美国黑人英语及黑人文学 BLACK AMERICAN ENGLISH
Black American Literature非裔美国人文学
The Negro Speaks of Rivers---Langston Hughes
I’ve known rivers: I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human veins. My soul has grown deep like the rivers. I bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young. I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled me to sleep. I looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it. I heart the singing of Mississippi when Abe Lincoln went down to New Orleans, and I’ve seen its muddy bosom turn all golden in the sunset. I’ve known rivers: Ancient, dusky rivers.
has acquired the status of a major classic in American literature.
James Baldwin(1924---1986)
Go Tell It on the Mountain(1954)
---It is remarkable in both thematic and technical terms.
美国黑人文学
The narrator is the “invisible man” of the title. A black man in 1930s America. The narrator considers himself invisible because people never see his true self beneath the roles that stereotype and racial prejudice compel him to play.
Toni Morrison
American author, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993. Toni Morrison was born Chloe Anthony Wofford in Lorain, Ohio. In her works Toni Morrison has explored the experience of black women in a racist culture. Morrison has actively used her influence to defend the role of the artist and encouraged the publication of other black writers.
Characteristics and themes
• Among the themes and issues explored in African American literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society, African-American culture, and racism, religion, slavery, a sense of home, segregation, migration, feminism, equality and more. African American writing has also tended to incorporate within itself oral forms such as spirituals, sermons, gospel music, blues and rap.
Black_English
4.而有二文法已成为不只黑人使用，也要成为通行全 美的通则了，即如going to改成了gonna, want to改 成了wanna。此外，如out of改成了outta，kind of 改成了kinda，sort of改成了sorta，已成一新英文 文法。 5. re或e此种在快语速情况下几乎听不到的字，都被 省略了，如more成了mo（如黑人电影more money， 即缩写成mo money），for改成了fo，或 用数字"4" （音同）取代。 6."ing"之中"g"的省略，也成了全美通用的文法，如 nothing改成了nuthin', comming改成了commin'等， 只要是ing进行式就可以省略g。
(7) 一个句子可能会出现两个或更多的否定 词。Nothing 和no 分别用来代替anything 和any。 eg: Don’t know nothing about anybody. I don’t know anything about anybody. (8) 否定代词作主语,句子倒装。 eg: Didn’t nobody do it . Nobody did it . (9) 双重否定或多重否定普遍。 eg: No way no girl can’t wear no platform shoes to no amusement park .
(4)缺少主谓一致性。 eg: You is tall. You are tall. (5) 语言屈折变化的一些手段,如复数、所有 格、第三人称单数、过去式等都有不同程度 地省略。 eg: He got three cent . He got three cent s. (6) Ain’t 用来代替be + not , have + not , do + not , did + not 。 eg: He ain’t do it . He didn’t do it .
美国黑人英语的表现形式及发展因素研究
美国黑人英语的表现形式及发展因素研究作者：王啸琦刘雪丽来源：《科学大众·教师版》2021年第11期摘要：美国黑人英语作为诸多英语变体的组成部分之一，在诞生之初，其正当性和规范性就在使用标准英语的群体中激起广泛争议;然而随着美国黑人的社会地位和受教育水平提高，以及美国社会对多元文化越发包容，美国黑人英语的使用范围不断扩大，影响力也随之增强。
从最初仅由美国黑人群体使用，到如今在世界范围内广泛传播，黑人英语在漫长的发展过程中演化出了独具特色的语法特征和内涵丰富的词汇表达，并逐渐对标准英语施加其影响。
因此，了解美国黑人英语的表现形式及影响其发展的因素，已经成为英语习得及研究过程中的重要环节。
关键词：英语变体; 黑人英语; 词汇表达; 语法特征中图分类号：G112 文獻标识码：A 文章编号：1006-3315（2021）11-158-002一、引言黑人作为美国主要的少数族裔群体，其在美国的发展历史可以上溯至16世纪的三角贩奴贸易。
非洲黑人到达美国之初，只能以奴隶的身份在种植园和矿山等场所从事体力劳动。
在此过程中，来自不同地域的黑人，以及黑人与白人之间出于沟通的需要，黑人英语（Black American English，BAE）的雏形就此形成。
董启明（2009）将美国黑人英语称之为“a sort of pidgin English”（洋泾浜英语），即一种从标准英语中剥离出的简化表达。
黑人英语亦被称为Negro creole、Negro dialect以及如今的African American English等。
这种英语表达方式受到美国黑人在美国国内地位的演变，以及美国多元文化融合的影响而不断变化。
鉴于早期美国黑人的社会地位低下，能够拥有“自由人”身份的黑人寥寥无几，自然黑人的受教育权也无从谈及。
因此在一段时间内，黑人英语被主流白人社会认为是受到错误语法和下流俚语污染的“劣等英语”（郭智勇，2014）。
Black Americans美国黑人
. When Africans were brought to the American South in the early 1600s, they were initially treated as indentured servants rather than as permanent slaves.
By the 1970s, Blacks were registered as voters in South almost in the same proportion as whites, and many Blacks were elected important offices in Southern stas, however, hereditary slavery had become the rule and blacks were degraded to the status of property. Some slave-owners treated their slaves better than others, but all had ultimate power over what was theirs.
For blacks, slavery meant extremely hard work, miserable living conditions and indescribable humiliation. Towards 1800, the southern states stopped the slave trade. But by then, there were nearly a million slaves in the plantations .
At this time, there emerged a black clergyman, Martin Luther King ,who is the leader of the Civil Rights Movement.
