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17th World Conference on Nondestructive Testing, 25-28 Oct 2008, Shanghai, ChinaA new fully digital system for RT inspection of metal tube to tube sheet jointsof heat exchangersUwe ZSCHERPEL 1, Oleksandr ALEKSEYCHUK 1, Peter ROST 2, Markus SCHMID 2, Konstantinos SPARTIOTIS 3, Alexander WARRIKHOFF 41 Division “NDT – Radiology”, BAM Berlin, GermanyPhone: +49 30 8104 3677, Fax: +49 30 8104 4657; e-mail: uwez@bam.de,oleksandr.alekseychuk@bam.de2 BASF SE; Ludwigshafen, Germany; e-mail: peter.rost@, markus.schmid@3 AJAT Oy, Espoo, Finland; e-mail: kostas@ajat.fi4 rtw RÖNTGEN-TECHNIK DR. WARRIKHOFF GmbH, Neuenhagen, Germany; email:sales@rtwxray.deAbstractA completely novel device was developed for RT inspection of weldments for tube to tube sheet joints on heat exchangers applied in chemical industry. It replaces the Gammamat B3 unit containing an Ir 192 isotope as radiation source and a punched NDT film (system class C3 acc. to EN 584) as detector to allow the one-sided access for inspection.In a first step a special X-ray tube with a rod anode was developed by rtw Röntgentechnik to replace the Ir 192 isotope source to achieve a better inspection sensitivity at 130 kV for thin walled tubes and tube sheets.A new specialized, direct converting detector based on CdTe was designed by Ajat Oy, Finland. Together with the X-ray source a handsome unit was designed with 4 detector tiles arranged around the rod anode, which passes though the detector plane.The handling of this novel inspection unit as well as the computer based image acquisition reduces the expense for this RT inspection considerably. All problems with film chemistry and isotope transportation are avoided. The computer based evaluation of the digital radiographs and the direct connection to the inspection data base of the complete heat exchanger create significant advantages for inspection planning and documentation. First experiences are reported on application of this new technique in the field.Key words: Radiographic inspection, digital detector arrays, one-sided access, tube to tube sheet joints, heat exchangers, chemical industry1.Conventional Inspection TechniqueSince decades state of the art is radiographic testing based on Gammamat B3 containing an Ir 192 isotope as radiation source and NDT film (typically system class C3 acc. to EN 584-1) as detector (see fig. 1). For this application packed films have to be punched light tight to pass the radio isotope source through the imaging plane caused by the one-sided accessibility of the tube sheet. Special wall thickness compensators are used to account for wall thickness changes in penetrating direction across the inspected weld regions. The sensitivity of this testing method is limited by the properties of the radiation source (energy and source size). Also the world wide shipment of radio isotopes gets more and more complicated.Fig.1: Gammamat B3 isotope source with film holder (left side) at inspection position and set-up for inspection of a small heat exchanger in the field (right side)The design, production and inspection of tube-to-tube sheet welds are regulated in the BASF specification E-S-MC 331. For high risk heat exchangers additional inspections by the owner of the heat exchanger (BASF) are required and realize the surveillance of the manufacturing during heat exchanger built-up. The specification requires random tests depending on the mechanical and thermal load of the heat exchanger (in percentage of welds to be tested and acceptance criteria for detected indications) on behalf of the future owner BASF. Depending on the results of the first random test a second random test after repair or a 100% test charged to the manufacturer may be necessary to reach the required weld quality.Typical source size is 1x0.5mm² Ir-192 isotope and 10x12 cm² punched C3 films are used with 0.02 mm Lead screens. The range of inspected tubes is from 16mm x 1.5mm up to 76mm x 4mm (diameter x wall thickness), pore sizes down to 1mm can be detected with this configuration.Fig.2: film exposure (left above) and corresponding cross sections by destructive testing (right side) showing typical flaws like porosities and notches2.The new rod anode X-ray tube /1/A new X-ray tube was developed by rtw Röntgentechnik Dr. Warrikhoff to achieve a better inspection sensitivity and to solve issues with world wide transport of radio isotopes. In Fig. 3this tube is shown. The main reason for this development was the limited detectability with Ir 192. Caused by the energy of the gamma rays the minimal detectable pore size is about 0.8mm in steel. For new materials like Ti enhanced flaw detection was requested.Fig. 3:Rod anode X-ray tube MCTS 130 - 0.6 (left side) and complete inspection setup with controller, right side: HV generator and X-ray tube with film holder (red) at a heat exchanger ready for single-sided inspectionThe rod has an outer diameter of 6 mm and a length of 40 mm, the focal spot is smaller than 1mm at 130kV and 2.4mA (max. 300 W). This new tube was successfully applied in combination with X-ray film and the enhanced detectability for new materials like Ti was proven, so the next step to replace the film was straight forward to omit the necessary chemical development procedure on-site.3.The digital detector array DIC100TH /2/Ajat developed the detector DIC100TH, which is a first of its kind, breakthrough digital