英语语义学讲义(上)
考研 1 introduction_of_Linguistics
Arbitrariness ---任意性，最先由
Saussure提出，语言学之父。 Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.
Duality（二重性） 语言是层级性的，主要是由
syllables morphemes word phrase sentence discourse这么个系统组成的。 (浙大）问答题：Explain what the term duality means as it is used to describe a property of human lg.
讲义一 Introduction to Linguistics
Grace Tan
T/F
1.The relation between form and meaning in human
language is natural. 2.When lg is used to get information from others , it serves an informative function. 3.The reason for French to use Cheval and English to use horse to refer to the same animal is inexplicable. 4.Most animal communication systems lack the primary level of articulation. 5.Halliday′s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of parole and performance. 6.Descriptive linguistics are concerned with how lgs work, not with how they can be improved.
《语言学概论》串讲讲义
《语言学概论》课程介绍一、课程性质《英语语言学概论》是英语语言学专业、英语文学专业的一门重要专业课程，在英语专业的教学计划中被设置为专业课。
《英语语言学概论》是一门理论课，是对语言现象进行理性的思考，传授有关语言的本质和共性的知识，是语言文学类专业学生的专业必修课。
随着二语习得研究的深入，人们发现语言理论的学习虽然不能直接提高学生的语言技能和交际能力，但是普通语言学所描述的语言的规律、心理语言学所描述的学习语言的规律以及社会语言学所描述的语言使用的规律都对学生自觉提高自己的语言水平有指导意义。
通过修习“英语语言学概论”课程，学生可以了解关于一般语言系统，尤其是所学英语的结构、功能和使用，对其在中学和大学基础阶段学习和使用英语过程中积累的大量关于词汇、语法、篇章、语用的规则进行补充，使之系统化、全面化，从而对学什么、怎么学有更加明确、完整和深刻的认识，有利于今后在学习和工作中不断独立、有效地提高自身水平，为今后的英语语言学研究奠定最基本的理论基础。
二、指定教材本课程所用教材为《英语语言学概论》，由王永祥和支永碧主编，南京师范大学出版社，2012年第5次印刷版。
三、目标要求掌握语言学基本概念和理论，了解当代语言学各个领域所取得的重要成果及发展趋势；了解语言的本质、结构、功能及其变化规律，加深对人类语言的理性认识；掌握语言研究的方法和艺术，培养语言研究能力；运用现代语言学理论指导语言学习实践，提高总体语言水平和语言学习能力和语言研究能力。
四、课程体系《英语语言学概论》全书共分13章，内容涉及四个部分：语言和语言学、语言学的主要分支——语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学。
全书的第三部分跨学科领域和语言学的应用——话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学以及语言学理论与外语教学。
第四部分介绍了现代语言学流派。
前两部分出题题型集中于选择题、判断题、填空题、名词翻译和解释题；后两部分题型集中于问答题或综述题。
英语语义学讲义(下)
语用原则
• 1. Be truthful. • 2. Don’t be less informative than required. • A: I need to send Susanne a postcard. Do you know where she lives? • B: She lives in Germany.
语言学导论
任课教师： 任课教师：沈园
语言接触的一些特殊形式 “洋泾浜” 洋泾浜” 洋泾浜 洋泾浜” “ 洋泾浜 ” （ Pidgin） 又译 “ 皮钦 ） 又译“ 皮琴语” 语 ” 、 “ 皮琴语 ” ， 是十七世纪以 后在殖民地、 后在殖民地 、 半殖民地的通商口岸 常见的一种语言现象。 常见的一种语言现象。
语言学导论
任课教师： 任课教师：沈园
向下蕴含
• [[VP1]]⊂[VP2]], • D NP VP2 蕴含 D NP VP1 • (11) [[owns a blue car]]⊂[owns a car]]
语言学导论
任课教师： 任课教师：沈园
• No physicist owns a car. No physicist owns a blue car. • John didn’t eat green vegetables. John didn’t eat kale.
• A: Rodney didn’t talked to Paul and Sally. • B: Rodney talked to Paul. (Could be true or false) • A: It’s not true that most professors are vegetarian. • B: At least one professor is a vegetarian. (Could be true or false)
词汇语义学第三章
• 4、物物桥(thing meaning-thing meaning bridge)
• 具有引申关系的两个义位分别属于不同 的物类语义场，它们之间的语义桥就叫 做物物桥。如：动物义︽物义。腥：猪 肉→生味，︽的义素是[生肉的气味]；节： 竹节→骨节，关节，︽的义素是[像竹子 的形状]（形状相似上来进行引申的）。
• 2、总分桥(holonym-meronymy bridge) • 部分义︽整体义 • 脸：颧骨部分→脸，︽的义素是[面部主 要部分]功：从事某项工作所做出的成就 →功劳，功勋，︽的义素是[成就]；国： 国家→首都，︽的义素是[所在的位置]； 色：脸色→妇女的美貌，︽的义素是[相 貌]
• 3、物人桥（thing meaning-human meaning bridge） • 多义词词位内部的一个义位（属于物语 义场或人语义场），通过性质、功能等 相似或具有某方面的联系而引申出另一 义位（人语义场或物语义场）。它们之 间的关系反映到语义桥上就是“物人 桥”，具体包括以下几种桥。
语义场中的义位结构
• 2、连锁型结构 如“手心”的“手掌的中心”义 连锁型结构（concatenation structure）中 和“比喻所控制的范围”义，后 多义词每个义位都只与最近的义位生直 者是前者通过比喻手段产生出的 意义，二者具有时间上的先后关 接的联系，是呈线性扩展的。具体来说， 系。“手心”属于链条型的多义 初始义位A只有一个可作为生长点的义素 结构。 由此引申演变出一个义位B；同理，B又 引申出C，C又引申出D，等等。
（二）语义场中的义结构
•
“有心”就属于辐射型的多义结构，它的 “有心计”“有志向”“有情意，有爱 应用拓扑结构理论，根据多义词各个义 心”“有意、故意”等几个义位很难说具 位之间相互关联的性质，可以划分出三 有前后相继的引申关系。
Semantics 语义学
dead-- more dead-- most dead.
2.3 Relational opposite
关系反义词
显示两个此项之间关系颠倒的成对词被成为关系反义词。
• A
husband B
•
wife
E.g. sell– buy ; husband– wife ; • father– son ; doctor– patient ; • above– below; teacher- pupil.