美国黑人文学的发展和成就
Trouble, trouble, I've had it all my days, Trouble, trouble, I've had it all my days; It seems like trouble going to follow me to my grave. I ain't never loved but three mens in my life; I ain't never loved but three men in my life: My father, my brother, the man that wrecked my life. It may be a week, it may be a month or two, It may be a week, it may be a month or two, But the day you quit me, honey, it's comin' home to you. I got the world in a jug, the stopper's in my hand, I got the world in a jug, the stopper's in my hand, I'm gonna hold it until you meet some of my demands.
抗議小說、憤怒文學 Native Son
11
Ralph Ellison Invisible Man
“I remember that I am invisible and walk softly so as not to awaken the sleeping ones.”
African-American Literature
美国黑人文学
第 16-18 周：六、七十年代以来的美国 黑人文化（重建身份和重建历史的努 力 ） ， 阅 读 莫 里 森 的 代 表 作 (Toni Morrison(1931-): The Bluest Eye, 1970; Song of Solomon, 1977; Beloved, 1987)
美国黑人文学
第 7-9 周：吟游文学（黑人与白人的文化互动过程中的 模仿、戏仿、曲仿），阅读第一部反映黑人生活的小说 《汤姆叔叔的小屋》(Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Harriet Beecher Stowe) 第 10-12 周：社会动荡与文化耻辱（芝加哥爵士乐的兴 起、流行和影响），阅读休斯和赖特的代表作 (Langston Hughes: Dreams; Richard Right: Native Son) 第 13-15 周：口头文学传统与争取教育权利的斗争（从 惠特利到埃里森的黑人作家危机）阅读拉尔夫·埃里森 的 代 表 作 (Ralph Waldo Ellison: Invisible Man, 1952; Phillis Wheatley(1753-1784) : the first American black poet; James Baldwin(1924-1987): Go Tell It on the Mountain, 1953) （《向苍天呼吁》）
美国黑人文学
具体安排 第1周：介绍课程性质、内容，了解学生相关 文学背景，简要概括黑人文学历史 第2-3周：再现黑人文化（黑人文化长期被掩 盖的事实和原因，重新被发现的原因和过程）
美国黑人文学
第4-6周：双重意识（语言、吟唱文学、民俗民谣、宗 教的边缘化），阅读黑人种族意识三代伟大启蒙家道 格 拉 斯 、 华 盛 顿 、 杜 波 伊 斯 的 代 表 作 (Frederick Douglass,1817-1895: 他的三部自传是美国黑人文学的 开山之作， 1840 年的《弗雷德里克·道格拉斯：一个 美国奴隶的叙述》(Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass) ； 1855 年的《我的奴隶生涯和我的自由》 (My Bondage and My Freedom) ；以及1881年的《弗雷 德里克·道格拉斯的生平和时代》(Life and Time of Frederick Douglass). Booker Washington, 1856-1915) : 自传《超越奴役》（ Up From Slavery）(1901); Du Bois,1868-1963: The Souls of the Black Folk)
黑人文学
• Paul Laurence Dunbar, 保尔· 劳伦斯· 邓巴 who often wrote in the rural, black dialect of the day, was the first African American poet to gain national prominence. His first book of poetry, Oak and Ivy, was published in 1893. Much of Dunbar's work, such as When Malindy Sings (1906), which includes photographs taken by the Hampton Institute Camera Club, and Joggin' Erlong (1906) provide revealing glimpses into the lives of rural African-Americans of the day.
• The Harlem Renaissance marked a turning point for African American literature. Prior to this time, books by African Americans were primarily read by other Black people. With the renaissance, though, African American literature—as well as black fine art and performance art—began to be absorbed into mainstream American culture.
研究美国黑人文学的重要参考书——评吉尔亚德、沃迪的《美国黑人文学》
第三，对于作品的选取不拘一格，题材与体式多样化，全面展示了黑人文学的独特性。 在传统的文学史教材中，往往只“精选”所谓的名家名篇供学生阅读、分析，而《美国黑人文 学》选取的作家多达１５０余位、作品２３６篇，这还不包括作者在“延伸阅读（Ｆｕｒｔｈｅｒ Ｒｅａｄ—
ＵｎｉＶｅｒｓ毋ｏｆ
Ｔｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙ（Ｗｕｈａｎ ４３００７０，Ｃｈｉｎａ）．Ｈｅｒ
ｍａｉｎｌｙ‰ｕｓｅｓ
ｏｎ
Ｂｒｉｔｉｓｈ ａｎｄ
Ａｍｅｒｉｃ卸ｐｏｅｔ－
ｒｙ．Ｅｍａｉｌ：ｃ舾６７６＠ｓｉｎａ．ｃｏｍ
随着２０世纪５０、６０年代美国民权运动的高涨，美国黑人反对种族歧视、争取民族平等
的黑色权利运动也开展得如火如荼，而反映这一美国现实的美国黑人文学，也随之进入美国
ｃ口ｎ
Ａｍｅ砌ｎ厅“￡ｅｍ￡ｕ陀），是一部关于美国黑人文学的大学教材，可以说它是迄今为止有关美
国黑人文学最为全面和系统的一部教材。由吉尔亚德与沃迪合著的这部高校文科教材《美 国黑人文学》，囊括了美国历史上几乎所有知名与不知名的黑人作家的不同体裁作品，包括 小说、诗歌、戏剧、演讲、歌词等等，以及关于这些作家的介绍和名篇的选读章节。此书已经 成为美国高校黑人文学教学的“百科全书”，为进一步研究美国黑人文学提供了详实的背景
三个世纪，主题涉及１２种不同类型，但实际上贯穿始终关注的却是同一个内容：作为少数民
族的黑人在美国社会中的生活和地位。所以，美国黑人文学史其实就是一部关于美国黑人 争取民族自由与平等的政治史。 第四，“百科全书”式的附录。本书的三个附录尤其值得推崇，内容丰富、信息量大，便 于读者迅速查到相关信息。第一个附录“美国黑人文学年表”非常具有参考价值：凡是关于 黑人文学史或政治史上的“第一”，无论是人物还是政治、历史事件，读者都可以在这里找到 线索。第二个附录列出了本书的所有参考书目，详细介绍了教材中引用的所有作品的出处， 以方便读者追查进一步的信息。第三个附录是“索引”，简要注明了作品引用的页码，也能
black English
Realization of final ng /ŋ/, the velar nasal, as the alveolar nasal [n] in function morphemes
• Recently, Shana Poplack has provided corpus-based evidence from isolated enclaves(领土) in Samanáand Nova Scotia peopled by descendants of migrations of early AAVE-speaking groups (see SamanáEnglish), that suggests that the grammar of early AAVE was closer to that of contemporary British dialects than modern urban AAVE is to current American dialects, suggesting that the modern language is a result of divergence（分支） from mainstream varieties（主流语言变体）, rather than the result of evolution from a widespread American Creole.