imaging device for tube to tube-sheet weld inspection.The detector comprises four 25 mm x 25 mm CdTe-CMOS high resolution elements (100µm pixel size) operating at 50fps and arranged to allow a rod anode tube to pass through the mid-section of the device. The X-Rays are produced at the tip of the rod anode and emit in a direction towards the CdTe-CMOS detector (see fig. 4).The rod-anode tube is fed through the CdTe-CMOS active detector and the two are bound together in a robust mechanical arrangement which can be inserted in the heat exchanger for the tube to tube-sheet weld to be inspected (fig. 5).This image sensor provides for real time and on line tube to tube sheet weld inspection with excellent sensitivity, reliability and speed. The unit addresses requests to replace the traditional film based systems that today are used typically in this field with a real time digital inspection system.The basic spatial resolution and detector calibration limits the maximum contrast sensitivity of the detector. The basic spatial resolution is 100 µm for this direct converting detector and defined by the pixel size. To achieve the best detection sensitivity possible a special calibration procedure was developed. Caused by the strong dependence of X-ray intensity on the radial distance form the rod centre the rod anode X-ray tube cannot be used for pixel calibration of the detector. Also the temperature dependence of the detector calibration is not neglectable. As result of the developed calibration procedure (using a standard X-ray tube at 90kV, 1m distance and a 5 mm steel plate at the detector to generate a suitable flat field for detector calibration) calibrationsets are stored in dependence of the detector temperature in the range between 10°C and 32°C and selected automatically according to the real detector temperature in the field. In this manner the optimal detector calibration is maintained in the field.Fig. 4:The digital detector array DIC 100TH, left side: detector electronics showing the arrangement of the 4 detector tiles around the rod anode X-ray tube, right side: detector-X-ray unit ready for single-sided inspectionFig. 5: The fully digital inspection system with its two main parts (left side) and installed at a heat exchanger ready for inspection4.Software, complete inspection system and first resultsIn fig. 6 a snapshot of the developed user interface of the software is shown. A Laptop equipped with a Cameralink interface for detector connection and an RS-422 interface for control of the X-ray generator is used for image storage, evaluation and report generation. The complete system (X-ray tube and detector) is software controlled and complete configuration set-ups can be stored and re-activated for easiest handling. A list with inspection results is transferred directly to the data base “virtual tube” for documentation of the inspection. Digital filters can be applied for enhancement of flaw detection on the display.Fig. 6:snapshot of the developed software for system control, left side: image display and interactive selection of inspection result, middle: control program for X-ray tube set-up, integration time and description of inspection position, right side: visualization of inspection result summery for the whole heat exchanger (based on the data base virtual tube)A comparison of the achieved detection limits for the novel inspection systems is shown in fig. 7 based on a test mock-up with 25mm diameter pipes and 2mm steel wall thickness.Fig. 7: Comparison of inspection results on a steel test mock-up 25x2mm, left side: conventional system with Ir 192 and film, detection limit 0.8mm drill hole, middle: rod anode and film, detection limit 0.5mm drill hole, right side: rod anode and DIC100TH detector, detection limit better than 0.3mm drill hole.In fig. 8 an example of a real inspection result for a 25mm steel pipe with 2mm wall thickness is given. The visibility of the flaw indications can be improved by digital image processing of the images acquired from the detector.Fig. 8: comparison of inspection results of a real weldment on a heat exchanger 25mm/2mm at 80kV, 0.5mA and 30s exposure, left side: rod-anode and X-ray film, right side: DIC100TH detector and highpass filtering of digital imageField trials are on-going to gain experience with this novel inspection system and to prove the advantages and the extended application range in comparison with the classical set-up.5.ConclusionsAn improved inspection system for RT inspection of metal tube to tube sheet joints of heat exchangers was developed based on a unit combining a rod anode X-ray tube and a new digital detector array arranged in tiles around this rod anode. In this way the single-sided access for weld inspection was realized. The following advantages of this novel fully digital unit were proven: •no radioactive container transport and usage of film chemistry on-site at the heat exchanger production site•improved flaw detection•shorter inspection times•immediate inspection result•software supported evaluation of images•data base supported documentation of inspection results•reduced requirements for radiation protection, considerable smaller controlled area with75 kV X-ray voltage compared with Ir-192 requirements as used beforeThe experiences gained with the presented prototype system will result in optimised follow-up inspection systems.6.References/1/ www.rtwxray.de/2/ www.ajat.fi。

