中国翻译史(英文版详细)

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翻译理论概述_英汉互译课件

Definitions given by Western scholars：

● 翻译是翻成本族语言或另一种语言（to turn into one’s own language or another language）(美国韦氏新大学词典) ●好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地遗注到另一种语言，以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受一样。（泰特勒，1790） ●翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所业已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。（费道罗夫，1953） ● According to Catford, translation is “ the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)”. （翻译的定义也许可以这样说：把一种语言（SL）中的篇章材料用另一种语言（TL）中的篇章材料来加以代替。）（卡特福德，1965） ● ●翻译是把一种语言的言语产物在保持内容方面（也就是意义）不变的情况下改变为另外一种语言的言语产物的过程。（巴尔胡达罗夫，1985中文版） ● According to Newmark, translation is “ a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language”(2001a:7).

中国翻译简史

林语堂
• 中国现代著名作家，学者、翻译家、语言学家、新道家代表人物，1895年生于福建漳州平和县坂仔镇一个基督教牧师家庭，原名和乐，后改名玉堂，又改名为语堂，早年留学美国、德国，获哈佛大学文学硕士，莱比锡大学语言学博士。回国后分别在清华大学、北京大学、厦门大学任教。林语堂于1940年和1950年先后两度获得诺贝尔文学奖提名。
中国译历史简介
A general introduction to the history of translation in China
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中国的翻译史有史籍记载的已长达三千余年，早在史前三皇五帝时代就存在翻译活动，一般认为“五四"以前，中国翻译史上出现过三次翻译高潮。
三次翻译高峰（three translation peaks）
• 1）东汉--唐宋时期 • 2）隋唐--明末清初 • 3）鸦片战争--五四运动
第一次翻译高峰期
• 佛经翻译（sutra translation）
• 释道安首创译场制度，提出著名"五失本，三不易"理论，他主张严格的直译 • 天竺人鸠摩罗什创立了一整套译场制度，开集体翻译，倾向于意译，注重文质结合，既忠实与原文的神情，能 “以实出华”，他反对译经时用“格义”。 • 玄奘(唐朝佛经翻译达到顶峰)，他不但把佛经翻译成汉文，而且把老子著作的一部分译成了梵文，成为了第一个把汉文著作向国外介绍的中国人，制定了“五不翻”的原则，即：秘密故、含多义故、无此故、顺古故以及生善故。译文中运用的种种技巧：补充法、省略法、变位法、分合法、译名假借法、代词还原法。
第二次翻译高峰期
• 科技翻译（science and technology translation） • 代表人物：中国科学家徐光启和意大利人利玛窦，合作翻译《几何原本》前六卷。 • 这一阶段主要是外国人口译，中国人笔述，国人选择译品的余地不大，译者对翻译理论技巧知之不多，所以译作大都有“文义难精”之弊。

中国古诗词英译..

华裔学者叶维廉翻译了Chinese Poetry: Major Modes and Genres（汉诗英华，1970），被英美许多大学作为教材多次重印。
J.D.Frodsham等人编译了Anthology of Chinese Verse（中国诗选集，1967）， John A. Turner翻译了A Golden Treasury of Chinese Poetry（英译汉诗金库，1976），包含了自周至清代120多首古诗译文。
同期，美国翻译家William McNaughton全面翻译了《诗经》（The Classic Anthology Defined by Confucius, 1971），瑞典汉学家B.Karlgren也英译《诗经》（The Book of Odes, 1950）。由Robert Kotewall和Norman L. Smith合译的The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse （企鹅丛书· 中国诗歌卷），在中诗英译经典化方面开了先河。
1867年，法国贡古尔学院女院士 Judith.Gautier翻译的中国古诗《玉书》（Le Livre de Jade）被译成多种语言，在西方世界引起很大反响。 20世纪德国伟大的作曲家Gustav Mahler把《玉书》德文译本的李白、王维和孟浩然等作为歌词，写成了享誉世界的合唱交响乐Das Lied von der Eerde （大地之歌）。
诗歌是讲意境的，意境包含两层含义：一是诗歌的内容是有意蕴的，有着相当的文化内涵，诗歌的意境和意味便来源于意蕴。艾略特所说的诗歌的可理解性、超民族性指的就是这个。诗歌的意蕴决定着诗歌的意义符号系统（sign system），诗歌的可译性基本取决于此。诗歌的意蕴要素有情感、意象、情景、人物、事件等是可译的。当然，在一种语言符号系统中所包含的某些意蕴并不一定能在别的语言符号系统中找到对等的意蕴，尤其是一个民族所独有的文化意蕴。比如，中国文化中“君子”好逑、潇湘之“兰”这两个意象的文化意蕴在西方的任何一个语种中很难找到对应物。然而，这种意蕴一经阐释，总可以让其他民族的人能了解、理解，进而达到共鸣。这种诗歌意蕴的可阐释性就是诗歌的可译性。