Examples: bank ( of a river) 河岸 —— bank (financial instiution) 银行 bat ( flying creature) 蝙蝠 —— bat ( used in sports ) 球 拍 race ( contest of speed ) 比速度—— race ( ethnic group ) 种族 pupil ( in the eye ) 瞳孔—— pupil ( at school ) 学生 mole ( on skin ) 痣——mole ( small animal) 鼹鼠
Examples:
Head : 1) on top of your body 头，头部 2) on top of a glass of beer ( 一杯啤酒顶端的) 泡沫 3) on top of a company or department 主管人，领导 ，头目 ...
A.
A flock of sheep A pack of wolves A herd of cows A swarm of bees A school of whales
语义学之一PPT学习教案
在结构主义时期，语义
问题也尚未受到普遍的重视， 直到二十世纪五十年代，以 义素分析和语义场理论的产 生为标志，语义学才成为一 门相对独立的学科。在现代 语言学中，语义学的地位显 得越来越重要，已成为与语 法学、语音学第7页鼎/共9足5页 而立的三 大分支学科。而且，语义学
语义学不仅仅是语言学的分支学科，许 多其他学科，如哲学、逻辑学、心理学、 人类学、符号学等等，也非常关心语义问 题，而且对语义学作出了重要贡献，所以， 语义学实际上是跨学科的交叉性学科。
碗、挽、丸、湾、腕、完、全、圈、拳、泉、蜷、
管、罐、玩、珠、球”。
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“a”表示“偏小的面积或体积”。如 “ba巴、芭、扒、靶、疤、耙、拔、把”。
“ai” 介于“i”和“a”之间，表示“小、 薄、细、距离近”，如：“ai爱、矮、碍、 埃、隘、挨、白、摆、掰、排、牌”。
“an”表示的范围比“ai”大。如：“an庵、 安、案、厂”；典型的反义词有：“kuai快、 man慢、kuan宽、zhai窄”。
大类型：一类是语言系统里 固有的意义，叫做语言意义， 它是客观事物或现象通过思 维的概括在语言系统中直接 表现出来的意义；另一类则 是语言在使用中受到语言环 境的影响而临时产生出来的 意义，叫做言语意义，它是 附属于语言材料上的，离开 了特定的语言环境，这种意
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义便不存在。语言意义是言 语意义的综合与概括，而言
没有十分明确的界限。
作为语言学分支的语义学，大体上可以
分为语汇语义学和句法语义学两大分支。
语汇语义学主要研究语汇单位的语义问题，
研究词语的语义结构和语义聚合关系，以
及语义的发展演变。句法语义学主要研究
句子的语义构造和语义组合关系，以及句
chapter 5 语义学 胡壮麟
Chapter Five
Meaning
Meaning
The meaning of words:
– Desk, winter, college
The meaning of sentences:
Meaning
– My love is like a red, red rose.
– To be, or not to be, is a question.
flower, garden, colour, village, etc. – handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.
(7) Thematic meaning
What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.
The concrete entities having these properties; Not every word has a reference: some grammatical words like but, if, and words like God, ghost…
We should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.
The meaning of meaning
Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981): Seven types of meaning:
– Conceptual meaning
语义学(讲义)
第一章语义研究的开展与现状语义是语言的一个组成局部，一个层次，也是人类社会中一个极为重要而又影响到各个方面的现象，因此不只是语言学，哲学、心理学、逻辑学、人类学、社会学等，都与语义的关系密切。
由于计算机用于语言信息处理，计算机专家也很关心语义。
这样研究语义的学科——语义学〔semantics〕，从研究角度和研究范畴来看可以分为三种：语言学的语义学〔linguistic semantics〕，逻辑学的语义学〔logical semantics〕，哲学的语义学〔philosophical semantics，即语义哲学，它是一些哲学流派，这些流派认为语言、语义是哲学分析的唯一的或主要的对象〕。
我们所说的语义学属于语言语义学。
一、语文学时期及我国的训诂学我国语文学时期的语义研究叫做训诂学。
春秋战国时期从义理辞章方面注释?春秋?的?公羊传?和?谷梁传?，是我国处于萌芽状态的训诂工作的成果。
汉朝提倡读经，为了便于人们读懂古代典籍，注释古书之风很盛，训诂学由此兴起。
到了清朝，我国语文学进入全面开展的时期，训诂学再度兴盛起来，取得了很大的成绩。
从两汉到清明延续两千年的训诂学，积累、整理了丰富的材料，也有许多很好的见解，它不但对研究古代汉语的语义和汉语语义的演变极为重要，而且能帮助我们认识汉语〔包括方言〕的语义，另外它对我们研究语义学的理论和方法也是很有帮助的。
但是训诂学只是着眼于古代的书面语，目的也只限于注释古书，还不是关于语义的独立、全面、系统的研究，还没有提出什么语义方面的理论。
二、传统语义学就世界范围来看，从语文学进入语义学〔linguistics〕是19世纪初的事。
早在1838年，德国学者莱西希〔K﹒Reisig〕就主张把词义研究建成一门独立的学科，但他的主张没有引起人们的重视。
到了1893年，法国语言学家布雷阿尔〔Michel Bréal〕首先使用了语义学这个术语，并于1897年出版了他的著作?语义学探索?。
新编简明英语语言学Chapter5Semantics语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学、定义1. semantics 语义学：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning 意义研究的不同观点521 The naming theory命名论(by 希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论：Words are just names or labels for thin gs词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory 局限性：1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object：eg. jump, quickly, pretty, an d, i n,hearted, thi nk, hard, slowly …)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world： ghost,grago n, un icorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse 刺激，这样的抽象概念。
语义学中的“意义”－英语语义学习内容简介
语义学中的“意义”－英语语义学习内容简介
刘丽娜
【期刊名称】《晋东南师专学报》
【年(卷),期】1995(000)002
【总页数】2页(P78-79)
【作者】刘丽娜
【作者单位】晋东南师专英语系
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】H313
【相关文献】
1.与身体部位相关的英语习语的修辞意义和语义学分析 [J], 夏海玲;陈午祎
2.从训诂学中探寻语义学元素——盛林《〈广雅疏证〉中的语义学研究》述评 [J], 曹德和
3.认知语义学简介--词汇语义学的新发展 [J], 郜丽娜;葛厚伟
4.“意义”在语义学与语用学中的区别——英语教学中值得注意的一个问题 [J], 王国凤
5.语义学指导下的句子意义分析及对英语教育的启示 [J], 孟献策
因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。
英语语言学学习
❖ (2)Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily
produced symbols.