普通高等学校本科专业目录和专业介绍

普通高等学校本科专业目录和专业介绍

普通高等学校本科专业目录和专业介绍(摘录)长江大学工程技术学院教学事务部2009年5月05 学科门类:文学0502 外国语言文学类学科:文学门类:外国语言文学类专业名称:英语专业代码:050201业务培养目标:本专业培养具有扎实的英语语言基础和比较广泛的科学文化知识,能在外事、经贸、文化、新闻出版、教育、科研、旅游等部门从事翻译、研究、教学、管理工作的英语高级专门人才。

业务培养要求:本专业学生主要学习英语语言、文学、历史、政治、经济、外交、社会文化等方面基本理论和基本知识,受到英语听、说、读、写、译等方面的良好的技巧训练,掌握-定的科研方法,具有从事翻译、研究、教学、管理工作的业务水平及较好的素质和较强能力。

毕业生应获得以下几方面的知识和能力:1(了解我国有关的方针、政策、法规;2(掌握语言学、文学及相关人文和科技方面的基础知识;3(具有扎实的英语语言基础和较熟练的听、说、读、写、译的能力;4(了解我国国情和英语国家的社会和文化;5(具有第二外国语的一定的实际应用能力;6(掌握文献检索、资料查询的基本方法,具有初步科学研究和实际工作能力。

主干学科:外国语言文学主要课程:基础英语、高级英语、报刊选读、视听、口语、英语写作、翻译理论与实践、语言理论、语言学概论、主要英语国家文学史及文学作品选读、主要英语国家国情。

修业年限:四年授予学位:文学学士07 学科门类:理学0703 化学类学科:理学门类:化学类专业名称:应用化学专业代码:070302业务培养目标:本专业培养具备化学的基本理论、基本知识相较强的实验技能,能在科研机构、高等学校及企事业单位等从事科学研究、教学工作及管理丁作的高级专门人才。

业务培养要求:本专业学生主要学习化学方面的基础知识、基本理论、基本技能以及相关的工程技术知识,受到基础研究和应用基础研究方面的科学思维和科学实验训练,具有较好的科学素养,具备运用所学知识和实验技能进行应用研究、技术开发和科技管理的基本技能。

