance because funds had been embezzled by a dictator who has already died or disappeared), have been written off by donor countries, who subsequently booked this as development aid.In many cases, Western governments placed orders with Western companies as a form of subsidizing them, and later shipped these goods to poor countries which often had no use for them. These projects are sometimes called white elephants.A common criticism in recent years Is that rich countries have put so many conditions on aid that it has reduced aid effectiveness. In the example of tied aid, donor countries often require the recipient to purchase goods and services from the donor, even if these are cheaper elsewhere. Other conditions include opening up the country to foreign investment, even if it might not be ready to do so.All of these problems have made that a very large part of the spend money on development aid is simply wasted uselessly. According to Gerbert van der Aa, for the Netherlands, only 33%of the development aid is successful, another 33% fails and of the remaining 33% the effect is unclear.An excerpt from Dr. Thomas Dichter’s recently published book Despite Good Intentions: Why Development Assistance to the Third World Has Failed reads:” This industry has become one in which the benefits of what is spent are increasingly in inverse proportion to the amount spent-a case of more gets you less. As donors are attracted on the basis of appeals emphasizing “product”, results, and accountability…the tendency to engage in project-based, direct-action development becomes inevitable. Because funding for development is increasingly finite, this situation is very much a zero-sum game. What gets lost in the shuffle is the far more challenging long-term process of development.”The Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Abhijit Banerjee and Ruimin He have undertaken a rigorous study of the relatively few independent evaluations of aid program successes and failures. They suggest the following interventions are usually highly effective forms of aid in normal circumstances:●Subsidies given directly to families to be spent of children’s education and health●Education vouchers for school uniforms & textbooks●Teaching selected illiterate adults to read and write●Deworming drugs and vitamin/nutritional supplements●Vaccination and HIV/AIDS prevention programs●Indoor sprays against malaria anti-mosquito bed netting●Suitable fertilizers●Clean water suppliesChapter 1Understanding Development答题2——左右派：——State （左派—强调国家）——Market （右派—强调市场）Left-wing 左派：凯恩斯经济学、结构主义经济学、国家统治经济论、Dependency theory 依附理论Right-wing 右派：古典政治经济学、结构调整政策、Modernization theory 现代化理论填空3、4：1、The Progress of DevelopmentDevelopment has come a long way in the past 6 decades. As both an enterprise and a scholarly discipline, development became significant in the period immediately following the World War Ⅱ. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development( which soon came to be known as the World Bank) was created for the task of rebuilding countries-and in Europe, a continent-that have been shattered by war.In those days, development was considered largely synonymous with industrialization. It was, in short, about getting richer or more prosperous, and prosperity was measured in dollar figures. Industrialization and in particular, a country’s capacity to manufacture finished goods, was seen as essential.Asian and African countries came to independence from former colonial empires of Europe, and were eager for two reasons to speed up their development. One was to provide better lives for their citizen. The second was to consolidate their independence to convert the political quality into an economic equality that would earn them respect and sense of self-dignity they felt had been denied them under colonialism. The scholarly literature of the time only reinforced this push: development was about using the state to spearhead the process of modernizing the society and raising its incomes.2、Development Theory in the Postwar PeriodHaving begun to ponder the possible shape of the postwar world, the Allied leaders held a conference to discuss the structure they would give to the world economy. This meeting took place in a hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire. The conference would provide the blueprint for postwar capitalist economy.Chief among the concerns of the participants was the desire to create a favorable international trading environment. They wanted to put behind them the conditions that had worsened the Depression. Monetary instability and lack of credit had inhibited trade among nations and led governments to adopt protectionist policies when they could not pay for their imports. To this end, the conference gave rise to the IMF and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the latter of which became known as the World Bank. In 1947, the Bretton Wood System, as it came to be known, was rounded out by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).