第15页，本讲稿共42页
The design/defining features of human language
Arbitrariness
Productivity/Creativity Duality
Displacement Cultural transmission
第16页，本讲稿共42页
❖ Examination
第3页，本讲稿共42页
Reference Books
❖ 戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教 育出版社。
❖ 胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。 ❖ 刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。 ❖ Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the
第5页，本讲稿共42页
What is language?
第6页，本讲稿共42页
❖ Language can mean ❖ what a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions) ❖ the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare’s language,
semantics?thestudyofmeaninginabstraction?语义学考察的是意义如何在语言中编码不仅研究字词作为词汇的意义还研究语言中仅研究字词作为词汇的意义还研究语言中词之上和词之下的其他成分的意义如语素和句子的意义
(完整版)语义学理解
语义学各个领域对语义学的看法语义学（Semantics），也作“语意学”，是一个涉及到语言学、逻辑学、计算机科学、自然语言处理、认知科学、心理学等诸多领域的一个术语。
虽然各个学科之间对语义学的研究有一定的共同性，但是具体的研究方法和内容大相径庭。
一、语言学的语义学研究目的在于找出语义表达的规律性、内在解释、不同语言在语义表达方面的个性以及共性；其主要有三个分支：1结构主义语义学：从20世纪美国结构主义语言学发展而来，研究内容是词汇的意义和结构，如义素分析、语义场等，也可称为词汇语义学，词和词之间的各种关系是词汇语义学研究的一个方面，例如同义词、反义词，同音词等，找出词语之间的细微差别。
2生成语义学：20世纪六七十年代流行于生成语言学内部的一个语义学分支, 借鉴了结构语义学对义素的分析方法，比照生成音系学的音位区别特征理论，主张语言的最深层的结构是义素，通过句法变化和词汇化的各种手段而得到表层的句子形式。
3形式语义学：最初的研究开始于蒙太古以数理逻辑方法对英语的研究，后来经过语言学家和哲学家的共同努力，发展成为一个独立的学科，并且摒弃了蒙太古对生成语言学的句法学的忽视，强调语义解释和句法结构的统一，从而最终成为生成语言学的语义学分支。
二、逻辑学的语义学是对一个逻辑系统的解释，着眼点在于真值条件，不直接涉及自然语言；现代的逻辑学，或者说形式逻辑、数理逻辑等，其目的是设计出来一套形式语言系统，并对其作出语义解释。
这样的形式语言系统是一个个抽象的封闭体系.一个逻辑系统通常由三个部分组成，即词汇部分、句法部分和基于模型论的语义部分。
所谓的词汇部分就是列举出一个形式系统所使用的所有符号，句法部分是这些符号的组合规则，规定什么样的符号序列可以是这个系统的句子，语义部分是对合格句子的解释，这样的解释通常是：在一个模型中进行的对真值条件推导。
逻辑学的语义学着眼点在于逻辑系统的语义解释，是一个理想化的模型系统，不直接涉及自然语言。
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1.What is semantics？什么是语义学？Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。
2.Some views concerning the study of meaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)The naming theory 命名论It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。
该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。
2)The conceptualist view 意念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic系统性, arbitrary任意性, vocal口头, symbolic 符号性and most importantly human specific.To give the briefest definition, language is a means of verbal communication.Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.II. The Design features of language (语言的区别性特征)Design features refer to the defining properties of human languages that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.A framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett.1.Arbitrariness (任意性)The widely accepted meaning of this feature which was discussed by Saussure（索绪尔）first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.It is the core feature(核心特征) of language, which refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. It is not entirely arbitrary atall levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.其他书表述：Language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical relationship between meanings and sounds. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2. Duality (二重性)Duality refers to the property of having twolevels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements (e.g. sounds, letters) and units (e.g. words).其他书表述：Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which is meaningless.Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.3.Creativity (创造性)Creativity, sometimes also “productivity”, means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.Also called design features (C. F.Hockett, A Course in Modern Linguistics, 1958)4.Displacement（移位性）Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.5.Cultural Transmission (文化传递性)Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity(遗传).While human capacity of language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.6.Interchangeability (互换性)Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive message, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.III. Origin of language1.Bilical account (圣经记载)Language was God’s gift to human beings.2.The bow-wow theory (“汪汪”理论) Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack,cuckoo.3.The pooh-pooh theory (“噗噗”理论) Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expression of pain or joy. Oh, Ah, Aiyo4.The ye-he-ho theory (“哟-嘿-吼”理论)Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour oreffort-lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.5.The evolution theory (进化理论)Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.IV. Functions of languageJakobson (雅格布逊) established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: referential(conveymessage and information), poetic (indulge in language for its own sake), emotive(to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative(to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), phatic(to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear up intensions and meaning).Halliday(韩礼德) proposes a theory of metafuncions of language, that is, language has IDEATIONAL（意念）, INTERPERSONAL（人际） and TEXTUAL （语篇）functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.rmative function （信息功能）Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. The informative function is regarded as the most important function. Declarative sentences(陈述句) serve this function.It is the major role of language. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite (先决条件) of social development.It is also called the ideational function (意念功能) in the framework of functional grammar(功能语法).2.Interpersonal function (人际功能)The interpersonal function is considered asthe most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.In the framework of function grammar, this function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser’s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. For example, the ways in which people address others andrefer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.3.Performative function (施为功能)The performative function of language is primarily used to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quiet formal and even ritualized(仪式化).（the Royal Wedding）4.Emotive function (感情功能)The emotive function of language is oneof the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Son of Bitch他妈的，他姥姥的5.Phatic function (寒暄功能)The term PHATIC COMMUNION originates from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. （a Polish anthropoligist）This function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social andregional dialects.おはようございます。
2010教案《英语语义学》-5 句子语义学-情景
5.2.2 Verbs and Situation Types 动词与情景类型 名词和动词是语言中最为重要的词类, 名词和动词是语言中最为重要的词类 因此 是语言学家、哲学家和认知科学家关注的重点。 是语言学家、哲学家和认知科学家关注的重点。 句子是用来描述事件状态 (states of affairs) 句子所描述的情景有不同类型, 的。句子所描述的情景有不同类型 这主要体现 在动词的意义上, 在动词的意义上 不同类别的情景对动词的时和 体有不同要求。换言之, 体有不同要求。换言之 动词的类型以及它们所 选择的时和体反映了它们所描述的情景的特点。 选择的时和体反映了它们所描述的情景的特点。