2016本科专业代码

2016本科专业代码
动物医学类
050426S
照明艺术
090601
动物医学
050427S
会展艺术与技术
090602S
动物药学
050428S
音乐科技与艺术
090700
水产类
050429S
中国画
090701
水产养殖学
050430S
公共艺术
090702
海洋渔业科学与技术
060000
历史学
050404
绘画
090104J
茶学
050405
雕塑
090105W
烟草
050406
美术学
090106W
植物科学与技术
050407
艺术设计学
090107W
种子科学与工程
050408
艺术设计
090108W
应用生物科学
050409
舞蹈学
090109W
设施农业科学与工程
050410
舞蹈编导
090200
草业科学类
交通管理工程
050304
编辑出版学
082105W
核生化消防
050305W
传播学
082106S
公安视听技术
050306W
媒体创意
090000
农学
050400
艺术类
090100
植物生产类
050401
音乐学
090101
农学
050402
作曲与作曲技术理论
090102
园艺
050403
音乐表演
090103
植物保护
网络工程
030502
侦查学
080614W

过程装备与控制工程相关书籍

过程装备与控制工程相关书籍

过程装备与控制工程相关书籍
与过程装备与控制工程相关的书籍有《过程设备与工业应用丛书》。

该丛书共6个分册,包括《反应过程、设备与工业应用》、《燃烧技术、设备与工业应用》、《传热技术、设备与工业应用》、《输送技术、设备与工业应用》、《分离技术、设备与工业应用》和《工业过程设备维护与检修》。