中国翻译简史

A Brief Introduction to the Chinese Translation in HistoryAs we all know ,China is a country with over five thousand year long history, while the history of translation has three thousand-year. Although translation studies cover such a wild field,it can be roughly divided into three general periods as follows: Ancient china,Contemporary China and Modern china. The paper is to provide general overview of translation history and corresponding characteristics in China from ancient to present times.The translation of Buddhist scripture and Science translation in Late Ming Dynasty formed the main stream in Ancient China.The earliest translation activities of China originated from Zhou dynasty, when the translation was carried out by government clerks, who paid much attention on ideological works.However,with the introduction of Buddhist scripture written in Sanskrit to China, a great efforts were needed to translate these scriptures into Chinese. Especially during the two Jin dynasties, Southern dynasty and Northern dynasty,translation of Buddhist scripture was officially organized on a large scale in China. Many State Translation School opened for this purpose. And one of the famous translators at this time is Dao An who advocated strict literal translation, while Kumarajiva ,another famous translator emphasized the accuracy of translation.Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty had brought the first peak of translation in China.Unlike translators of other periods, they were mainly Buddhist monks. Xuan Zang, who is the vital person we have to mention, contributed a lot to the development of Chinese translation, not only the theories but also the practices. He set down the famous translation criteria that translation "must be both truthful and intelligible to the populace, to some extent, he tried to take account of literal translation and free translation in the process of translation. Furthermore, he is also the first Chinese to translate famous works of Chinese into other languages, which laid a solid foundation for the international cultural exchange.As the times changed, the science translation was springing up quickly. In Yuan Dynasty ,due to the settlement of Arbas in China, they were engaged in translating scientific works from the West. Later, the subject of translation shifted from Buddhist scriptures to scientific and technological knowledge in Ming Dynasty. Scientists and government mainly had taken up the task of translation then. However, the disadvantages of this period should not be neglected. No translation theories were as well developed as the Tang Dynasty.The history of translation in Ancient China did also play a significant role in the promoting of translation in Contemporary and Modern China. In the Late Qing Dynasty,Chinese translators ,headed by Yan Fu welcomed the trend of new outlook from the western countries.A large number of works about Social Science had been translated.There is no doubt that Yan Fu was the most influential translator and translation theorist in this period. He had come up with the triple criteria of translation --- "Faithfulness, Fluency and Elegance", which was still spoken highly of by some relative experts at present.Meanwhile, literary translation was popular and marked another peak of translation in China. Many famous western works have been brought into China, in reverse, it make benefits to the enrichment of Chinese literature field. A group of excellent translators were emerging from time to time at this period. Take Lin Shu for example. He acted the equally important role in literature translation as Yan Fu insocial science translation. Regarded as the pioneer of literature translation in China, he opened a new Chapter for Chinese translation.Compared to the two former period, translation work in Modern China has a wider coverage,such as the translation of socialist and communist works,literature works and so on.The May 4th Movement was a famous activity happened in the Chinese history,which was also the starting point of the new democratic revolution in China. Great changes have taken place in translation in China. Karl Marx's (1818-1883) and Lenin's works on socialist and communist theories were the focus of our translation work , as it will guide the direction of our revolution. What’s more, literary translation was different from the past.The quality and quantity of literary translation were greatly improved. No matter where it comes from,the world famous literary works were translated into Chinese. Translators as Lin Yutang, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai were the three most famous .The translation theory was completed during this period of time,one of them was put forward by Lin,that is his three translation criteria:the first is fidelity,the second is coherence,the third is elegance.However, the heated topics on translation theory were still translation criteria, literary vs free translation.Even any little progress in the history of Chinese translation still means a huge leap to the development of our society. Without these efforts, China may haven’t avoided the mistakes that other countries have made, nor learned from the advanced technology around the world. Despite the achievement on translation theory we have already got, it turned out to be a failure to guide translation practice without any difficulty.There is still a long way ahead. To be in accordance with booming economy and the expansion of its political influence in the international community,China will continue to strive unremittingly all the time.。

中国翻译史(英文版详细)