随着数理逻辑的发展, 随着数理逻辑的发展 可能世界逐渐成了 逻辑语义理论的一个基本内容。 逻辑语义理论的一个基本内容。逻辑研究命 而命题有真值; 题, 而命题有真值 要知道表达命题的句子的 语义, 语义 就是要知道在什么条件下这个句子才 是真的。然而, 是真的。然而 一个句子的真值在不同的时 间是不同的。此外, 间是不同的。此外 句子的真值又是随着不 同的语境而变化的。这些种种条件的组合, 同的语境而变化的。这些种种条件的组合 就是一个可能世界。 就是一个可能世界。
5.3.3 Evidentiality 证据性 5.3.4 Summary
Semantics
Chapter 5 Sentence Semantics 1: Situations 句子语义学一: 句子语ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้学一 情景
5.1 Introduction
situation type 情景类型 tense 时 aspect 体 mood 情态 evidentiality 证据性
2021年教师资格证教师资格证理论精讲语言学1讲义
理论精讲-语言学 1理论精讲-语言学1（讲义）题量1-4题Part1语言学概述1.语言学的分类2.语言的本质特征3.语言的主要功能01语言学的分类02语言的本质特征(Design features)语言的本质特性，指的是人类固有的，有别于任何其他动物交流系统的特质。
任意性二重性创造性位移性变化传播性交换性1.任意性任意性（Arbitrariness）是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。
teacher（English）せんせい（Japanese）老师（Chinese）（叫啥都可以）2.二重性3.创造性4.移位性5.文化传播性6.互换性1.任意性2.二重性二重性（duality）二重性指语言在结构上存在两个层次：低层次：c-o-f-f-e-e高层次：coffee有读音有意义补充：递归性（Recursiveness）无限制地反复利用相同的规则They don't know that we know they know....3.创造性4.移位性5.文化传播性6.互换性1.任意性2.二重性3.创造性能产性/创造性（Productivity/Creativity）词语通过新的使用方法能表达新的意思，并能立刻被没有遇到过这种用法的人所理解。
①ungelievable不给力的②She bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who...4.移位性5.文化传播性6.互换性1.任意性2.二重性3.创造性4.移位性移位性(Displacement)人类语言可以谈论到时间上(time)和空间上(space)并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
孔子、Shakespeare5.文化传播性6.互换性1.任意性2.二重性3.创造性4.移位性5.文化传播性文化的传习性(Cultural transmission√)是指人类语言依靠文化或习俗传统得以代代相传（from generation togeneration），而不是靠遗传延续。
leech(1983)语义学
引言1. 介绍leech (1983)语义学的背景和重要性语义学是语言学的一个重要分支领域，研究语言的意义和表示。
而Geoffrey Leech (1983)是一位英国著名的语言学家，他在语义学领域有着重要的贡献，其著作《语义学》被广泛引用和研究。
本文将对Leech (1983)语义学的主要观点和贡献进行深入探讨，以及其在语言学领域的影响和意义。
主要观点和贡献2. 阐述Leech (1983)对语义学的主要观点Leech (1983)认为，语言的意义不仅仅是词汇的意义，还包括了各种语言现象中的含义和意义。
他提出了“语义关系”、“语义角色”、“语义场”等概念，对语义学研究提供了新的视角和范式。
他通过对语言使用中的语境、语用和文化背景的分析，揭示了语义学研究中的一些重要问题，并提出了新的解决方案。
3. 探讨Leech (1983)对语言意义分类的贡献Leech (1983)在其著作中提出了一套完整的语义分类系统，将语义分为词法语义、句法语义、逻辑语义、语用语义和言外语义等几个方面，并对每个方面进行了深入的分析和讨论。
这一语义分类系统为语言学研究提供了重要的框架和方法，为语义学的进展和发展提供了重要的理论基础。
影响和意义4. 分析Leech (1983)对语义学研究的影响Leech (1983)的语义学理论具有重要的影响力，不仅在语言学领域，还在语言教学、自然语言处理、人工智能等领域有着广泛的应用。
他的语义分类系统和语义理论为语言学研究和语言教学提供了重要的理论支持，也为计算机语言处理和人机交互领域提供了重要的启示和参考。
5. 探讨Leech (1983)语义学对跨文化交流的意义语义学的研究不仅仅是对语言本身的研究，还涉及到文化、社会和心理等多个方面。
Leech (1983)的语义学理论对于跨文化交流和跨文化交际具有重要的意义，可以帮助人们更好地理解和研究不同语言和文化间的意义差异，也为跨文化交流提供了理论和方法支持。
(完整版)英语语义学汇总,推荐文档
1. Semantics:is a word derived from Greek stem “seme” which meant sign, first coined by semantique M.Breal in 1893. And it was first cited by British scholar in an English report entitled “ Reflected Meaning : a point in semantics”.2. There is no definite answer to the question “what’s the meaning of meaning”. In order to get the meaning of word, we should depend on the concrete contexts we refer to.Eg: I meant to come early. （intentional meaning）The real flag means danger. (conventional meaning)The dark cloud means rains.( natural meaning)Calligraphy means beautiful writing. ( linguistic meaning)Study linguistic phenomena within the language system, not outside.Ogden and Richard “ the meaning of meaning” in 1923, listed at list 16 different understandings of meanings.Although different scholars hold different attitudes towards what’s the meaning of meaning, they do share something in common, that is , to explicate linguistic phenomena, the knowledge that language use must have in order to make certain judgment concerning meaning of words and sentences of their language.3. judgment made by language uses(1) ambiguityPolysemous words in the sentenceEg: she cannot bear children ( put up with)Certain structures: adj + n in possessive case + NAdj + a series of nounsMore/most + adj +nV-ing + nounResulting from elliptical structureEg; serve meat when thoroughly stewed.Homonymous wordsEg: when does the baker follow his trade?Whenever he needs( kneads) the doughLiaisonEg: a train deara trained deera trained earit rained here,.(2) anomalyAnomaly refers to a phenomenon that various words in certain combination are anomalous. This means the combination violate semantic rules, though in agreement with grammatical or syntactical rules.Eg: grean idears sleep furiously-violated semantic rules, unaccepatable combinatione.g. I ate three phonemes for brbeakfast(3) ContradictionContradiction refers to a certain combination that is contradictory.Eg: 你以为咱家有金山银山啊My brother is the only childColourless green ideas sleep furiously(4) RedundancyRedundancy is very common in language, it is one of the features of language.Eg: I went yerterday你用脑袋好好想一想用鼻子闻一下毫无根据的诽谤（5）equivalenceEquivalence means that the propositions contains in sentences are equivalent, not sentences themselves--- it also used in logic, referring to certain sentences are equivalent in truth value.Eg: The textbook is on the top of the desk.(6) EntailmentSome sentences or propositions logically entail other sentences or propositions.Eg: A: Mary killed spy.B: The spy died.Proposition: a statement is a proposition if it can be judged either T or F. ( one sentence may contain different propositions) ( different referents express different propositions)Eg: I an a teacher.A: He almost manage to win the electionB: He didn’t win the electionA entails BA: Now he had a passport again. Bill will be able to leave the countryB: Bill left the country.A: John is a bachelor.B: John is unmarried.Some patternsPersuade sb to do sthPersuade sb thatEg: A: I persuade John to give the first three lecturesB: John gave the first three lectures( not entail)A: I persuade John that he was wrong.B：John accepted that he was wrong.( entail )A: If you don't come before 5 o’clock. You don’t find him at home.B: You will find him if you come before 5 o’clock.In this case, A doesn’t entail B, because “not” in A functions not only a negative mark but also shows different meanings. A means that you nay or may not find him before 5 o’clock.4 Various theories of meaning4.1 referential theory of meaningRefrence：（指称关系）Refrent：（指称物）Referring expression: (指称表达式)---the relationship between language and worldAccording to this theory, linguistic expression is what it refers to or stands for. (It is modest, because it has its own significance in the study of meaning, emphasizing relatedness of language to the world. It is too extreme, reducing language to its reference. It is the first theory to explore relation between language and world.)Why is it too extreme?It is not convincing: for example, one-one relationGeorge Bush (linguistic expression): a real person; the president of U.S.