此外,还有《过程装备与控制工程专业基础课教程》等书籍,这些书籍涵盖了过程装备与控制工程的相关知识,有助于读者深入了解该领域。

请注意,这些书籍可能存在一定的局限性,为了获取更全面和准确的信息,建议读者查阅相关领域的专业书籍或者咨询专业人士。

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Biology植物学 Botany动物学 Zoology生理学 Physiology水生生物学 Hydrobiology微生物学 Microbiology神经生物学 Neurobiology遗传学 Genetics发育生物学 Developmental Biology细胞生物学 Cell Biology生物化学与分子生物学 Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 生物物理学 Biophysics生态学 Ecology系统科学 Systems Science系统理论 Systems Theory系统分析与集成 Systems Analysis and Integration科学技术史 History of Science and Technology工学 Engineering力学 Mechanics一般力学与力学基础 General and Fundamental Mechanics固体力学 Solid Mechanics流体力学 Fluid Mechanics工程力学 Engineering Mechanics机械工程 Mechanical Engineering机械制造及其自动化 Mechanical Manufacture and Automation 机械电子工程 Mechatronic Engineering机械设计与理论 Mechanical Design and Theory车辆工程 Vehicle Engineering光学工程 Optical Engineering仪器科学与技术 Instrument Science and Technology精密仪器及机械 Precision Instrument and Machinery测试计量技术及仪器 Measuring and Testing Technologies and Instruments材料科学与工程 Materials Science and Engineering材料物理与化学 Materials Physics and Chemistry材料学 Materialogy材料加工工程 Materials Processing Engineering冶金工程 Metallurgical Engineering冶金物理化学 Physical Chemistry of Metallurgy钢铁冶金 Ferrous Metallurgy有色金属冶金 Non-ferrous Metallurgy动力工程及工程热物理 Power Engineering and Engineering Thermophysics工程热物理 Engineering Thermophysics热能工程 Thermal Power Engineering动力机械及工程 Power Machinery and Engineering流体机械及工程 Fluid Machinery and Engineering制冷及低温工程 Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering化工过程机械 Chemical Process Equipment电气工程 Electrical Engineering电机与电器 Electric Machines and Electric Apparatus电力系统及其自动化 Power System and its Automation高电压与绝缘技术 High Voltage and Insulation Technology 电力电子与电力传动 Power Electronics and Power Drives电工理论与新技术 Theory and New Technology of Electrical Engineering电子科学与技术 Electronics Science and Technology物理电子学 Physical Electronics电路与系统 Circuits and Systems微电子学与固体电子学 Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics电磁场与微波技术 Electromagnetic Field and Microwave Technology信息与通信工程 Information and Communication Engineering 通信与信息系统 Communication and Information Systems信号与信息处理 Signal and Information Processing控制科学与工程 Control Science and Engineering控制理论与控制工程 Control Theory and Control Engineering检测技术与自动化装置 Detection Technology and Automatic Equipment系统工程 Systems Engineering模式识别与智能系统 Pattern Recognition and Intelligent Systems导航、制导与控制 Navigation, Guidance and Control计算机科学与技术 Computer Science and Technology计算机软件与理论 Computer Software and Theory计算机系统结构 Computer Systems Organization计算机应用技术 Computer Applied Technology建筑学 Architecture建筑历史与理论 Architectural History and Theory建筑设计及其理论 Architectural Design and Theory城市规划与设计(含风景园林规划与设计) Urban Planning and Design (including Landscape Planning and Design)建筑技术科学 Building Technology Science土木工程 Civil Engineering岩土工程 Geotechnical Engineering结构工程 Structural Engineering市政工程 Municipal Engineering供热、供燃气、通风及空调工程 Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering防灾减灾工程及防护工程 Disaster Prevention and Reduction Engineering and Protective Engineering桥梁与隧道工程 Bridge and Tunnel Engineering水利工程 Hydraulic Engineering水文学及水资源 Hydrology and Water Resources水力学及河流动力学 Hydraulics and River Dynamics水工结构工程 Hydraulic Structure Engineering水利水电工程 Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering港口、海岸及近海工程 Harbor, Coastal and Offshore Engineering 测绘科学与技术 Surveying and Mapping大地测量学与测量工程 Geodesy and Survey Engineering摄影测量与遥感 Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing地图制图学与地理信息工程 Cartography and Geographic Information Engineering化学工程与技术 Chemical Engineering and Technology化学工程 Chemical Engineering化学工艺 Chemical Technology生物化工 Biochemical Engineering应用化学 Applied Chemistry工业催化 Industrial Catalysis地质资源与地质工程 Geological Resources and Geological Engineering矿产普查与勘探 Mineral Resource Prospecting and Exploration 地球探测与信息技术 Geodetection and Information Technology 地质工程 Geological Engineering矿业工程 Mineral Engineering采矿工程 Mining Engineering矿物加工工程 Mineral Processing Engineering安全技术及工程 