Brief Introduction of the Chinese Translation HistoryChinese translation theory was born out of contact with vassal states during the Zhou Dynasty. It developed through translations of Buddhist scripture into Chinese. It is a response to the universals of the experience of translation and to the specifics of the experience of translating from specific source languages into Chinese. It also developed in the context of Chinese literary and intellectual tradition.The modern Standard Mandarin word fanyi翻譯"translate; translation" compounds fan "turn over; cross over; translate" and yi "translate; interpret". Some related synonyms are tongyi通譯"interpret; translate", chuanyi傳譯"interpret; translate", and zhuanyi轉譯"translate; retranslate".The Chinese classics contain various words meaning "interpreter; translator", for instance, sheren舌人(lit. "tongue person") and fanshe反舌(lit. "return tongue"). The Classic of Rites records four regional words: ji寄"send; entrust; rely on" for Dongyi 東夷"Eastern Yi-barbarians", xiang象"be like; resemble; image" for Nanman 南蠻"Southern Man-barbarians", didi狄鞮"Di-barbarian boots" for Xirong 西戎"WesternRong-barbarians", and yi譯"translate; interpret" for Beidi 北狄"Northern Di-barbarians".In those five regions, the languages of the people were not mutually intelligible, and their likings and desires were different. To make what was in their minds apprehended, and to communicate their likings and desires, (there were officers), — in the east, called transmitters; in the south, representationists; in the west, Tî-tîs; and in the north, interpreters. (王制"The Royal Regulations", tr. James Legge 1885 vol. 27, pp. 229-230)A Western Han work attributes a dialogue about translation to Confucius. Confucius advises a ruler who wishes to learn foreign languages not to bother. Confucius tells the ruler to focus on governance and let the translators handle translation.The earliest bit of translation theory may be the phrase "names should follow their bearers, while things should follow China." In other words, names should be transliterated, while things should be translated by meaning.In the late Qing Dynasty and the Republican Period, reformers such as Liang Qichao, Hu Shi and Zhou Zuoren began looking at translation practice and theory of the great translators in Chinese history.Zhi Qian (3rd c. AD)Zhi Qian (支謙)'s preface (序) is the first work whose purpose is to express an opinion about translation practice. The preface was included in a work of the Liang Dynasty. It recounts an historical anecdote of 224AD, at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. A party of Buddhist monks came to Wuchang. One of them, Zhu Jiangyan by name, was asked to translate some passage from scripture. He did so, in rough Chinese. When Zhi Qian questioned the lack of elegance, another monk, named Wei Qi (維衹), responded that the meaning of the Buddha should be translated simply, without loss, in an easy-to-understand manner: literary adornment is unnecessary. All present concurred and quoted two traditional maxims: Laozi's "beautiful words are untrue, true words are not beautiful" and Confucius's "speech cannot be fully recorded by writing, and speech cannot fully capture meaning".Zhi Qian's own translations of Buddhist texts are elegant and literary, so the "direct translation" advocated in the anecdote is likely Wei Qi's position, not Zhi Qian's.Dao An (314-385AD)Dao An focused on loss in translation. His theory is the Five Forms of Loss (五失本):1.Changing the word order. Sanskrit word order is free with a tendency to SOV. Chinese is SVO.2.Adding literary embellishment where the original is in plain style.3.Eliminating repetitiveness in argumentation and panegyric (頌文).4.Cutting the concluding summary section (義說).5.Cutting the recapitulative material in introductory section.Dao An criticized other translators for loss in translation, asking: how they would feel if a translator cut the boring bits out of classics like the Shi Jing or the Classic of History?He also expanded upon the difficulty of translation, with his theory of the Three Difficulties (三不易):municating the Dharma to a different audience from the one the Buddha addressed.2.Translating the words of a saint.3.Translating texts which have been painstakingly composed by generations of disciples.Kumarajiva (344-413AD)Kumarajiva’s translation practice was to translate for meaning. The story goes that one day Kumarajiva criticized his disciple Sengrui for translating “heaven sees man, and man sees heaven” (天見人,人見天). Kumarajiva felt that “man and heaven connect, the two able to see each other” (人天交接,兩得相見) would be more idiomatic, though heaven sees man, man sees heaven is perfectly idiomatic.In another tale, Kumarajiva discusses the problem of translating incantations at the end of sutras. In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people (嚼飯與人).Huiyuan (334-416AD)Huiyuan's theory of translation is middling, in a positive sense. It is a synthesis that avoids extremes of elegant (文雅) and plain (質樸). With elegant translation, "the language goes beyond the meaning" (文過其意) of the original. With plain translation, "the thought surpasses the wording" (理勝其辭). For Huiyuan, "the words should not harm the meaning" (文不害意). A good translator should “strive to preserve the original” (務存其本).Sengrui (371-438AD)Sengrui investigated problems in translating the names of things. This is of course an important traditional concern whose locus classicus is the Confucian exhortation to “rectify names” (正名). This is not merely of academic concern to Sengrui, for poor translation imperils Buddhism. Sengrui was critical of his teacher Kumarajiva's casualapproach to translating names, attributing it to Kumarajiva's lack of familiarity with the Chinese tradition of linking names to essences (名實).Sengyou (445-518AD)Much of the early material of earlier translators was gathered by Sengyou and would have been lost but for him. Sengyou’s approach to translation resembles Huiyuan's, in that both saw good translation as the middle way between elegance and plainness. However, unlike Huiyuan Sengyou expressed admiration for Kumarajiva’s elegant translations.Xuanzang (600-664AD)Xuanzang’s theory is the Five Untranslatables (五種不翻), or five instances where one should transliterate:1.Secrets: Dharani 陀羅尼, Sanskrit ritual speech or incantations, which includes mantras.2.Polysemy: bhaga (as in the Bhagavad Gita) 薄伽, which means comfortable, flourishing, dignity,name, lucky, esteemed.3.None in China: jambu tree 閻浮樹, which does not grow in China.4.Deference to the past: the translation for anuttara-samyak-sambodhi is already established asAnouputi 阿耨菩提.5.To inspire respect and righteousness: Prajna 般若instead of “wisdom” (智慧).Daoxuan (596-667AD)Yan Fu (1898)Yan Fu is famous for his theory of fidelity, clarity and elegance (信達雅), which some believe originated with Tytler. Yan Fu wrote that fidelity is difficult to begin with. Only once the translator has achieved fidelity and clarity should he attend to elegance. The obvious criticism of this theory is that it implies that inelegant originals should be translated elegantly. Clearly, if the style of the original is not elegant or refined, the style of the translation should not be elegant either.Liang Qichao (1920)Liang Qichao put these three qualities of a translation in the same order, fidelity first, then clarity, and only then elegance.Lin Yutang (1933)Lin Yutang stressed the responsibility of the translator to the original, to the reader, and to art. To fulfill this responsibility, the translator needs to meet standards of fidelity (忠實), smoothness (通順) and beauty.Lu Xun (1935)Lu Xun's most famous dictim relating to translation is "I'd rather be faithful than smooth" (寧信而不順).Ai Siqi (1937)Ai Siqi described the relationships between fidelity, clarity and elegance in terms of Western ontology, where clarity and elegance are to fidelity as qualities are to being.Zhou Zuoren (1944)Zhou Zuoren assigned weightings, 50% of translation is fidelity, 30% is clarity, and 20% elegance.Zhu Guangqian (1944)Zhu Guangqian wrote that fidelity in translation is the root which you can strive to approach but never reach. This formulation perhaps invokes the traditional idea of returning to the root in Daoist philosophy.Fu Lei (1951)Fu Lei held that translation is like painting: what is essential is not formal resemblance but rather spiritual resemblance (神似).Qian Zhongshu (1964)Qian Zhongshu wrote that the highest standard of translation is transformation (化, the power of transformation in nature): bodies are sloughed off, but the spirit (精神), appearance and manner (姿致) are the same as before (故我, the old me or the old self).An Overview of Translation in China:Practice and Theoryby Weihe ZhongAbstract: This paper provides a chronological review of both translation practice and theory in China. Translation has a 3000-year long history in China and it was instrumental in the development of the Chinese national culture. This paper deals with translation in ancient time (1100 BC-17th century), the contemporary time (18th century-late 20th century), the modern time (1911-1978) and present-day China (1978). The major characteristics of translation practice and contributions of major translation theories are highlighted.Keywords: translation, history, China,1. Introductionranslation has been crucial to the introduction of western learning and the making of national culture in China. China has an over five thousand-year long history of human civilization and a three