Introduction
African American Vernacular English (AAVE)—also called African American English ; less precisely Black English , Black Vernacular, Black English Vernacular (BEV), or Black Vernacular English (BVE)—is an African American variety (dialect , ethnolectand sociolect) of American English. Non-linguists sometimes call it Ebonics (a term that also has other meanings or strong connotations) or jive or jive-talk. There are many literary works using of this variety of English, particularly in African-American literature
美国黑人文学 Black literature
-The second phase
• began in the 1920s • led by Langston Hughes • re-evaluated their artistic talent • characters of more independence and rebel spirit
-Harlem Renaissance
- New Negro Cultural Movement • from 1920s to 1930s • advocate cultural heritage, break negative stereotype and campaign against racial discrimination • Native Son by Richard Wright
Contemporary Black literature
--an era of diversity
Thank you
Black Figures in American Literature
- Colonial Period - Early Development
- The Shenandoah Valley - The Uncle's Tom's Cabin
• George: courageous and prudent
Native Son
• Published in 1940 • Protagonist: Bigger Thomas • killed a young white woman • sentenced to death
Ectract
• "Maybe it ain't fair to kill, and I reckon I really didn't want to kill. But when I think of why all the killing was, I begin to feel what I wanted, what I am? They wouldn't let me live and I killed. What I killed for must've been good!" Bigger's voice was full of frenzied anguish. "It must have been good! When a man kills, it's for something? I didn't know I was really alive in this world until I felt things hard enough to kill for 'em"
黑人文学American_Black_Literature
Written Literature （from 1760s）(2)
（4）1940s: Richard Wright, Ralph Ellison （5）50s~60s: a lot of black writers emerged in the civil rights movement: James Baldwin, Brooks, Jones （6）70s~80s: publishing of Root （Alex Haley）, Alice Walker The Colour Purple, Toni Morrison （the only black who won Nobel Prize）
in Africa The Middle Passage The Slavery The Emancipation The Migration to the Cities The Integration to the Mainstream The Black Power Movement The Civil Rights Movement
The Middle Passage中间通道
the stage of the triangular trade in which millions of people from African were shipped to the New World as part of the Atlantic slave trade. Ships departed Europe for African markets with manufactured goods, which were traded for purchased or kidnapped Africans, who were transported across the Atlantic as slaves; the slaves were then sold or traded for raw materials, which would be transported back to Europe to complete the voyage.
黑人文学
Important Features
1. Harlem Renaissance (HR) is the name given to the period from the end of World War I and through the middle of the 1930s Depression, during which a group of talented African-American writers produced a sizable body of literature in the four prominent genres of poetry, fiction, drama, and essay.
3. Common themes: alienation, marginality, the use of folk material, the use of the blues tradition, the problems of writing for an elite audience. 4. HR was more than just a literary movement: it included racial consciousness, "the back to Africa" movement led by Marcus Garvey, racial integration, the explosion of music particularly jazz, spirituals and blues, painting, dramatic revues, and others
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2. The notion of "twoness" , a divided awareness of one's identity, was introduced by W.E.B. Du Bois, one of the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).and the author of the influential book The Souls of Black Folks (1903): "One ever feels his two-ness - an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled stirrings: two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder."