Safety Technology and Engineering石油与天然气工程 Oil and Natural Gas Engineering油气井工程 Oil-Gas Well Engineering油气田开发工程 Oil-Gas Field Development Engineering油气储运工程 Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Engineering 纺织科学与工程 Textile Science and Engineering纺织工程 Textile Engineering纺织材料与纺织品设计 Textile Material and Textiles Design纺织化学与染整工程 Textile Chemistry and Dyeing and Finishing Engineering服装设计与工程 Clothing Design and Engineering轻工技术与工程 The Light Industry Technology and Engineering 制浆造纸工程 Pulp and Paper Engineering制糖工程 Sugar Engineering发酵工程 Fermentation Engineering皮革化学与工程 Leather Chemistry and Engineering交通运输工程 Communication and Transportation Engineering道路与铁道工程 Highway and Railway Engineering交通信息工程及控制 Traffic Information Engineering & Control 交通运输规划与管理 Transportation Planning and Management载运工具运用工程 Vehicle Operation Engineering船舶与海洋工程 Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering船舶与海洋结构物设计制造 Design and Construction of Naval Architecture and Ocean Structure轮机工程 Marine Engine Engineering水声工程 Underwater Acoustics Engineering航空宇航科学与技术 Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology飞行器设计 Flight Vehicle Design航空宇航推进理论与工程 Aerospace Propulsion Theory and Engineering航空宇航器制造工程 Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle人机与环境工程 Man-Machine and Environmental Engineering兵器科学与技术 Armament Science and Technology武器系统与运用工程 Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering 兵器发射理论与技术 Armament Launch Theory and Technology火炮、自动武器与弹药工程 Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering军事化学与烟火技术 Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics核科学与技术 Nuclear Science and Technology核能科学与工程 Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering核燃料循环与材料 Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials核技术及应用 Nuclear Technology and Applications辐射防护及环境保护 Radiation and Environmental Protection农业工程 Agricultural Engineering农业机械化工程 Agricultural Mechanization Engineering农业水土工程 Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering农业生物环境与能源工程 Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering农业电气化与自动化 Agricultural Electrification and Automation林业工程 Forestry Engineering森林工程 Forest Engineering木材科学与技术 Wood Science and Technology林产化学加工工程 Chemical Processing Engineering of Forest Products环境科学与工程 Environmental Science and Engineering环境科学 Environmental Science环境工程 Environmental Engineering生物医学工程 Biomedical Engineering食品科学与工程 Food Science and Engineering食品科学 Food Science粮食、油脂及植物蛋白工程 Cereals, Oils and Vegetable Protein Engineering农产品加工及贮藏工程 Processing and Storage of Agriculture Products水产品加工及贮藏工程 Processing and Storage of Aquatic Products农学 Agriculture作物学 Crop Science作物栽培学与耕作学 Crop Cultivation and Farming System作物遗传育种学 Crop Genetics and Breeding园艺学 Horticulture果树学 Pomology蔬菜学 Olericulture茶学 Tea Science农业资源利用学 Utilization Science of Agricultural Resources 土壤学 Soil Science植物营养学 Plant Nutrition植物保护学 Plant Protection植物病理学 Plant Pathology农业昆虫与害虫防治 Agricultural Entomology and Pest Control 农药学 Pesticide Science畜牧学 Animal Science动物遗传育种与繁殖 Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction Science动物营养与饲料科学 Animal Nutrition and Feed Science草业科学 Practaculture Science特种经济动物饲养学(含蚕、蜂等) The Rearing of Special-type EconomicAnimals (including Silkworm, Honeybees, etc.)兽医学 Veterinary Medicine基础兽医学 Basic Veterinary Medicine预防兽医学 Preventive Veterinary Medicine临床兽医学 Clinical Veterinary Medicine林学 Forestry林木遗传育种学 Forest Tree Genetics and Breeding森林培育学 Silviculture森林保护学 Forest Protection森林经理学 Forest Management野生动植物保护与利用 Wildlife Conservation and Utilization 园林植物与观赏园艺 Ornamental Plants and Horticulture水土保持与荒漠化防治 Soil and Water Conservation and Desertification Combating水产学 Fisheries Science水产养殖学 Aquaculture Science捕捞学 Fishing Science渔业资源学 Science of Fisheries Resources医学 Medicine基础医学 Basic Medicine人体解剖与组织胚胎学 Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology 免疫学 Immunology病原生物学 Pathogenic Organisms病理学与病理生理学 Pathology and Pathophysiology法医学 Forensic Medicine放射医学 Radiation Medicine航空航天与航海医学 Aerospace