( referents)One linguistic expression has more than one referent.Problems:1. Meanings can not be equivalent with reference.e.g. Venus(金星)/启明星/长庚星Different expressions may refers to the same thing( one referent), but mean quite differently, even when meaning and referent are identical in the following sentence containing “I”.I attend the meeting Friday. One-a lot of (relation)2. This theory proves to be invalid, incapable of explaining expressions which do not have referent but intuitively speaking, they are meaningful.e.g. Marilyn Monroe spends a very wonderful life.Your apple is very sweet.The above sentences have no referent at all.This meaning is invalidated in the theory of meaning.4.2 The ideational theory of meaningAccording to this theory, the meaning of expression is the idea or the concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows the expression. (Changeable, flexible, different people may form different pictures when exposed to the object.)The idea or images called concepts are fleeting (changing), and then ideas are changing.4.3 Behaviorist theory of meaningAccording to this theory, the meaning of expression is either the stimulus that evokes or the response that it evokes or a combination of both in particular occasions of an utteranceThe relation between language and stimulus is not one to one, but quite complicated, perhaps one to many.e.g. One girl sees apples on the table and she want an apple. She may express this intention in different ways.a. Look at those apples. I am hungry. Would you please fetch one for me?b. You know I love apples.c. I beg you cannot get that apple with a wooden leg.- These responses are quite different in meaning, not valid to explain meaning.- Each theory has its own contribution to a certain degree in the study of meaning.4.4 The meaning-in-use theoryAccording to this theory, the meaning of expression is determined by if not in identical ways its use in the language. The language use cannot be separated from contexts, so the use meaning is also contextualism.Problems:a.Meaning shouldn’t be taken as use. Meaning is logically prior to use. The use theory is questioned.b. This theory is too over generalized and doesn’t have much actual value, because context itself is not enough for analyzing meaning.c. To equate meaning with context, we can only account for simple instance of language use.d. Context is related with objective world, and knowledge about word is so much limited, we cannot totally rely on this knowledge to analyze meaning, nor can we extend the scope of semantic study to the study of the world.4.5 The verification theory of meaning--Falsifiability--Truth value theory, truth- conditional theoryLeech’s classification of meaning--This theory is advocated by Vienna Circle ( a group of people in pursuit of empiricism) and Schick is the authority one.-- According this theory, the meaning of an expression, if it has one, is determined by verifiability of the sentences or propositions containing the expression.--This theory just provides a criterion of judging whether a proposition is meaningful or not instead of what is meaning.-- Schick said that stating the meaning of sentence amounts to stating the rules according to which the sentence is to be used.This is the same as stating the way in which it can be verified or falsified.Problems:1. It is hard to determine how many observations or statements will be enough to verify a proposition. ( infinite in number )e.g. My brother is bald.For time being, whether or not I have a brother.For time being, whether or not my brother is bald.The meaning of the above sentence is determined by a set of observations/ statements and statements are observational statements.They provide the mean for observationally verifying whether the speaker has a brother and for time being whether he is bald. If this statement is verified, the proposition is true or it is false.2. Secondly, only deals with the meaning of declarative sentence which make statements.4.6 The true-conditional theory of meaning (logic semantics)-- According to this theory, the meaning of expression is contribution to the truth conditions of sentences containing the expression.-- Truth conditions are conditions under which propositions prove to be true or false.Chapter 3. Types of MeaningThere is intrinsic connection between meaning and communication in semantics. (Intentional transmission of meaning)In semantics, intentional transmission of communication by means of some established signal system. (Language)3.1 classifications of signals1. verbalGrammatical linguistic and lexical linguistic2. non-verbal(1) Linguistic (vocal; intonation; stress)(2) ParalinguisticVocal (loudness, tone of voice, tempo)Non-vocal (eye movement; facial expression, gesture)(3) non-linguisticVocal: individual voice3 qualityNon-vocal: blush3.2 classification of meaning3.2.1 Propositional meaning/conceptual/referential/denotative/According to Herford O Hensley, propositions are things that are true or false. A proposition is that of meaning of the utterance of declarative sentence which describes some states of affairs. The difference between sentence and proposition:a. Proposition is not the same as a sentence. The same sentence can express different propositions by means of the reference, because a speaker indicates which things or persons in this world are talked about.e.g. here, there, nowb. Because of ambiguityThe same sentence may express different propositions.e.g. Vagueness----referent---- not clear ( feature of language )Possessive case:This is Jean’s picture.The picture taken by Jean.The picture belongs to Jean.The picture of Jean.3.2.2. Social meaning: language is social phenomenon(1) Illocutionary meaning(2) Speaker/ addressee(3) Stylistic / register(1) Illocutionary meaning---when we utter a sentence, we are performing a certain speech act from the perspective of semantics. It expresses a kind of logical meaning.e.g. It’s a nice day!I state it a nice day! ----- perform a sentence---illocutionary force.Propositional meaning vs. illocutionary meaningSometimes we can have illocutionary meaning without propositional meaning to perform speech act expresses illocutionary forcee.g. Good morning can’t be judged true or false.In uttering sentences, we perform speech act under felicity condition.e.g. In the evening, people are going to go asleep, it is not proper to say have a nice day.(2)Speaker/addressee relationshipPower vs. solidarityThe speaker may have the power over the addressee, vice versa.e.g. In Chinese, we have 你and 您, in French we have tu and vous, but in English we don’t have this kind of phenomena.Different pronouns indicate different relationship between speaker and addressee.Solidarity shows the equal relationship between the speaker and hearer.T/V: tu/vous formTReciprocal vs. non-reciprocalTerms of addressingWhen addressing somebody, you can use different terms. Different choices of terms in a way may reflect a speaker and addressee relationship.Terms of addressing: the point is under the topic of “power and solidarity”. This point is related to social meaning which we can study in a diachronic way.e.g.