thousand-year history of translation. This paper is to provide a chronological review highlighting translation theory and practice in China from ancient to present times.2. Translation Practice and Theory in Ancient China2.1. Early Translation in ChinaThe earliest translation activities in China date back to the Zhou dynasty (1100.BC). Documents of the time indicated that translation was carried out by government clerks, who were concerned primarily with the transmission of ideologies. In a written document from late Zhou dynasty, Jia Gongyan, an imperial scholar, defined translation as: "translation is to replace one written language with another without changing the meaning for mutual understanding."1 This definition of translation, although primitive, proves the existence of translation theory in the ancient China. People tended to sum up the principles identified following his translation practice.China has an over five thousand-year long history of human civilization and a three thousand-year history of translation.It was during the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 BC) that translation became a medium for the dissemination of foreign learning. Buddhism, which originated in India and was unknown outside that country for a very long time began to penetrate China toward the middle of the first century. Therefore, the Buddhist scriptures which were written in Sanskrit needed to be translated into Chinese to meet the need of Chinese Buddhists.An Shigao, a Persian, translated some Sutras (Buddhist Precepts in Sanskrit) into Chinese, and at the same time introduced Indian astronomy to China. Another translator of the same period was Zhi Qian, who translated about thirty volumes of Buddhist scriptures in a literal manner. His translation was hard to understand because of the extremely literal translation. And it might be in this period of time trhat there was discussion on literal translation vs free translation—"a core issue of translation theory." 2In the fifth century, translation of Buddhist scripture was officially organized on a large scale in China. A State Translation School was founded for this purpose. An imperial officer—Dao An was appointed director of this earliest School of Translation in China. Dao An advocated strict literal translation of the Buddhist scriptures, because he himself didn't know any Sanskrit. He also invited the famous Indian Buddhist monk Kumarajiva (350-410), who was born in Kashmir, to translate and direct the translation of Buddhist scriptures in his translation school. Kumarajiva, after a thorough textual research on the former translation of Sanskrit sutras, carried out a great reform of the principles and methods for the translation of sutras. He emphasized the accuracy of translation. Therefore, he applied a free translation approach to transfer the true essence of the Sanskrit Sutras. He was the first person in the history of translation in China to suggest that translators should sign their names to the translated works. Kumarajiva himself translated a large number of Sanskrit Sutras. His arrival in China made the translation school flourish and his translations enabled Buddhism to take root as a serious rival to Taoism. From the time of Kumarajiva until the eighth century, the quantity of translations of Sanskrit Sutras increased and their accuracy improved.The period from the middle of the first century to the fifth century is categorized as the early stage of translation in China. In this stage, translation practice was mainly of religious scriptures. The core issue in translation theory raised was: literal translation vs free translation."Accuracy and smoothness" were taken as criteria for guiding the translation of Buddhist scriptures. This may be considered both primitive translation theory in China, and also the basis of modern translation theory in China.2 2. The First Peak of Translation in ChinaThe translation and importation of knowledge became common practice from the Sui dynasty (581-618) to the Tang dynasty (618-907), a period of grandeur, expansion and a flourishing of the arts. This period was the first peak of translation in China, although the translations were still mainly of the Buddhist scriptures.Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks. They not only had a very good command of Sanskrit but had also thoroughly studied translation theory. Since the translations were mainly on religious scriptures, they thought translators should: " (1) be faithful to the Buddhist doctrine, (2) be ready to benefit the readers (Buddhist believers), (3) concentrate on the translation of the Buddhist doctrine rather than translating for fame." 3The most important figure of the first peak of translation in China was the famous monk of the Tang dynasty—Xuan Zang (600-664), who was the main character in A Journey to the West. In 628, he left Changan (today's Xi'an), the capital of the Tang empire, where he had gone in search of a spiritual master, and set out for India on a quest for sacred texts. He returned in 645, bearing relics and gold statues of Buddha, along with 124 collections of Sanskrit aphorisms from the "Great Vehicle"4 and 520 other manuscripts. A caravan of twenty-two horses was needed to transport these treasures. The emperor-Tai Zong gave him a triumphal welcome, provided him with every possible comfort, and built the "Great Wild Goose Pagoda" for him in Chang'an. Xuang Zang spent the rest of his life in this sumptuous pagoda, working with collaborators on the translation of the precious Buddhist manuscripts he had brought back. In nineteen years, he translated 1335 volumes of Buddhist manuscripts. These translations helped to make Buddhism popular throughout China; even the emperor himself became a Buddhist.Xuan Zang was also the first Chinese translator who translated out of Chinese. He translated some of Lao Zi's (the father of Taoism) works into Sanskrit. He also attempted to translate some other classical Chinese literature for the people of India.Not only was he a great translator and organizer of translation, he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies still remains significant today. He set down the famous translation criteria that translation "must be both truthful and intelligible to the populace." In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation. Before Xuan Zang, Dao An during the Sui dynasty insisted on a strict literal translation, i.e., that the source text should be translated word by word; Kumarajiva during the early Tang dynasty was on the opposite side and advocated a complete free translation method for the sake of elegance and intelligibility in the target language. Thus, Xuan Zang combined the advantages of both Dao An's literal translation—respect for the form of the source text—and Kumarajiva's free translation with his own translation practice, aiming to achieve an intelligibility of the translation for the target language readers, and developed his epoch-making translation criteria that translation "must be truthful and intelligible to the populace." Therefore, in practice, Xuan Zang tried many translation methods. He was the first Chinese translator who tried translation methods like: amplification, omission, borrowing equivalent terms from the target language etc. He was regarded as one of the very few real translators in the history of China for his great contribution to both translation practice and translation theory.Xuan Zang's time is acknowledged by today's translators as the "New Translation Period" in the history of translation in China as compared with Dao An and Kumarajiva's time. The quality of translation was greatly improved in Xuan Zang's "New Translation Period," because the translations were mainly performed by Chinesemonks who had studied Sanskrit abroad. Those monks, after years of study, had a very good command of both the religious spirit and the two languages involved in the translation. In contrast, during Dao An and Kumarajiva's period, the translation of Buddhist scriptures were mainly done by Indian monks who sometimes had to offer rigid translations as a result their lack of linguistic and cultural knowledge of the target language.Apart from Xuan Zang during the Tang dynasty, there were also other monks like Yi Jin, Bu Kong, Shi Cha Nan Tuo etc. who translated a great number of Sanskrit Sutras into Chinese. But they were not as influential as Xuan Zang who contributed to both translation practice and theory.During the late Tang dynasty, fewer people were sent to the west (India) in a quest of sacred texts and the translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually withered.In the Song dynasties (960-1279), although schools of translation of Buddhist scriptures were established, the quality and quantity of translations were not comparable with those of the Tang dynasty. Classic Chinese literature flourished in the Song dynasties. A special Chinese poetic genre- the ci was developed during the Song dynasty, but there was very little progress in translation theory or practice.2.3 Technical Translation during the Y uan and Ming DynastiesFrom the Yuan (1271-1368) to the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the translation of sutras lost importance. As the Y uan rulers directed their attention westward, Arabs began to settle in China, even becoming mandarins or merchants. Having learned Chinese, some of those erudite high officials translated scientific works from Arabic or European languages. The Arab Al-Tusi Nasir