布雷顿森林会议（Bretton Woods Conference）最重要的3大产出：1、Discuss the structure of the future world economy, provide a blueprint for the postwarcapitalist economy2、Create a favorable international trading environment3、Turn out to be GATT. Give rise to IMF and WB.Chapter 3Participatory Project Process答题3——参与式项目的理论过程的十大步骤Theoretical Process：1、Profile development 背景信息材料准备2、Participation analysis 参与分析3、Problem analysis 问题分析4、Potential analysis 潜在性分析5、Objective analysis 目标分析6、Alternatives analysis 选择方案分析7、Program-formulation and project plan description 项目计划描述（逻辑框架）8、Implementation design 实施方案设计9、Monitoring and evaluation 监测与评估10、Re-planning 再计划答题4——参与式项目的实践过程的五大步骤Practical Process：1、Project application stage 项目申请阶段2、Project feasibility study stage 项目可行性研究阶段3、Project approval stage and signing of the financial agreement 项目财政支持与签署阶段4、Project implementation stage 项目实施阶段5、Project conclusion and the re-planning stage 项目结束和再计划阶段填空5：:1.3 Problem analysisThe term “problem”is interpreted as a discrepancy between expectation and reality; or between “what is now” and “what will be in the future”. “What will be in the future” reflects the objective an organization wants to achieve after the solution of a certain problem.The presence of an unresolved problem or an unsatisfied expectation can be seen as a problem in itself. It might come from the shortage of human resource or physical resource; or the lack of understanding of the complex social and economic situation, or the lack of experience. After all the problems have been listed out, people come to realize that it is impossible to solve all the problems at one time; and not all of the problems have the same significance. Therefore it is necessary to conduct a systematic analysis about these problems. First the “core problem” has to be found out, which usually locates at the central position of the “problem tree”. This problem tree reflects the cause-effect relationships among these problems. These problems come from different professional fields such as natural science, social science, economic science and environmental science. The problem analysis not only reveals the cause-effect framework, the core problem, but also those problems leading to and from the core problem.Public participation is very important. The farmers know more about their own situations and their own problems than any outsiders. If they come to realize that the objective of the project is to solve their own problems, they will become more active in participating in other steps of the project, especially the implementation process.填空6：:1.5 Objective analysisAn objective can be regarded as an expected or planned outcome which will be achieved at some time in the future. Objective analysis depicts the possibility of this future achievement through solving the existed problems. This possibility determines the principle and the potential outcome of the project. This process is simply converting the “negative description”of the problem Into the “positive expectation” of the reality, I.e. the description of the objective. In this way, the “problem tree”which depicts the cause-effect relationship is converted into the “objective-tree” which shows the means-end relationship.Chapter 4Participatory Development Planning填空7：:As an academic field, development studies can be divided into three branches: development theory, development research and development practice. One of the topics which is often mentioned within the development research is development intervention process, which in turn, consists of development policies and development projects. Usually, a development project involves the following stages: baseline survey, analysis, design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. The participation of different stakeholders in these various stages covers many important research issues.Development can take place at the regional level ( one or several counties, on or several townships), or at the community levels (one or several villages). So a regional planning is an integration and coordination for the planning of all the related areas. The outcome of a participatory development planning is not a traditional economic blueprint, or a technological design, but a concrete development project, which can be carried out. The planning and management of development is an important part of the content of development practice. Participatory development planning is a process participated by stakeholder groups. It is both Problem-Solving oriented and action-oriented and takes the development project as its final outcome.加1——Development intervention:●Development policies●Development projectsInternational levelNational levelProvincial levelCounty levelTownship levelVillage level (community level)加2：Paradigm 范式Neighborhood 居民点答题5——规划程序的5个阶段：5.2 Planning proceduresHe planning procedures can be divided into several stages.1、Macro-level stage 宏观水平阶段（政府）2、Department-level stage 部门水平阶段3、Regional-level stage 区域水平阶段4、County-level stage 县级水平阶段5、Micro-level stage 围观水平阶段（community/village）填空8——Functions of Participatory Development Planning参与式发展规划的三大功能：:1、Meeting the urgent needs of poor people2、Implementing the national policy on poverty reduction3、Serving as an implementation tool for the large-scale development project答题6——为什么在规划过程中经常放弃“理性（rational）”而追求“满意”：9.2 Ration planningRation is a core issue for planning. When we talk about the rationality of an approach, we mean it is based on analyses and principles, not on feelings and judgments. A rational goal means the