①We often call some colleagues teacher Wang or teacher Li, which shows that the speaker and the addressee is equal in status. And sometimes we call some of our colleagues XiaoLi or XiaoWang, which shows that the speaker is older than the addressee. In terms of age, the speaker has the power over the addressee.②The addressing term may change with the time. We often use “同志” in Chinese, but in English the correspondent word “comrade” has another meaning (gay or homosexual). So English people don’t use this word so often. From the 1950s to present, the meaning of “comrade” has been extended and it has derogatory meaning, thus people don’t have positive association of the word meaning.③In the 1970s or 1980s, we have the addressing terms of “师傅” and “徒弟” in the factory. At present, we call the taxi driver “师傅” instead of “comrade” or “driver”, though we don’t have the “徒弟” relationship.师傅：master, master worker徒弟：apprentice, follower, discipleThe addressing terms change with the time, which shows the changing and development of society have influence on language. The changing of addressing terms reflects the emotional meaning. Two points concerning social meaning in terms of speaker/addressee relationshipT/T form is more common than the T/V form. T/V form is more often used in grammatical system, while in English there is no such kind of grammatical terms to show solidarity and power of speaker and addressee relationship. But we can use titles, such as Mr., Miss, Mrs.e.g. when we say “This is Mr. Smith” which is very formal. We can say “This is Tom” to show the intimate relationship. If we are good friends, we use a given name only, a shortened family name, or even the nickname. Such as Charles, Charli or Chuck.(3) Stylistic/register meaning.These two are related, but not the same, both of them can be defined as the variety of language depending on the use rather than the user.User: dialectsStyle: is defined as situationally distinctive use of a variety of language.(e.g. oral form & written form; formal form & informal form, literary form, colloquial form, technical form)Register:is closely used in linguistics and sociolinguistics. It is a variety of language defined according to its use in social situation.Their conceptual/propositional meanings are the same, but register/ stylistic meanings are not.e.g.分analyze the problem (chemist)析dissect the subject (medical)问expounded the problem (missionary)题explain/ make it clear (colloquial form by common people)Three points concerning stylistic/ register meaning①formality vs. informalityWhen we talked about register, we talk about formality and informality.e.g. 流汗：informal: sweat, formal: perspireIn different context, we use different words.②provinceIt is referred to the professional or academic fields.e.g. program: computer program 计算机程序，TV program 电视节目③modeWhen we talk about mode, we talk about writing and speech. Writing is more formal than speech, but not always.Phrasal verbs are less formal than single verbse.g. 提出(理论)：propose, put forward, set forth, come up with, advance, initiate, advocate, etc. The point is proposed by Leech: synonyms are used in different contexts, but the conceptual meanings are the same.e.g. Home: formal: domicile/ residence, in poetry: abodee.g. Small: little, tiny, wee(Scottish dialect), diminutive (formal)3.2.3 Emotive/ indexical meaningIt concerns the use of certain expression through which we can find speaker’s identity or status. It is not conveyed by linguistic components, but by non-linguistic components, such as voice quality (passive voice or active voice)①emotional/ emotive meaning expresses speakers or writers attitude of emotional involvement, it focus on speaker and writer. Sometimes emotional meaning overlaid on propositional meaning. e.g. when the black people were transported to America as slaves, their master often called them “nigger”, later on, they called them “negro” to show their low social status contrary to their master. In the 1960s, they were called “black people” instead of “negro” contrary to the white. Later on, they called them “Afro-American”. Form this we can see the addressing terms change with time, the emotional involvement involved in these terms change with the time.②emotional meaning is expressed without propositional meaning through tone of voice, intonation or intonation pattern. This kind of meaning can be judged as true or false as it expresses certain state of affairs.e.g. the baby which/ who you saw this morning.“Which” is acceptable according to grammatical rule. When we use “which”, it means we treat baby/ the man as something instead of a person, “which” shows the speaker is more separate/ distant from the things involved. “Who” shows more personal feeling with the person or man.3.2.4 Thematic meaningBy thematic meaning, in different sources, the terms are similar. But different scholars may use different terms: theme vs. rheme; topic vs. comment; given information vs. new information; background vs. focus. All these terms are used to show thematic meaning.Definition given by Leech: thematic meaning derives from theme. It is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organized the message in terms of ordering, focus or emphasis. Thematic meaning may be different according to what the speaker wants to emphasize or highlight. Under this one, we have three points:①normally, the propositional meaning must be the same. In this case, we can compare thematic meaning. This kind of meaning can be expressed by either verbal or non-verbal component. Verbal componen t means the arrangement of words.Non-verbal component means intonation, stress and etc, which are used to accompany verbal signals.②Thematic meaning is expressed by voiceNormally, active or passive voice counterparts express the same propositional meaning, but different lies in the thematic meaning.e.g. i. Marry donated the first prize. (The first prize is new information.)ii. The first prize was donated by Marry. (Mary is new information.)For the first sentence, the author wants to highlight “what is donated.” For the second sentence, the author wants to emphasize “who donated the first prize.”e.g. i. Everyone in this class speaks two languages.ii. Two languages are spoken by everyone in this class.For the first sentence, the people in the class can speak two languages, but the languages are not fixed. For the second sentence, the people in this class speak two fixed languages, such as English and French, or English and Germany. The propositional meaning maybe change when the thematic meaning changes.If the voice transfers, the propositional meanings are different. Quantifier and negation transfer will cause the change of propositional meanings.