Al-Din (1201-74) translated Euclid's Elements, some works on astronomy including Ptolemy's Almagest, and Plato's Logic. An Arabic pharmacopoeia—Al-Jami fi-al-Adwiya al-Mufradah (Dictionary of Elementary Medicines), was translated toward the end of the Yuan dynasty in thirty-six volumes listing some 1400 different medicines. This was published during the following dynasty as Hui Hui Yao Fang. Later, the Ming emperor- Zhu Yuan Zhang ordered two mandarins of Arab origin, Ma Hama and Ma Shyihei, to translate two Arabic books on astronomy with the help of two Chinese officials, Li Chong and Wu Bozhong. It appears that these translations were carried out merely to satisfy the curiosity of a few scholars. They had some value as reference works, but their scientific merit was minimal, and of no great significance.The situation was to change toward the end of the 16th century. With the arrival of western Christian missionaries, Jesuits in particular, China came into contact with Europe which had begun to overtake China in various scientific and technological fields. To facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of western science and technology as well as Christian texts. Between 1582 and 1773 (Early Qing dynasty), more than seventy missionaries undertook this kind of work. They were of various nationalities: Italian (Fathers: Matteo Ricci; Longobardi; De Urbsis, Aleni and Rho); Portuguese (Francis Furtado); Swiss (Jean Terrenz, Polish (Jean Nicolas Smogolenshi), and French (Ferdinand Verbiest, Nicolas Trigaut).The missionaries were often assisted by Chinese collaborators, such as Xu Guangqi, a distinguished scientist and prime minister during the last years of the Ming dynasty, a period of scholarship and intellectual activity, Li Zhizao, a scientist and government official, Wang Zheng, an engineer and government official, and Zue Fengzuo, a scientist. Matteo Ricci was assisted by Xu Guangqi when he translated Euclid's Elements in 1607 and by Li Zhizaowhen he translated Astrolabium by the German Jesuit and mathematician Christophorus Clavius (1537-1612). For these Chinese scholars, translation was not limited to passive reproduction; instead, the translated texts served as a basis for further research. Li Zhizao, for example, uses his preface to Astrolabium, the first work to set out the foundations of western astronomy in Chinese, to make the point that the earth is round and in motion.With their translation of Clavius's Trattato della figura isoperimetre (Treatise on Isoperimetric Figures), published in 1608, Ricci and Li Dang introduced the concept of equilateral polygons inscribed in a circle. In 1612, a six volume of translation by De Ursis and Xu Guangqi was the first Chinese works on hydrology and reservoirs; it also dealt with physiology and described some of the techniques used in the distillation of medicines. As he translated, Xu Guangqi performed experiments. Thus, he used the book he was in the process of translating as a kind of textbook, and translation was in turn a catalyst, leading to new discoveries. A 1613 translation by Matteo Ricci and Li Zhizao showed how to perform written arithmetic operations: addition, substraction, multiplication and division. They also introduced the Chinese to classical logic via a Portuguese university-level textbook brought in by a missionary in 1625.Although translations carried out during the Ming dynasty were mainly on science and technology: mathematics, astronomy, medicine, hydrology etc., there were also some translations of philosophy and literature in this period. Li Zhizao, with assistance of the foreign missionaries, translated some of Aristotle's works like On Truth into Chinese. In 1625, the first translation of Aesop's Fables was also introduced to Chinese readers.Technical translations during the Ming dynasty facilitated the scientific and technological development of ancient China, and thus foreign missionaries whose main purpose was to promote Christianity became the first group of disseminators of western knowledge.Translations during the Ming dynasty had two distinguishing characteristics : (1) The subject of translation shifted from Buddhist scriptures to scientific and technological knowledge; (2) translators in this period of time were mainly scientists and government officials who were erudite scholars, and the western missionaries who brought western knowledge to China. The effect of the translations was that China was opened to western knowledge, and translation facilitated the scientific and technical development.So successful were the Ming translators as pioneers on technical translation, that some of the translated technical terms are still in use today. However, translation practice was overstressed and no translation theories were developed during the Ming dynasty. By comparison with the large scale of translation of the Buddhist scriptures during the Tang dynasty, translation during the Ming dynasty was not so influential in terms of the history of translation in China. During the Tang dynasty, there was translation practice accompanied by a quest for systematic translation theories, while during the Ming dynasty, the main purpose of translation was to introduce western technical knowledge.3. Translation in Contemporary China3.1 Technical Translation during the Qing DynastyTranslation into Chinese all but stopped for roughly a hundred years with the expulsion of foreign missionaries in 1723. It resumed following the British invasion (1840-1842) and the subsequent arrival of American, British, French and German missionaries. Foreign missionaries dominated scientific and technical translation initially, butChinese translators, trained in China or at foreign universities, gradually took over the transmission of western knowledge.A leading figure during this period was the Chinese mathematician—Li Shanlan (1811-1882), who collaborated with the British missionary Alexander Wylies (1815-1877) on a translation of a work on differential and integral calculus. The Chinese mathematician Hua Hengfang (1833-1902) and the British Missionary John Fryer (1839-1928) translated a text on probability taken from the Encyclopedia Britannica. In 1877, Hua and Fryer translated Hymers' Treatise on Plane and Spherical Trigonometry (1858). This translation is a perfect example of how knowledge is both transmitted and generated through the translation process; it contributed to the dissemination of modern mathematical theory and, at the same time, stimulated the personal research carried out by the translators. Fryer and his collaborators also translated some one hundred chemistry treatises and textbooks. Many of these were published by the Jiangnan Ordance Factory, where Fryer was an official translator.The earth sciences, too, were introduced to China through translation. During the Opium War5, Lin Zexu, a Chinese official, translated part of the Cyclopaedia of Geography by Murray Hugh. Published in 1836, it was the most up-to-date work on world geography. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, many medical books were available in Chinese, Ding Dubao (1874-1952), a physician and translator, having been responsible for over fifty medical translations. He was awarded national and international prizes for his role in translating and disseminating knowledge of medicine and pharmacology.The technical translations in this period promoted the scientific development of China and also contributed to the study of technical translation in China. Fryer, after translating so many books on science and technology, summed up his experience of translation. In his On the Various Methods of Translating, he explained : (1) The fallacy that technical language could not be rendered into Chinese should be refuted; Chinese was expressive as any other languages in the world, and new technical terms could by various means be created in Chinese. (2) A database for technical terminology should be established for all the translators; the same technical terms should be identical in Chinese even if they were translated by different translators. (3) As for selecting the original texts for translation, a translator should translate those books which were in urgent need among the target language readers. He also explained that one should not translate unless one has understood every single word of the original text.3.2 Yan Fu and His Views on TranslationAt the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Yangwu group, comprised of highly placed Foreign Affairs officials, initiated the translation of technical documents dealing with subjects like shipbuilding and the manufacture of weapons, and even established a number of translator training institutions. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu (1853-1921), one of the most important figures in the modern period of translation in China, was the most influential translator and translation theorist. Yan Fu was a cultural intermediary who, at a critical moment in history, sought to make European works of political and social science accessible to the people.Born into a poor family in Fu Zhou, a port in the province of Fujian, Yan Fu attended a naval college and served on warships which took him to places such as Singapore and Japan. From 1876 to 1879, he was in Portsmouth and Greenwich, in England, where he had been sent with a group of naval officers who would later serve in the Sino-Japanese War. In England, he read philosophical and scientific texts voraciously. Upon his return to China, he。