美国黑人英语的起源及其特点
美国黑人英语的起源及其特点[摘要]近年来,展现美国黑人生活的电影和电视层出不穷,黑人英语也受到人们的普遍关注。
本文主要陈述了美国黑人英语的起源,并简单探讨黑人英语的主要特点。
[关键词] 黑人英语方言特点提到黑人英语,很多人会把它与粗俗、蹩脚等词联系起来,由于种族主义思想的影响,甚至有人认为,黑人英语只是那些没受过教育的黑人的语言,显然,这是对黑人英语的曲解。
一、黑人英语的起源关于黑人英语的起源,学术界一直存在着分歧。
但是现在大多数的语言学家都普遍认同Stewart, Dillard和Rickford(1977)的主张,他们认为黑人英语是一种克里奥尔(Creole)语,其前身是16世纪非洲西部黑人使用的洋泾浜英语(Pidgin English),因此,黑人英语可以说是―非洲化的英语‖。
16到19世纪,欧洲殖民者从非洲贩卖大批黑人奴隶到美洲,其中一半到了美国并在南部诸州的棉花、甘蔗种植场和矿山当苦工,他们大多来自非洲西部的各个部落,其语言有wolf,Hausa,Twi,Ibo,Kongo和Gola等方言。
但是,奴隶主为了防止黑人奴隶叛逃反抗,他们把这些黑人奴隶拆散、混居,以使其语言不通。
为了交流,黑人奴隶之间逐渐形成了一种掺杂一些英语词汇、彼此可以理解的洋泾浜英语。
随着时间的推移,英语的影响逐渐加深,使得黑人奴隶的语言越来越具有英语的特征,进而演变为克里奥尔语。
由于美国内战、工业革命的发展以及奴隶制的废除,黑人大量北移,尽管他们散居在北方各处,但是由于种族、阶级和社会环境等因素的影响,他们形成了一个与白人隔离的社会集团,他们所说的克里奥尔语通过长期演变逐渐形成了一种有别于标准英语的变体:黑人英语。
S•B•弗莱克斯纳指出:―黑人英语是—种地地道道的方言,是用非洲口音说英语。
为了彼此沟通,也为了适应环境,他们学会英文,并混合原有的语言和英文文法,形成了语言接触的一些特殊形式。
Black American Literature(美国黑人文学)
Black American LiteratureThe Black American Literature can also called African-American literature, is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. It begins with the works of such late 18th-century writers as Phillis Wheatley(菲莉斯·惠特莉)and Olaudah Equiano(阿罗德·爱克伊诺), reaching early high points with slave narratives of the nineteenth century. The Harlem Renaissance（哈莱姆文艺复兴）of the 1920s was a time of flowering of literature and the arts. Writers of African-American literature have been recognized by the highest awards, including the Nobel Prize to Toni Morrison（托尼·莫里森）. Among the themes and issues explored in this literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society, African-American culture, racism, slavery, and equality. African-American writing has tended to incorporate oral forms, such as spirituals, sermons, gospel music, blues and rap.As African Americans' place in American society has changed over the centuries, so, has the focus of African-American literature. Before the American Civil War, the literature primarily consisted of memoirs by people who had escaped from slavery; the genre of slave narratives included accounts of life under slavery and the path of justice and redemption（救赎）to freedom. At the turn of the 20th century, non-fiction works by authors such as W. E. B. Du Bois（杜波依斯William Edward Burghardt Du Bois）and Booker T. Washington（布克·华盛顿）debated whether to confront or appease racist attitudes in the United States. During the American Civil Rights movement, authors such as Richard Wright（理查德·怀特）and Gwendolyn Brooks（格温多琳·布鲁克斯）wrote about issues of racial segregation and black nationalism. Today, African-American literature has become accepted as an integral part of American literature, with books such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley（亚历克斯·哈利）, The Color Purple (1982) by Alice Walker（艾丽斯· 沃克）, which won the Pulitzer Prize（普利策奖）; and Beloved by Toni Morrison achieving both best-selling and award-winning status.In broad terms, African-American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States. It is highly varied. African-American literature has generally focused on the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an American. As Princeton University（普林斯顿大学）professor Albert J. Raboteau has said, all African-American study "speaks to the deeper meaning of the African-American presence in this nation. This presence has always been a test case of the nation's claims to freedom, democracy, equality, the inclusiveness of all." African-American literature explores the issues of freedom and equality long denied to Blacks in the United States, along with further themes such as African-American culture, racism, religion, slavery, a sense of home，and more.Characteristics and themesAfrican-American literature has been created within the larger realm(领域) of post-colonial literature （后殖民文学）, although scholars distinguish between the two, saying that "African American literature differs from most post-colonial literature in that it is written by members of a minority community who reside within a nation of vast wealth and economic power."African-American oral culture is rich in poetry, including spirituals, gospel music（福音音乐）, blues and rap. This oral poetry also appears in the African-American tradition of Christian sermons, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence（节奏）and alliteration. African-American literature—especially written poetry, but also prose—has a strong tradition of incorporating all of these forms of oral poetry. These characteristics do not occur in all works by African-American writers.Some scholars resist using Western literary theory to analyze African-American literature. As the Harvard literary scholar Henry Louis Gates, Jr.（小亨利‧路易斯‧盖茨）said, "My desire has been to allow the black tradition to speak for itself about its nature and various functions, rather than to read it, or analyze it, in terms of literary theories borrowed whole from other traditions, appropriated from without." One trope common to African-American literature is Signification. Gates claims that signifying ―is a trope in which are subsumed several other rhetorical tropes（修辞比喻）, including metaphor, metonymy（转喻）, synecdoche （提喻）, and irony, and also hyperbole（夸张法）an litotes（曲言法）, and metalepsis（进一步转喻法）.‖ Signification also refers to the way in which African-American ―authors read and critique other African American texts in an act of rhetorical self-definition‖HistoryEarly African American literatureAfrican American history predates the emergence of the United States as an independent country, and African-American literature has similarly deep roots.Lucy Terry（路西特里）is the author of the oldest known piece of African-American literature: "Bars Fight". Although written in 1746, the poem was not published until 1855, when it was included in Josiah Holland's History of Western Massachusetts（马萨诸塞州）.The poet Phillis Wheatley(菲莉斯·惠特莉) (1753–84) published her book Poems on Various Subjects in 1773, three years before American independence. Born in Senegal（塞内加尔）, Wheatley was captured and sold into slavery at the age of seven. Brought to America, she was owned by a Boston merchant. By the time she was sixteen, she had mastered her new language of English. Her poetry was praised by many of the leading figures of the American Revolution, including George Washington, who thanked her for a poem written in his