③ Thematic meaning is expressed through other grammatical constructions.e.g. i. A student is waiting ouside.(waiting outside is new information.)ii. There is a student waiting outside.(a student waiting outside is new information.)The proposition meaning is the same, but thematic meaning is changed. First part, “there be” is old information.Change order:e.g. i. They stopped at the end of corridor.(at the end of corridor is new information.)ii. At the end of corridor, they stopped.(they stopped is new information.)④ Thematic meaning is expressed through intonation, stress to highlight one part of sentence.e.g. i. ‘John kept the watch. (it is John, not somebody else who kept the watch.)ii. John ‘kept the watch. (it is kept, not buy or else)iii. John kept the ‘watch. (it is watch, not something else that John kept.)Connotative meaning is proposed by Leech. Connotative meaning is the communicative value, an expression has by means of what it refers to over and above its purely conceptual content.e.g. woman [+human, +adult, -male] Psychological meaning and physical characteristics, not social. Male is unmarked.Woman’s associate meaning: patient, irrational, wear skirt, gentle, kind, prone to tears, good at cooking, capable of speech, expression, sentimental.Connotative meaning is not what is included in language system. People should draw a distinction between speaker’s attitudes and what is encoded in the language system.Further discussion on proposition meaning:(1) Different between valid and invalid inferencesPremise i:Premise ii:Conclusion:e.g. premise i: All men are mortal. (T)premise ii: John is a man. (T)conclusion: John is mortal. (T) valid inferencee.g. premise i: All men are mortal. (T)premise ii: Fido is not a man. (T)conclusion: Fido is not mortal.(F) invalid inferenceIf “not” appears in premise, the conclusion is difficult to get.(2) Different between valid and truth conclusione.g. premise i: All men are mortal.(T)premise ii: God is not a man. (T)conclusion: God is not mortal.(T) conclusion is true, but it is invalid inference. Since without premise i and ii, the conclusion is still right. According to common sense, the conclusion “God is not mortal” is unrelated to premise i and ii.(3) Difference between deductive and inductiveDeductive inference: the truth of the premise guarantees the truth of conclusion. It is from general truth to particular facts.Inductive inference: the method of reasoning from particular facts to general truth.e.g. premise i: Professor Smith had 200 students in his class at beginning of the semester.Premise ii: Three weeks later, he had only 10 students in his class.Conclusion: Professor Smith course is unpopular.This adopts the deductive method, but the conclusion is invalid.There are two conditions:①The number of the students in the Mr. Smith’s class is not the convincing evidence to prove whether Mr. Smith’s class is popular or not.②Maybe, at first the students thought the course provided by Mr. Smith is interesting at the first sight, but when they attended the class for themselves, they finally find that it is very hard for them to follow the teacher; therefore they were absent form the teacher’s class.(4) Analytic proposition and synthetic propositionNormally, analytic proposition is one whose truth is independent of the way the world we live in happens to be. The truth of this kind of proposition is true in all possible words.In contrast, synthetic proposition is one whose truth is dependent on the way the world we live in happens to be.(Analytic:措辞为真，保证命题为真，synthetic:需用事态来衡量)e.g. All spinsters are unmarried.This is analysis proposition, since its truth is independent of the world we live in.e.g. My brother is a bachelor.This is synthetic proposition, since its truth is dependent on the verification of whether the speaker has a brother or not and whether or not for the time being her/ his brother is a bachelor.(5) the propositional calculusThe basic formation of proposition: simple proposition and complex proposition.Simple proposition is one that doesn’t contain any constituent propositions within it.Complex proposition is one that is formed from one or more constituent propositions by means of connective.“and”, “and then”, “or”, and “not” are logic connectives. They are also called operators.e.g. John did not buy a Ford.(it is a simple sentence, but a complex proposition with “not” in it.) e.g. they got married and they got a baby. (“and” shows the logic order. It is different from “and” in the sentence “Mary and I go to the cinema.”)(6) truth function connectiveA connective is said to be truth functional if and only if the truth value of the complex propositions formed by applying it to one or more constituent propositions. It is fully determined by the truth values of those component propositions.(如果构成复合命题的各自命题为真，则复合命题为真；如果构成复合命题的各子命题不能保证为真，则connective不具有真值涵项性)Truth Table①同真为真，一假为假p q p&qT T TF T FT F FF F F②一个为假，则为假if前件…then后件，p→qp q p qT T TT F FF T FF F Fp q p v (or)q T T TT F TF T TF F F p q p≡q p ) q T T TT F FF T FF F Te.g.: John went to Paris before Mary died1 2This is a complex proposition. Supposed that 1 and 2 are the facts, but the connective “before” is not truth functional, since we can not decide whether or not John went to Paris before or after.e.g.: The question is discussed in the aspects or syntactic structure.The connective “or” is truth functional“and” conjunction“v” “or” discojunction inclusive 讨论的是命题“)” if…then 蕴含关系implication“≡” equivalence“~” negation[8]. Formation of structure of simple proposition(1) Predicate 谓元vs argument 主元Structure of simple proposition is formed by combining predicate with one or more arguments. e.g.: Mary is tall.Argument predicateJohn loves Mary.Argument predicate argumentBy predicate, we mean a term which is used in combination with a name in order to give some information about individual that the name refers to. Usually verbs, adjectives and common names are used as predicates.Argument: According to John Lyons, something which is named or talked about usually proper names are used.e.g.: Brute is a mouseProper name common namesArgument predicateThe classification of predicate: one-place, two-place, three-placeAccording to the number of arguments, they are combined to form a simple proposition.e.g.: Mary is tall. ------------One-placeThis one is preferable to that one-------------two-placeHe gave me a rose----------three-placeI bought this clothe from Internet for 100RMByuan. -----------four-placeTraditionally, the classification of predicates is according to the number of objects.No-objects one-object two-objects4. structural semantics: sense relation4.1 Structural semantics states or analyzes the meaning of words in terms of their association with other words in the language system.Association is the key word. Words in the vocabulary form a kind of relation in the system. Semanticists focus their attention on what is called implicational lexical relations. The main concern is lexical meaning.4.2 Sense relation: refers to the relations of sense holding within sets of lexemes.