中国翻译史简介

唐代达到顶峰，玄奘考察翻译的历史一般都从佛经开始，历史悠久、影响深远。
第二大高潮：明末清初的科技翻译
以传教为主，同时介绍西方学术，客观上促进了科学文化的交流。
从延续时间以及译著数量上都比不上先前的佛经翻译。最重要就是翻译了天文、数学、机械等自然科学著作，使得中国人首次学到了西方的科学技术知识，开阔了眼界。
清朝的林纾(字琴南)第一个把西方的文学作品介绍给中国读者，被称为文学翻译的始祖。文学译品甚多，字数达1200万，有《巴黎茶花女遗事》《块肉余生述》(David Copperfield), 王子复仇记》(Hamlet), 《撒克逊劫后英雄略》(Ivanho) 、《黑奴吁天录》(Uncle Tom's Cabin)等。
In his view，people could love each other ，except those with deep prejudices and those who could not bring themselves out in the open.
他对这些人却有些憎恶，不肯假借一点颜色。 He hated these people，and to them he couldn‘t show
第一大高潮：东汉至唐宋的佛经翻译及代表人物
安世高译了《大安般守意经》等35部经书，开后世禅学之源。三支支谶支亮、支谦
前秦时代，赵政释道安主张严格的直译。鸠摩罗什倾向于意译,既忠实表达原文神情，又苗趣盎然。
隋唐时期，是佛经翻译的鼎盛时期。隋朝的彦琮为佛经翻译者提出了“八备”，在我国译论史上最早较全面地论述了翻译活动的主题—译者本身的问题。
科技翻译的代表人物

中国翻译简史(英语专业版)

10
3. Modern introduction of western thoughts through translation (19th~mid-20th)
11
see its word file*
It may be safely assumed that, two thousand years ago, before Caesar set foot in southern Britain, the whole country visible from the windows of the room in which I write, was in what is called “the state of nature”. Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds, such as those which still, here and there, break the following contours of the downs, man’s hands had made no mark upon it; and the thin veil of vegetation which overspread the broadbacked heights and the shelving sides of the tombs was unaffected by his industry. The native grasses and weeds, the scattered patches of gorse, contended with one another for the possession of the scanty surface soil; they fought against the droughts of summer, the frosts of winter, and the furious gales which swept, with unbroken force, now from the Atlantic, and now from the North Sea, at all times of the year; they filled up, as they might, the gaps made in their ranks by all sorts of underground animal ravagers. One year after another, with an average population, the floating balance of the unceasing struggle for existence among the indigenous plants, maintained itself.

(完整版)中国翻译史及重要翻译家

中国翻译史及重要翻译家08英本1 杨慧颖 NO.35中国翻译史上有许多为人们所熟知的大家，现就其翻译观点和主要作品做一简介：严复是中国近代翻译史上学贯中西、划时代意义的翻译家，也是我国首创完整翻译标准的先驱者。

严复吸收了中国古代佛经翻译思想的精髓，并结合自己的翻译实践经验，在《天演论》译例言里鲜明地提出了“信、达、雅”的翻译原则和标准。

“信”（faithfulness）是指忠实准确地传达原文的内容；“达”（expressiveness）指译文通顺流畅；“雅”（elegance）可解为译文有文才，文字典雅。

这条[1]著名的“三字经”对后世的翻译理论和实践的影响很大，20世纪的中国译者几乎没有不受这三个字影响的。

主要翻译作品：《救亡决论》，《直报》，1895年《天演论》，赫胥黎，1896年～1898年《原富》（即《国富论》），亚当·斯密，1901年《群学肄言》，斯宾塞，1903年《群己权界论》，约翰·穆勒，1903年《穆勒名学》，约翰·穆勒，1903年《社会通诠》，甄克斯，1903年《法意》（即《论法的精神》），孟德斯鸠，1904年～1909年《名学浅说》，耶方斯，1909年鲁迅鲁迅翻译观的变化,从早期跟随晚清风尚以意译为主,到后期追求直译、反对归化。

鲁迅的翻译思想主要是围绕"信"和"顺"问题展开的。

他"宁信而不顺"的硬译观在我国文坛上曾经引发过极大的争议。

鲁迅先生说过:凡是翻译,必须兼顾两面,一则当然力求其易解,一则是保存着原作的丰姿。

从实质上来讲,就是要使原文的内容、风格、笔锋、韵味在译文中得以再现。

翻译涉及原语(source language)与译语(target language) 两种语言及其文化背景等各方面的知识,有时非常复杂。

所以,译者要想收到理想的翻译效果,常常需要字斟句酌,反复推敲,仅仅懂得一些基本技巧知识是不够的,必须广泛涉猎不同文化间的差异,必须在两种语言上下工夫,乃至独具匠心。

第1讲翻译入门%26中国翻译史简介

❖ 译文二： Night Thoughts -- by Herbert A. Giles
❖ I wake, and moonbeams play around my bed, Glittering like hoar-frost to my wandering eyes; Up towards the glorious moon I raise my head, Then lay me down-and thoughts of home arise.
❖ 译文一：孔子说：“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐吗！别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？”（徐志刚译）
❖ 译文二：The Master said, ‘To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman?’ (Waley 译)
❖ 2、课堂积极参与发言、讨论； ❖ 3、课后认真做作业，包括初次作业和二次修改，
三周交一次纸质作业，多读翻译类书籍。
Any questions?
❖ Do you have a big picture in mind concerning what and how we are going to do in this term?