honor. Some whites found it hard to believe that a Black woman could write such refinedpoetry. Wheatley had to defend herself in court to prove that she had written her work. Some critics cite Wheatley's successful defense as the first recognition of African-American literature.Phillis Wheatley William Wells Brow Our NigAnother early African-American author was Jupiter Hammon (1711–1806). Hammon, considered the first published Black writer in America, published his poem "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ with Penitential Cries" as a broadside in early 1761. In 1778 he wrote an ode to Phillis Wheatley, in which he discussed their shared humanity and common bonds. In 1786, Hammon gave his "Address to the Negroes of the State of New York". Writing at the age of 76 after a lifetime of slavery, Hammon said, "If we should ever get to Heaven, we shall find nobody to reproach us for being black, or for being slaves." He also promoted the idea of a gradual emancipation（释放）as a way to end slavery. Hammon is thought to have been a slave until his death. His speech was later reprinted by several abolitionist groups（废奴组织）.William Wells Brown (1814–84) and Victor Séjour (1817–74) produced the earliest works of fiction by African-American writers. Séjour was born free in New Orleans（新奥尔良）and moved to France at the age of 19. There he published his short story "Le Mulâtre" ("The Mulatto"黑白混血儿) in 1837. It is the first known fiction by an African American, but as it was written in French and published in a French journal, it had apparently no influence on later American literature. Séjour never returned to African-American themes in his subsequent works. Brown, on the other hand, was a prominent abolitionist, lecturer, novelist, playwright, and historian in the United States. Born into slavery in the South, Brown escaped to the North, where he worked for abolitionist causes and was a prolific writer. Brown wrote Clotel; or, The President's Daughter (1853), considered to be the first novel written by an African American. It was based on the persistent rumor that president Thomas Jefferson had fathered a daughter with his slave Sally Hemings（塞利·海明斯）. The novel was first published in England.The first African-American novel published in the United States was Harriet Wilson's Our Nig (1859). It expressed the difficulties of lives of northern free Blacks.。
黑人英语起源与发展研究中的若干问题
黑人英语起源与发展研究中的若干问题作者：郭智勇潘洁来源：《语文学刊》 2013年第11期郭智勇潘洁(太原科技大学外国语学院，山西太原030024)［摘要］对黑人英语起源和发展的研究在过去60多年中历经多次发展、变化，但研究者仍未达成共识。
通过回顾黑人英语理论研究的历史，通过识别研究中面临的三大问题，本文试图阐明学者对黑人英语研究感到困惑的原因，以期能够对未来研究提供帮助。
［关键词］黑人英语；语言起源；语言发展［中图分类号］G112［文献标识码］A［文章编号］1672-8610(2013)11-0038-02黑人英语是美国早期奴隶制度的直接产物。
黑人英语的英文名称历经NegroEnglish、BlackEnglish、Ebonics、AfricanAmericanEnglish的变化，最终固定为AfricanAmericanVernacularEnglish。
因为受制于各种因素，对黑人英语起源与发展的研究尚无权威定论，甚至还存在着重大分歧。
一、黑人英语起源与发展研究的变迁美国语言学家对黑人英语的起源和早期发展的研究在过去60多年里经历了几个重要的阶段。
1.20世纪中期的“英国英语起源假说”（Anglicisthypothesis）认为，黑人英语本质上源自英国英语。
这一观点得到美国方言学家的普遍认同。
这些学者同时认为，现在的黑人英语与美国南方农村地区白人使用的语言完全相同。
Kurath、McDavid和McDavid或许最能代表方言学家的观点：“总的来说，南方黑人使用的语言是其所在地、与其有着相同教育背景的白人使用的语言……就未受过教育的黑人而言，他们说的英语和未受过教育的白人说的英语几无差别。
也就是说，黑人英语表现出和白人英语一样的区域差异和局部变化。
”［1］“……我们都认为，黑人英语中的大量词汇、语法和语音体系是从与黑人接触的白人群体使用的语言中借用的。
当这种接触到达一定程度，黑人使用的语言就完全是当地标准英语。
Black English 黑人英语
Characteristics of Black EnglishName:刘波Class: English 1421.IntroductionAfter reading the book Gone with the Wind and searching for information about Black English online, I have known something about it. Black people lived as slaves before the American Civil War and now live free. There are great differences between Black English and English and difficulties about understanding Black English, which attracts many scholars to do research on Black English.2.Characteristics2.1pronunciationHere are some aspects about it.Firstly, it is the deletion of /a/. Many Black speakers delete /a/, e.g: saw-sore, fort-fought Secondly, the loss of /l/ at the end of some words sometimes is replaced by the sound /w/. For example, “I can help you.” can become “ I can hep you.” [冯红变，2004:20]Thirdly, the consonant is omitted. E.g: fact—fac, .Fourthly, ““th” is sometimes replaced by t, d, f, v. “[张文婷，2012:7]For example, “thin—tin, that—dat, mother—muvah. neither—needer[ˈniːðər]—[‘ni:də]” [冯红变，2004:20]Fifthly, consonant clusters will be simplified. Some consonants are to be omitted when they are at the end of a word, especially if the cluster ends with /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/. Sixthly, vowels added by “ng”/ŋ/, such as sing, thing, ring, etc, they are often pronounced into “ang”.Seventhly, some vowels are omitted. E.g: point-pint2.2vocabularyIn Black English, the spelling is based on the pronunciation. For example,“like-lak, business-bizness, African—Affrikun.”[Margaret 2009, p.506] Besides, there are no changes in verb person and number. For example,” he do the same thang they do. Two cats- two cat”.[周文蕊，2001：7] Then some consonants are replaced by ‘. For example,” when—w’en, and-an’” [Margaret 2009, p.506] There are some exceptions: “to-ter, insult-‘sult, I-ah ……”[Margaret 2009, p.506]2.3grammarIn Black English, the simplified words and sentences are used. For example: What goes around comes(whatever you do to someone will always come back to you). Next, they usually use the opposite words to express their meaning. For example, they use love to express their hate. Besides, the English sentence ofdouble negation is usually used. For example, nobody knows anything. I don’t say nothing.Next, whatever the form of the subject is, the verb is always singular.For example, she ain’ gwine lak a mule. Finally,” it is the disappearance of the end ‘s. For example, the dog’s leg- the dog leg, he walks-he walk.”[高莉]3.ConclusionThere are many features of Black English I haven’t mentioned. I would like to emphasize that the differences among pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Since the development of Black English, many changes may be made to keep pace with the times. Black English is gradually combined with English. The specific boundary between Black English and English are becoming vague. Above all, Black English is part of English. We should respect their differences.Reference:[1]Margaret Mitchell Gone with the Wind [M]上海世纪图书出版社，2009.6[2]冯红变The Phonological Features of American Black English [J]山西师范大学，山西临汾，2004（20）[3]高莉，The Phonetic and Grammatical Features of American Black English [J]南通理工学院[4]周丽蕊,美国黑人英语的语音和语法特征[J]徐州教育学院，2001（16）[5]张文婷，黑人英语特征分析[J] 西安石油大学陕西西安710065，2012（7）。