approach will bring largest output given a certain input of obtain a certain output with the smallest input. This concept comes directly from the idea of most optical resource allocation in economy.A rational approach involves the following activities:●The identification and definition of a problem;●The classification of goals and values which are related with the problem;●Identifying the number of goals and of solutions for the problem;●Predict the outcome of each alternative;●Comparison between different alternatives;●Identifying one alternative whose outcome is closest to the goal, or solve the problem tothe largest extent, or is most cost-effective.However, we can see that rationality is an ideal description. In reality we are limited by our ability to process the information, and we cannot analyze all the information about all alternatives. Under this circumstance, people will●Neglect those problems which they are not interested in ;●Adjust the scope of the problem according to the learning experience of decision-makingin the past●Give up rationality and pursuit “satisfaction”Satisfaction is an important concept which can be used to explain many individual and organizational behaviors. I t means people accept solutions that are “good enough”, instead of value-maximizing. This is a daily condition for most common people. When people make a decision, it is often a compromise which can be accepted by all the parties, since it is absolutely impossible to achieve all the goals to the same extent. People try to find a rational solution in life. But even if they know what a rational solution is , they often choose satisfactory results instead of rational result which will bring the largest benefit.Planning in China is to a great extent controlled by the government officials. Some of the plans can never be funded. The planners seldom have opportunity to use the rational approach. Some large-scale planning (e.g. urban planning) creates the condition for the application of rational approaches. However in rural China, the planners might try to use the rational logic to analyze problems or find the solutions, but seldom can use it for decision-making.答题7——分析规划者在规划过程中如何面对不确定性？如何减少不确定性？（不是为什么！！！）：9.4 Uncertainty in planningThe ideal situation of making decisions is one of certainty, that is, a situation in which a planner can make accurate decisions because the outcome of every alternative is known. A far more common situation is one of risk, conditions in which the planner is able to estimate the likelihood of certain outcomes. What happens if you have a decision where you are not certain about the outcome and can’t even make reasonable probability estimates? We call such a situation uncertainty.The purpose of planning is to reduce the uncertainty in the future, but planning itself has been under the influence of uncertainty. Uncertainty can be reduced, but never be thoroughly eradicated. In making strategic selection, planers cannot easily predict and control what will happen in the future. What they can do is to analyze the data related with the current situation. Apparently, this might reduce the reliability of planning. There are 2 ways to solve this problem. One is to find the sources of uncertainty so as to better understand and control them; the other is to adopt more flexible action plan so as to make timely adjustment when the uncertainty appears. The planner should stick to implementing the chosen plan, but at the same time should also be open-minded about the planning approaches to make any needed changes.Reasons for uncertainty might include:(不是这段！！！！！！)●Great changes that might influence the implementation can happen at any time, which isoutside the control of the planners●The decision-making in one field might influence the decision-making in the other field●Changes of local people’s preference might cause people to change their options, whichmight influence the implementation of the planningTo reduce the uncertainty, people can:●Collect more information●Use more integrated planning approach●Find out the intentions of politicians so as to get more clues for the possible policychange.Chapter 5Guideline for Writing a Proposal答题8——写出项目建议书的8大类：1、Problem and justification: What is the problem for which support is being sought, and why isit important?2、Objectives: What are the objectives of the project against which the success of failure of theproject could be assessed?3、Methodology: How will each of these objectives be achieved? A project logical frameworkwill be attached in the appendices4、Results and dissemination: What are the expected outputs of the research, and how willthese be disseminated? What possible impacts can reasonable be anticipated on development?5、Institution and personnel: Who will carry out the work, and what are their qualifications fordoing so?6、Timetable and Budget: What resources and time frame are required to achieve the project’sobjectives?7、Evaluation: How will the project’s achievements be evaluated?8、Conclusion答题9——写出项目建议书的12大类/内容/步骤/：1、Introduction2、Project Overview3、Administrative Information4、Problem and Justification5、Objectives6、Methodology7、Result and Dissemination8、Institutions and Personnel9、Timetable and Budget10、Evaluation11、Conclusion12、Appendices。