“sense”, this term was used early in the last century, may at the end of the 19th century. A famous scholar Fregue drew a distinction between sense and reference. If we use the sense of a word, we mean its place in the system of relationships which it contrasts with other words in the vocabulary of certain language.Reference: studies the relation between language and the world.Sense: studies the relation within the language systemWhy people use “sense”, this term instead of “meaning”?since meaning is too general and vague, we need to be specific we use sense instead of meaning. 4.3 Six types of sense relation-----可以用蕴含公式表达Square not triangle incompatibleCat ←→ not dogEasy ←→ difficult → antonymWife ←→ husband → converseSingle ←→ married → complementary4.3.1 Hyponymy (superordinates, originally called inclusion by analogy.)Hyponym 共同下义词e.g.: He caught a sparrow.------ He caught a bird.(yes, entail)He didn’t catch a sparrow. ------ He didn’t catch a bird. (No)This is a rose. -------- This is a flower. (Yes)I hate roses. ----- I hate flowers. (No)n →谓语(蕴含关系)n →宾语(一般不是)----Hyponymy is a relative notion not absolute one, which means a certain lexemes or words maybe surperordinates in contrast with one set of words, but may also be hyponyms in contrast with other sets of words.----Vocabulary of natural language tends to have many gap related to what we are talking about. e.g.: lexical gap: (1) 阉割(2) no common superordinates for word colourcolour ←→ white shape → triangle, squareblack, yellow(The parts of speech of hyponymy must be the same)4.3.2 Synonymy----Synonyms can be categorized into 2 types:(1)Absolute synonyms: refers to the synonyms which are interchangeable in all contexts.e.g.: word-formation = word buildingNorth Korea → fatherland→ motherland→ homeland(2)Relative synonyms:refers to those synonyms with common basic meaning but slightlydifferent in terms of use or meaning. Such synonyms are abundant in any language.e.g.: beautiful---pretty---charming---attractiveempty---vacant---hollow-----In different contexts, we use different synonyms. Many synonyms may have different senses which are in contrast with different synonyms and antonyms. Different senses contrast with different linguistic item.e.g.: He is a bit high. = He is a bit drunkhigh。
英语语义学讲义(上)
语言学导论
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预设 (presupposition)
(1) Polonius quit biting his nails Presupposes: Polonius used to bite his nails Asserts: Polonius stopped biting his nails (2) Polonius didn’t quit biting his nails Presupposes: Polonius used to bite his nails Asserts: He still does!
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• Pete ate the chicken. agent theme • The chicken ate. agent / *theme
பைடு நூலகம்
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句子意义之间的关系
蕴含（ 蕴含（Entailment） ） 如果A为真 为真， 一定为真 一定为真. 如果 为真，B一定为真 A: Rodney talked to Paul and Sally. B: Rodney talked to Paul. A: Most linguists are vegetarians. B: At least one linguist is a vegetarian.
Source
Ann borrowed the book from the library. AGENT THEME SOURCE
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练习
Peter told the story to his friends. Mary heard the cry. The book is on the desk.
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参与者角色（题元角色） 参与者角色（题元角色）
• • • • • • • 施事 (Agent) 受事 (Theme) 目标 (Goal) 方位 (location) 经验者 (Experiencer) 来源 (source) 受益者 (benefactive)
语言学导论
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预设 (presupposition)
(1) Polonius quit biting his nails Presupposes: Polonius used to bite his nails Asserts: Polonius stopped biting his nails (2) Polonius didn’t quit biting his nails Presupposes: Polonius used to bite his nails Asserts: He still does!
Source
Ann borrowed the book from the library. AGENT THEME SOURCE
语言学导论
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练习
Peter told the story to his friends. Mary heard the cry. The book is on the desk.
语言学导论
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Q: 如何区分预设与蕴含 如何区分预设与蕴含? • A: Rodney hasn’t quit smoking. • B: Rodney smoked before. • A: Rodney didn’t go to Philadelphia again. • B: Rodney had been to Philadelphia before.
语义学
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• 涵义 (Sense) • 指称 (Reference) Morning Star is the Evening Star. Morning Star is the Morning Star.
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意义 词的意义 | 词组的意义 | 句子的意义 | 言语(utterance)的意义 言语 的意义
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• Pete ate the chicken. agent theme • The chicken ate. agent / *theme
语言学导论
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句子意义之间的关系
蕴含（ 蕴含（Entailment） ） 如果A为真 为真， 一定为真 一定为真. 如果 为真，B一定为真 A: Rodney talked to Paul and Sally. B: Rodney talked to Paul. A: Most linguists are vegetarians. B: At least one linguist is a vegetarian.
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the • The Prince of Denmark is(n’t) crazy • Presupposes: There is a Prince of Denmark • The French king is bald.
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• It was yesterday that he flew to London. • He flew to London.
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主语与参与者角色的对应
• 施事 > 受事 受益者 > 工具 > 场所 受事/受益者
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• Pete broke the computer. agent theme • The computer broke. theme
语言学导论
语言学导论
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regret, quit • Lear regretted yelling at Goneril • Lear didn’t regret yelling at Goneril • Both presuppose: Lear yelled at Goneril
语言学导论语言Leabharlann 导论任课教师： 任课教师：沈园
Beckham kicked the ball. Agent Predicate Theme – Agent – Beckham – Theme – the ball
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• Agent Carmen browsed the webpage. AGENT THEME Angie took the book. AGENT THEME • Theme The ball rolls. THEME
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Experiencer and Benefactive
• Experiencer The students love syntax. EXPERIENCER THEME • Benefactive Tony gave Carmen AGENT BENEFACTIVE
a pencil. THEME
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Goal, Location and Source
• Goal Beckham kicked the ball into the goal. AGENT THEME GOAL
Location
He is in Hong Kong. THEME LOCATION
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• • • • •
预设 (presupposition) 是否为真， 为真。 要判断 A是否为真，必须先假定 为真。 是否为真 必须先假定B为真 A: Rodney has quit smoking. B: Rodney smoked before. A: Rodney went to Philadelphia again. B: Rodney had been to Philadelphia before.
语言学导论 任课教师： 任课教师：沈园