黑人英语BlackEnglish
黑人英语BlackEnglish黑人英语（Black English）Germany, comprehensive development, we come to the school of black englishAccessory - boyfriend / girlfriendAce - best friendBag - a bottle of beerBeastie - describes a person who looks rude or threatening Blow up - become famousBone - 1., cigarette 2., a songBooya - I agreeBreak - at the first momentBreak night - stay up all nightBump - the music is loudBurn - cigarettesBust, on, the, scene - arriveCabbage - headCheck - 1. 2. stop doing things criticism...Chop - ugly peopleDeep - serious and seriousDig - understandDog - friendDown with - crazyFunky - 1. original, 2. nasty, disgusting Hard, hardcore - violentHeavy - seriousHeffa - uglyHood rat - neighborKeep it real-, franklyLoc - crazyLocin'- is crazyMain squeeze - one's best girlfriend Nasty - sexual attraction Old school - old friendSeeds - KidSleep on - ignoreVibes - intuitive inductionWhoomp! - super excited!Wisdom - girlfriendWord; word up - I agreeDescribe a person in Rap - to, break, bust, bust, out, bust, rhymes, fli, Freak, the, beats,Freestyle, kick, kick, the, ballisticsGreetings - Ayo, Eh, G, Hayo, S'up, Wassup, YoBlack culture, guns that are indispensable - bis, calico, flamer, four, pounder, gak, gat (most commonly used),Heat, heater, Joint, strill, toastShoot -to, blast, buck, bust, a, cap, dent, fade, gat, ice, lead, up, smokeKill a man -, catch, a, body, check., Do, drop, a, body, put, to, restFemale - B-girl, bait, bitch, group, Ho, Jill, niggette, Shortie Spice Girl - breed, HottieOur ho, hochie, hood, rat, juicer, salt, shakerHIP-HOP vocabulary and terminology analysis of rapWhen blacks from Africa by white traffickers brought to the American continent, but they come from Africa they air plant, differentRegions, different tribes, can not speak to each other, and in the black community, the only universal communicative workerYes, it's english. From sixteen to nineteenth Century, European settlers were held in Africa (mainly West Africa, Congo and Angola)Transport a large number of black slaves to America, half of them to the United States; and in the southern states of cotton plantations and mines, Gan JianDrudge. In order to communicate with each other and to adapt to the environment, they learn English, and mix the original language and Ying WenwenLaw forms some special forms of language contact. Black language in the process, and in English have a close relationship, suckAccept some elements of English, give up some of their own characteristics, as a result, in the basic conditions to maintain the original quality, "black people."English is beginning to take shape.Black English is regarded as the inventory of communication between blacks. They form a system of their ownThe bureau is also different from the European Americans, so it is different in pronunciation, grammar and usage. It's about black EnglishThe first cognitive. If we are from a child who grew up because of the black Americans, because of the dialects and symbols usedLimit or not pass through the mass society of the United States to infer that African American social opportunities are limited to AfricaAmericans have encompassed in the black area, natural black English is more and more distinctive. From rapThe use of pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary is a goodway to look at Black EnglishThe codes are strung together,With the performance of conventional text, from their words, understanding of everyday life in societyBehavior. Black English fused the original spirit of the black people and the universality of the English languageLanguage rap, some to use the original white in the grammar of English fonts have changed, not only in the fast in some It changes the way of pronunciation, while others simplify the part of conjunctions, from the principle of "evolution of characters in history"And Jane, it's much easier to use words. Rap songs are not only simplified in character, but also used in grammar The change, sui generis, more great distinction and white english. In the following sections, the author will be from rap songsMake use of words, pronunciation, analysis, and then make a brief introduction from the grammar section, so that readers can understand the unique style of American black writing.Vocal part:As mentioned earlier, rapper in the words because of the emergence of legato simplified spelling words, repair a lot of jane. As the mostCommon, is to Er at the end of the letter into a single "a", such as the black scale disease "(Hei Gui) was JiabaoSimplified to SR, another mother****a are simplified into mutha****a, such as player in the word, also changed Playa, as long as the suffix is er, can according to this grammar into a.In addition, such as KS orThe text at the end of the CKS is also replaced by a x, because KS (CKs) and X have the same pronunciation, such as thanks instead of thanx, CheCKS (cash) is also changed to Chex, and this usage becomes the rule.The use of O is also very distinctive, such as Love changed to Luv, nothing changed to nuthin', the word mother before ****er changes the mutha****a, too. In addition, like the word "s", often changed to "Z", such as "cause", changed to "KUZ"Easy changed to EZ, and everything has changed.While two grammar has become not only black, also want to become the national traffic rules, such as the going to changed Gonna, want, to changed to wanna. In addition, such as out of changed to outta, and kind of changed to kinda, sort Of changed to sorta and became a new English grammar.And such as re or E, almost impossible to hear in the rapid performance of the words are omitted, such as more became mo (such as blacks)The movie move money, which is abbreviated as "Mo money"), "for" has been changed to "fo" or replaced by the number "4" (sound).The omission of "g" in "ing" has become a universal grammar in the United States, such as "nothing" instead of "nuthin'", "comming"Instead of commin', you can omit the G as long as the ing is in progress. And some words, because rap relationship, pronunciation is alsoChanged, such as the word "through", "GH", "no pronunciation" is well known, and th's pronounced "theta", but in rap songs,It is "t", so the word is reduced to thru, and the pronunciation is the same as the word "true", while the "th" of nothing is sent Note also with the grammar, by "theta" into a "t" sound. The spelling is simplified to wit, but the pronunciation is still /WI theta /. By the way, some rappers caught fast benefits, a string of words together, write on the albumI feel special about the album name or song, but in fact it's still the same. Such as rap group, out, kast's headThe album southernplayalisticadillacmuzik, Ice Cabe's album Bootlegs B.B. Side is the mostThe latter remix, D'VOIDOFPOPNIGGAFIEDMEGAMIX, is a big listof headaches, but read it several timesJust know the pronunciation and the meaning of the words. In addition, songs like Digital, Underground, Wussup, with, The, LUV, that isWhat's, up, with, The, Love entities, fonts change, but the pronunciation is still the same.These are only brief descriptions, but they are the most frequently used words in black characters,Let's introduce one to the readers belowSome rap words and its usage, and some use of words "characters" available "or" slang "rude wordsCall it, but it's the most useful black word. The first thing to say, of course, is the word "Fuck", the highest rate of exposure Words not only appear in rap songs, but throughout the United States, the word has become the word used in life and is widely used. Fuck wordlike the worldIt is known that "sexual intercourse" and their usage, is certainly a very vulgar words, used to ridicule each other's behaviorOr for human, and Fuck word can also represent any thing, any animal can also be used as a strengthening phrase, as long as you can curseAll Fuck's grammar. Moreover, Fuck has formed a set of phrases, such as: "the most common phrase"I, don't, give, a, * * * means "I don't care"; * * * about/around means no confidence in someoneOr something; * * * * off with get out to get out of Italy; as for Don't * * * * sb up, Let me alone is not.What bothers me is that sth up has screwed things up. Of course, as mentioned earlier, the word "Fuck" can take the place of "Ren"Any verb, noun, so long as the other person understands it. Fuck a rule (on earth) or from what is cursedThe phrase "the hell", that is, "the * * *", is used as an emphasis, such as What, the, * * * *, you, gonnaDo or How, the, Fuck, sho', fly, I, and sometimes shit word generic, but less useful.In addition, another word comparable to the word "Fuck" is shit. This word is "shit", "shit" meaning, and sometimes even The use of drugs (heroin), like Fuck, is also determined by the tastes of the users, but most of them are used in terms of nouns Denounce sb not to blame. Like Fuck, the word shit often made into words, a bit like the classical Chinese "husband" "Oh", but the mouthThe gas is a little stronger. Such as shit! What's, up, ya? Or curse words, you, lil (little), son, ofMiss shit! Very vulgar usage, or "eat me," "remember me," eat my shit! As long asThere's nothing good about this word in a rap song. Of course, the word "shit" is used, and sometimes points to good thingsThing, but usage is like a pronoun. Such as What, Da, shit! The shit used to be referred to as a drug in rap songs, too Once referred to as a girl. Yo! My Big Shit! This shit is referred to as Baby, visible shit usage is free! andThe most familiar shit usage must be Bull shit! Bullshit is Bull shit! Bull is also doneShit! There was a joke saying, "where's the most shit?" "The answer is" the American mouth! Americans are visible The preference for this word has become an international joke!Here are some of the more frequently chatty words, as follows:1. words with numbersSince some words are pronounced the same as those in Arabia, they are replaced by numbers, such as to, 2, for, and 4, night9, and the aight part of Straight is often represented by "Str 8", forming a new English word with letters and numbers in 8.Some numbers must be known, such as the movie 187, which was released before, referring to the punishment of the murderer in CaliforniaNumber, and a rapper named "187 Fac" or "rap group The Whitehead brother" is a famous song"My Lover is a 187" is also represented by 187. And other related digital code, and more about gunsTo the next section, do the introduction of gun code.2. use letters instead of wordsA means the best, andB is bad, such as B-Side, which means the worst, but A plus(A+) is the best representative. C is often appointed as see.G is backing is not small, can refer to a gang member (Gangstar) andRefers to the sexual relationship between men and women, because the woman in the process of sexual intercourse "G" sound, can also refer to guns (Gun). N is AndThe abbreviation "R" is abbreviated as "ARE" and "U" is abbreviated as "You". In addition, the white Americans were eliminated to protect the white superiority of white Americans Strong group three K party KKK (Ku Klux Klan) or W.A.S.P. Protestant Anglo Saxon Americans (WhiteAnglo-Saxon Protestant) also because of WASP as the dominant class in American society today, and African American The lower classes of the people are just in contrast, and they are also mentioned in the rap song at Wu-TangClan's famous song C.R.E.A.M (Cash, Rules, Everything, Around, Me), the song name at the outset said"Hopefully, cash can roll in," the song began. "Raekwon The Chef (Wu-Tang Clan member)."One) for money, so without mother's care, she came to Wu-Tang's Shaolin, New, YorkLand, 16 years old on the access to drugs, and living in the streets with guns, to get his everything with these things, when But it also includes the Cash company. Readers can learn about the lives of American black gang elements from the song's short lyricsThat money, guns and drugs to three-in-one, are indispensable, of course, "" words can not be missing. With guns The deaths of the sticks, the drugs, and the description of the body are also emerging in the lyrics. These words form the main part of rap musicPart。
black english美国黑人英语
What is black English？
Black English is a . term used for both dialects of English and English-based pidgins and Creoles, and whose meaning depends considerably upon the context, and particularly the part of the world.
