语言学 Phonetics & phonology

Approximants are therefore more open than fricatives. e.g. central: [r] or lateral [l] in lip; semi-vowel approximants: [j] [w] in yes and well
5. Trills （颤音）and taps （触音） Trill: involves a series of rapid repetition of one articulator striking another. E.g., English 'r' in some Scottish accents. Tap (or 'flap' or 'flick'): a momentary variant of the trill. It involves a single rapid contact between one articulator and another without repetition. E.g. /r/ in AmE better.

English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation
Fricatives (摩擦音) A fricative is the type of consonant that is formed by forcing air through a narrow gap so that a hissing sound is created. /f/ in fin, / θ / in thin, / ʃ / in shin. /v/ in van, /s/ in sin, /h/ in hat, / θ / in that, /z/ in zoo and / ʒ / sound in genre.
Chapter Two Speech Sounds
Phonetics
& Phonology
Definitions
The
phonic medium of language: the speech sounds that convey meaning in human linguistic communication and studied in linguistics.

Orthographic representation of speech sounds The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)--- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.
Narrow
Classification of English sounds
vowels
and consonants The basic difference between vowels and consonants is that in the production of vowels the airstream meets no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of consonants it is somehow obstructed.
Narrow and broad transcription
Words:
pit speak feel later [pit] [spi:k] [fi:l] [leitə] [phit] [sp=i:k] [fi:ł ] [ leiDə]
Narrow and broad transcription
Articulatory variables
Articulatory variables : some dimensions on which speech sounds may vary. The major variables are voicing, nasality, and aspiration. Voicing is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords. Nasality When the airstream passes through the nasal cavity instead of the oral, the speech sound produced is nasal or nasalized. Aspiration A sound is aspirated when its production is accompanied by a puff of breath, e.g. [thip], [phil], [khæ t]. Aspirated sounds are indicated by a small h. The same voiceless stops are unaspirated, i.e. the puff of breath is withheld when they occur in a different position, e.g. [st=i:l], [sp=i:k].
Articulatory
Phonology
is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.
It aims to discover the principles that govern
the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. Phonological analysis holds the principle that certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word, other sounds do not.
transcription( 窄 式 音 标 ) is a transcription which tries to show all the possible sounds whether they are distinctive or not. Broad transcription (宽式音标)is one which shows only the sound differences capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.
3.
4. Approximants (近似音) In the production of approximants, there is a much wider passage of air so that the airflow for voiced approximants remains smooth and does not become turbulent.
Phonetics
studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Generally,
the study of phonetics is composed of three fields:
学习重 点！
Phonetics (发音语音学) , which deals with the identification and classification of individual sounds, is the study of the production of speech sounds. Acoustic Phonetics （声学语音学） is the study of transmission of speech sound, e.g., the physical properties of speech sounds, the measurement of sound waves. Auditory Phonetics （听觉语音学）is the study of the perception of speech sounds.
The
articulatory apparatus of a human being contains five important areas: the lung, the trachea (wind-pipe), the throat, the nose and the mouth. Inside the mouth: the tongue, the palate, the lips and the teeth. Inside the trachea: the pharynx and the vocal cords.
English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation
1. Plosives/stops (爆破音) and nasal stops (鼻 塞音) Plosive sounds are made by forming a complete obstruction to the flow of air through the mouth and nose. /p/ /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/ A nasal consonant is a consonant in which air escapes only through the nose. /m/ in mat, /n/ in nasal and the / ŋ / in sing.
2.
Affricates(塞擦音): Affricates are speech sounds that are produced by stopping the airstream from the lungs and then slowly releasing it with friction. The air flowing out from the released closure is therefore forced along a narrow channel and so becomes turbulent (noisy, violent). E.g. / tʃ / in chap, / dʒ / in jeep
Speech organs: three important areas
•Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; •The oral cavity ---- the mouth; •Nasal cavity ---- ts
Classification of the English consonants
The
English speech consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation and also in terms of place of articulation. manner of articulation —the degree of obstructions, complete, partial, or a mere narrowing place of articulation —the different (parts) vocal organs where the obstruction occurs