中国翻译史1

History of TranslationTeaching PlanTeaching Contents:1. An introduction to Chinese translation theory and history2. An introduction to western countries translation theory and history中国翻译史的大致分期1.由汉代到唐宋的上千年的佛经翻译【支谦、道安、鸠摩罗什、昙无谶、法显、谢灵运、真谛、彦琮、慧远、玄奘、不空】2.明清交替之际的科技翻译【徐光启、利玛窦、汤若望、南怀仁、熊三拔、李之藻等】3.清末民初的文学和科技翻译【李善兰、华蘅芳、傅兰雅、林纾、严复、梁启超等】4. 民国时期的翻译【赵元任、朱生豪、林语堂】5. 新中国成立后的翻译，尤其是改革开放以来的翻译【傅雷、钱钟书、杨绛】Lecture 1 佛经翻译I.关于翻译的早期记载《册府元龟·外臣部·鞮（di）译》记载，周时有越裳国“以三相胥重译而献白雉，曰：‘道路悠远，山川阻深，音使不通，故重译而朝’”。

“五方之民，言语不通，嗜欲不同。

达其志，通其欲，东方曰寄，南方曰象，西方曰狄鞮，北方曰译。

”《礼记·王制》翻译的不同称呼:“象寄”、“象胥”、“鞮译”“舌人”寄send; entrust; rely on象be like; resemble; image译translate; interpret越人歌今夕何夕兮？搴舟中流。

今日何日兮？得与王子同舟。

蒙羞被好兮，不訾诟耻。

心几烦而不绝兮，知得王子。

山有木兮木有枝，心悦君兮君不知。

《越人歌》是我国历史上现存的第一首译诗。

秦汉时期对“翻译官”的种种称谓：“行人”、“典客”、“大行令”、“大鸿胪”、“典乐”、“译官令”、“译官丞”等。

到汉朝，我国主要的外事活动是对北方的匈奴用兵，故翻译活动逐渐用“译”来统称了。

(最新最全)中西方翻译简史(包含中西方翻译大家简介)

鸠摩罗什VS真谛VS彦琮
• 提倡意译，主张在存真的原则指导下，不妨“依实出华”，讲究译文的流畅华美，因此他所译的佛经都富于文学趣味，一直受到中国佛教徒和文学爱好者的广泛传诵。他虽然倾向意译，但在实践上基本仍然是折中而非偏激的。 • 真谛三藏到中国后20余年适逢兵乱，于颠沛流离中仍能译出一百多部重要经论，是鸠摩罗什以后玄奘以前贡献最大的译师。 • 彦琮在《辩正论》中批评了历代译经之得失，提出“宁贵朴而近理，不用巧而背源”，也是坚持忠实第一和倾向直译的。最大贡献是提出了“八备”(eight qualifications)，即一个合格的佛经翻译工作者应该具备的八项条件.
1.东汉到宋的佛经翻译
我国的佛经翻译,从东汉桓帝安世高译经开始,魏晋南北朝时有了进一步发展,到唐代臻于极盛,北宋时已经式微,元代以后则是尾声了(马祖毅，2004:19)。大致分为四个时期：东汉至西晋（草创时期）东晋到隋（发展时期）唐代（全盛时期）北宋（结束时期）
东汉至西晋（草创时期）的佛教翻译：
• 始于东汉桓帝建和二年（公元148）。 • （公元148-316年） • 主要是外籍僧人和华籍胡裔僧人，翻译主要靠直译，甚至是“死译”、 “硬译”，采取口授形式，因此可信度不高。 • 最早的翻译家有两人：安清（即安世高）和娄迦谶（又名：支娄迦谶，简名：支谶）。 • 支谦所作《法句经序》，一般认为是现存最早带有佛经翻译理论性质的文章。 • 但在当时，以上译者的译作都没有产生大的影响。原因：汉代的佛教始终被视为当时社会上所盛行的神仙方术迷信的一种。汉代人对佛教的理解，可以说就是道术，他们总是把“浮屠”和“老子”并称。
中国翻译简史VS西方翻译简史
CP
一.中国翻译简史
• 我国有文字记载的翻译事业有约两千年的历史。不同学者对我国的翻译史有不同的划分。 • 陈福康（ 2005）--- 《中国译学理论史稿》：古代、晚清、民国、 1949年以后四个时期。 • 马祖毅（2004）：五四运动（1919年）前有三次翻译高潮：从东汉到宋的佛经翻译；明末清初的科技翻译；鸦片战争（1840年）以后的西学翻译。 • 根据历史上出现的翻译高潮和翻译的不同内容，将中国翻译史分为：东汉到宋的佛经翻译；明末清初的科技翻译；清末民初的西学翻译；五四以后的文学与社会科学翻译；建国以后的翻译五个时期。

中国有悠久的历史英语翻译

中国有悠久的历史英语翻译China has a long and illustrious history. The first Chinese dynasty was the Xia dynasty, which emerged around 2000 BC and lasted until 1600 BC. This was followed by the Shang dynasty, which reigned from 1600 BC to 1046 BC. During this time, China saw the development of many elements of culture, including writing, music, painting and more.Later came the Zhou dynasty, which ruled from 1046 BC to 221 BC. This was a period known for its advances in philosophy, science and the arts. Noteworthy achievements included the invention of the compass, paper money, and gunpowder.Subsequently, the Qin dynasty (221-206 BC) unified China under a single government and established a system of laws. This was also the period during which the Great Wall wasbuilt to defend against foreign attack.The Han dynasty, which followed the Qin, lasted until 220 AD. This period saw the emergence of Confucianism as the cornerstone of Chinese culture and the creation of a unified writing system. It was a time of great progress in the fields of architecture, engineering, medicine and art.From 220 AD to 589 AD, China experienced a series of disunity and division under various warring states. This lasted until the Sui dynasty united China again, ushering in a period of prosperity. During this time there were advances in education, literature, poetry, and architecture.The next major dynasty was the Tang dynasty (589–907), which is generally considered to be one of the finest periodsin Chinese history. This was a time of great cultural, economic and technological progress. It also saw aflourishing of the arts and sciences, including advancements in astronomy and mathematics.In 960 AD, the Song dynasty rose to power, which marked the beginning of the era of imperial China. During this period, Chinese society saw great advances in technology, such as the use of gunpowder and the printing press. It was also a renaissance in literature, art, and philosophy.From 1271-1368, the Mongol Yuan dynasty controlled China. This was a period of great hardship as the Mongol rulers imposed heavy taxation and harsh laws on the Chinese people.The Ming dynasty followed the Yuan and lasted from 1368-1644. This was a period of peace and prosperity, with great advances in all aspects of Chinese civilization. The Great Wall was repaired during this time and trade with foreign nations flourished.During the Qing dynasty, which reigned from 1644-1911, China underwent a period of stability and economic growth. Overseas trade and migration saw a dramatic increase during this time, and the Qing rulers established diplomaticrelations with many Western nations.China's rich history is one that is full of advances in culture, art, literature, science, technology, and more. Itis a history that has shaped the nation into what it is today.。