1 ）The Slave trade. 2 ) The influence of native language 3 ) Primary cause : Racial Discrimination.
SLAVE TRADE One theory is that the Black English arose from one or more slave Creoles that arose from the trans-Atlantic African slave trade and the need for African captives to communicate among themselves and with their captors.
THE PRIIMARY CAUSE:: RACIAL DISCRIMINATION
whites’..
phonology
negation
Negation
Other grammatical characteristics
Tense and Aspect.
Word-final devoicing of /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/, whereby for example cub sounds like cup Reduction of certain diphthong forms to monophthongs. /aI/ - [aː] Conversely, older speakers in some regions (such as the American South) may use [oɪ]-[oʊ] AAVE speakers may not use the fricatives: Word-initially, /θ/ is normally the same as in other English dialects (so thin is [θɪn]). Word-initially, /ð/ is [d] (so this is [dɪs]). Word-medially and -finally, /θ/ is realized as either [f] or [t].
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MAURICE M. MARTINEZ, Ph.D. WATSON SCHOOL OF EDUCATION UNC WILMINGTON
martinezm@ (910)962-4279
TO SUCCEED IS TO BE UNDERSTOOD
BLACK AMERICAN ENGLISH
MANY AFRICAN AMERICANS SPEAK AND USE A
FORM OF ENGLISH THAT IS SOMEWHAT DIFFERENT FROM STANDARD ENGLISH. EVERY LANGUAGE SYSTEM CONTAINS RULES. THE RULES OF BLACK AMERICAN ENGLISH [BE] ARE FUNCTIONAL TO THOSE WHO USE THEM. THESE RULES ARE SYSTEMATIC AND ARE APPLIED OVER AND OVER AGAIN IN EXACTLY THE SAME WAY. MORE RECENTLY, BLACK ENGLISH HAS BEEN REFERRED TO AS ENGLISH USED IN A ―CASUAL REGISTER.‖ (Payne)
UNAWARENESS OF THE RULES
OFTEN, THE STUDENT WHO SPEAKS BLACK
AMERICAN ENGLISH IS UNAWARE OF THE RULES OF STANDARD ENGLISH LIKEWISE, MANY TEACHERS ARE UNAWARE OF THE RULES OF BLACK AMERICAN ENGLISH THE ―BLAME‖ SHOULD NOT BE PLACED UPON THE STUDENT OR THE TEACHER, BUT UPON ―UNAWARENESS.‖
THERE ARE TWO SETS OF NORMS IN [SE]:
INFORMAL STANDARD [USUALLY SPOKEN, SOMETIMES IN A REGIONAL DIALECT, WITH DISTINCTIVE PRONUNCIATION PATTERNS PREFERRED BY A GROUP OF SPEAKERS WHO ARE SET OFF FROM OTHERS GEOGRAPHICALLY, SOCIALLY, AND CULTURALLY] (Wolfram, et al, 1999) THE FORMAL STANDARD [WRITTEN LANGUAGE TAUGHT IN SCHOOL ACCORDING TO NORMS IN GRAMMAR BOOKS AND EVALUATED IN STANDARDIZED TESTS], MORE RECENTLY REFERRED TO AS ENGLISH USED IN A ―FORMAL REGISTER.‖ (Ruby Payne, 2001)
IN MAINSTREAM AMERICA, TO BE UNDERSTOOD IS
TO BE ABLE TO SPEAK AND TO USE STANDARD ENGLISH.
WHAT IS STANDARD ENGLISH [SE]?
STANDARD ENGLISH IS THE ENGLISH SPOKEN ON THE MAJOR NATIONAL TV NETWORKS: NBC, CBS, ABC, CNN, etc. IN A MIDWESTERN (MINNESOTA TO MICHIGAN) DIALECT KNOWN AS ―AMERICAN STANDARD ENGLISH‖ [ASE]. STANDARD ENGLISH IS ALSO KNOWN AS THE ―LANGUAGE OF WIDER COMMUNICATION‖ [LWC] BECAUSE OF ITS WIDESPREAD USE IN THE MEDIA.
WE CAN BEGIN BY TRYING TO UNDERSTAND THE LANGUAGE SPOKEN BY AFRICAN AMERICAN CHILDREN
WHY MUST WE UNDERSTAND BLACK ENGLISH?
ALL STUDENTS ARE TESTED ON THEIR
KNOWLEDGE AND USE OF STANDARD ENGLISH [SE] [LWC]. THESE TESTS DO NOT VALUE OR REWARD OTHER STRUCTURES OR FEATURES OF ENGLISH, AS FOUND IN BLACK ENGLISH. SUCCESS IN SCHOOL IS MEASURED BY HOW WELL THE STUDENT USES STANDARD ENGLISH. MANY AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS ARE ―LEFT BEHIND‖ BECAUSE OF THEIR LOW SCORES ON STANDARDIZED TESTS IN READING AND WRITING.
BECOMING AWARE
THE PURPOSE OF THIS PRESENTATION IS TO PROVIDE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT SOME OF THE RULES AND FEATURES OF BLACK ENGLISH AS SPOKEN IN AMERICA. HOW CAN WE, AS TEACHERS, BEST SUCCEED IN OUR ―NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND‖ EFFORTS?