中国翻译史的发展及其对当今译学的启示-最新文档

中国翻译史的发展及其对当今译学的启示:One can know the alteration of the society by viewing itshistory. After long years of development, Chinese tanslation hasaccumulated its special features and essence. Looking back, therewas so much for us to learn and to think over. Therefore, thestudyof its history could leave people very important implication.翻译作为一门独立的学科发展到现在，已经拥有了一套完整的理论和体系。

而其发展的过程可谓是漫长而曲折。

对于翻译的原则，理论，方法，技巧，译学界曾有过无数次的讨论，而正是这些争论绵延不休的推动着翻译这一门学科的发展。

而俗话说：以史为鉴。

翻阅漫长历史，回顾翻译这门学科所走过的痕迹，给当今留下许多启示。

1、翻译史研究的重要性俗话说，以史为鉴可以知兴替。

对于任何一门学科而言，其发展与进步都离不开回顾和反思。

翻译史的研究对于译学状况的掌握和反思起着举足轻重的作用。

翻译史大致可以分为翻译实践史和翻译理论史。

前者注重具体的翻译作品的探索与研究，后者注重翻译理论的提炼与创新。

20 世纪中期，人们逐渐开始重视对于翻译资料的整理与收集，并且在此基础上进行回顾与反思。

张岂之教授认为 , 传统文化的研究需要有一个突破 , 就必须研究前人在此问题上的经验和不足 , 而学术史的研究恰好具有这样的功能。

首先，对于翻译历史的研究在一定程度上奠定了翻译学成为一门独立学科的基础。

从历史的角度来看，翻译活动无论在中国还是在西方都有着相当长的历史，在上千年的翻译活动中人们积累了十分丰富的经验，这些内容对于任何一门学科来说都是十分宝贵和不可或缺的。

中国翻译简史

东晋到隋（发展时期）的佛经翻译

他的译著有“天然西域之语趣”，表达了原作神情，译文妙趣盎然，为我国翻译文学奠定了基础。他提倡意译，主张在存真的原则指导下，不妨“依实出华”，讲究译文的流畅华美，因此他所译的佛经都富于文学趣味，一直受到中国佛教徒和文学爱好者的广泛传诵。他虽然倾向意译，但在实践上基本仍然是折中而非偏激的。所译经卷典籍，不仅是佛教的宝藏，也是重要的文学遗产，它对中国的哲学思想和文学的影响非常巨大。
东晋到隋（发展时期）的佛经翻译

到南北朝时，一个名叫真谛的印度佛教学者来到中国，译了四十九部经论，对中国佛教思想有较大影响。真谛三藏到中国后20余年适逢兵乱，于颠沛流离中仍能译出一百多部重要经论，是鸠摩罗什以后玄奘以前贡献最大的译师。
东晋到隋（发展时期）的佛经翻译
隋代最著名的佛经翻译家是彦琮（或释彦琮）,前后译经一百多卷，并总结历代翻译经验，著《辩正论》，是今存我国历史上第一篇正式的翻译专论。彦琮在《辩正论》《辩正论》中批评了历代译经之得失，提出“宁贵朴而近理，不用巧而背源”，也是坚持忠实第一和倾向直译的。
唐代（全盛时期）的佛经翻译
佛经翻译的第三阶段是唐代，是我国佛教和佛经翻译的全盛时期。我国佛经翻译的四大译家——鸠摩罗什、真谛、玄奘、不空——有两名都出现在唐代（四人中最突出的是罗什和玄奘）。

唐代（全盛时期）的佛经翻译

玄奘
在译经的数量和译论贡献方面皆无人出其左右。也是我国历史上促进中印友好和文化交流的首屈一指的人物。河南人，唐太宗贞观三年从长安出发，西出敦煌，四年后展转到达印度，至贞观十九年回到长安。往返十七年，行程五万里，历尽艰辛，使他成为一个传奇人物。&&

Unit Two China's Translation__ History

Ⅱ.Translate the following into Chinese: 1. There are very few tourists and they don’t spend because they can’t afford it. 2. “You want me to tell you what my husband thinks? If you want my opinion, I will tell you my opinion. I am not going to be channeling my husband,” said Hilary Clinton in early August of 2009. 3. I don’t think the US will ever be cured of Islamophobia.
It was an age when science was gaining importance in the Western world. The most remarkable achievements during these two centuries were the introduction of such basic sciences as mathematics, geometry （几何学） and astronomy(天文学).
Lin Zexu, the special imperial envoy to Guangdong province in 1838, was regarded as the first Chinese who opened his eyes to look at the outside world. Yan Fu, has not only translated many western books on sciences, but put forwards the famous three principles on translation：Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance.

1.第一章__我国翻译史简介

严复：我国清末新兴资产阶级的启蒙思想家
毕业院校：英国格林威治皇家海军学院
著名译作：
赫胥黎的《天演论》亚当· 斯密的《原富》孟德斯鸠的《法意》斯宾塞尔的《群学肄言》约翰· 穆勒的《群己权界论》甄克思的《社会通诠》
翻译标准：信、达、雅
“译事三难:信、达、雅。求其信已大难矣，顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，则达尚焉。”--严复 “信”指意义不背原文，即是译文要准确，不歪曲，不遗漏，也不要随意增减意思;
英汉翻译教程
Stephanie
教材：
《英汉翻译教程》张培基主编对外经济贸易大学任教，系福建福州人，出生于1921年。中国当代著名翻译家。代表作：英译中国现代散文选

试译下面句子：
Three
passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind.

不堪忍受的；无法容忍的；难以承受的
What I Have Lived for 我为何而生

Three passions, simple but overwhelmingly strong, have governed my life: the longing for love, the search for knowledge, and unbearable pity for the suffering of mankind.
From What I Have Lived for

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Unit Two China's Translation__ History

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