and Nautical medicine临床医学 Clinical Medicine内科学(含心血管病学、血液病学、呼吸系病学、消化系病学、内分泌与代谢病学、肾脏病学、风湿病学、传染病学) Internal medicine (including Cardiology, Hematology, Respiratory, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nephrology, Rheuma-tology, Infectious Diseases)儿科学 Pediatrics老年医学 Geriatrics神经病学 Neurology精神病与精神卫生学 Psychiatry and Mental Health皮肤病与性病学 Dermatology and Venereology影像医学与核医学 Imaging and Nuclear Medicine临床检验诊断学 Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics护理学 Nursing外科学(含普通外科学、骨外科学、泌尿外科学、胸心血管外科学、神经外科学、整形外科学、烧伤外科学、野战外科学) Surgery (General Surgery, Orthopedics, Urology, Cardiothoracic Surgery, Neurosurgery, Plastic Surgery, Burn Surgery, Field Surgery)妇产科学 Obstetrics and Gynecology眼科学 Ophthalmic Specialty耳鼻咽喉科学 Otolaryngology肿瘤学 Oncology康复医学与理疗学 Rehabilitation Medicine & Physical Therapy 运动医学 Sports Medicine麻醉学 Anesthesiology急诊医学 Emergency Medicine口腔医学 Stomatology口腔基础医学 Basic Science of Stomatology口腔临床医学 Clinical Science of Stomatology公共卫生与预防医学 Public Health and Preventive Medicine 流行病与卫生统计学 Epidemiology and Health Statistics劳动卫生与环境卫生学 Occupational and Environmental Health 营养与食品卫生学 Nutrition and Food Hygiene儿少卫生与妇幼保健学 Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health 卫生毒理学 Hygiene Toxicology军事预防医学 Military Preventive Medicine中医学 Chinese Medicine中医基础理论 Basic Theories of Chinese Medicine中医临床基础 Clinical Foundation of Chinese Medicine中医医史文献 History and Literature of Chinese Medicine方剂学 Formulas of Chinese Medicine中医诊断学 Diagnostics of Chinese Medicine中医内科学 Chinese Internal Medicine中医外科学 Surgery of Chinese Medicine中医骨伤科学 Orthopedics of Chinese Medicine中医妇科学 Gynecology of Chinese Medicine中医儿科学 Pediatrics of Chinese Medicine中医五官科学 Ophthalmology and Otolaryngoloy of Chinese Medicine针灸推拿学 Acupuncture and Moxibustion and Tuina of Chinese medicine民族医学 Ethnomedicine中西医结合医学 Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine中西医结合基础医学 Basic Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative中西医结合临床医学 Clinical Discipline of Chinese and Western Integrative Medicine药学 Pharmaceutical Science药物化学 Medicinal Chemistry药剂学 Pharmaceutics生药学 Pharmacognosy药物分析学 Pharmaceutical Analysis微生物与生化药学 Microbial and Biochemical Pharmacy药理学 Pharmacology中药学 Science of Chinese Pharmacology军事学 Military Science军事思想学及军事历史学 Military Thought and Military History 军事思想学 Military Thought军事历史学 Military History战略学 Science of Strategy军事战略学 Military Strategy战争动员学 War Mobilization战役学 Science of Operations联合战役学 Joint Operation军种战役学(含第二炮兵战役学) Armed Service Operation (including Operation of Strategic Missile Force)战术学 Science of Tactics合同战术学 Combined-Arms Tactics兵种战术学 Branch Tactics军队指挥学 Science of Command作战指挥学 Combat Command军事运筹学 Military Operation Research军事通信学 Military Communication军事情报学 Military Intelligence密码学 Cryptography军事教育训练学(含军事体育学) Military Education and Training (including Military Physical Training)军制学 Science of Military System军事组织编制学 Military Organizational System军队管理学 Military Management军队政治工作学 Science of Military Political Work军事后勤学与军事装备学 Science of Military Logistics and Military Equipment军事后勤学 Military Logistics后方专业勤务 Rear Special Service军事装备学 Military Equipment管理学 Management Science管理科学与工程 Management Science and Engineering工商管理学 Science of Business Administration会计学 Accounting企业管理学(含财务管理、市场营销学、人力资源管理学) Corporate Management (including Financial Management, Marketing, and Human Resources Management)旅游管理学 Tourist Management技术经济及管理学 Technology Economy and Management农林经济管理学 Agricultural and Forestry Economics & Management农业经济管理学 Agricultural Economics & Management林业经济管理学 Forestry Economics & Management公共管理学 Science of Public Management行政管理学 Administration Management社会医学与卫生事业管理学 Social Medicine and Health Management教育经济与管理学 Educational Economy and Management社会保障学 Social Security土地资源管理学 Land Resource Management图书馆、情报与档案学 Science of Library, Information and Archival图书馆学 Library Science情报学 Information Science档案学 Archival Science。

新疆大学各个学院各个专业的英语翻译

新疆大学各个学院各个专业的英语翻译

新疆大学各个学院各个专业的英语翻译。

希望能够对大家有所帮助。

水平有限,希望大家在浏览的同时帮忙校正,不甚感激……化学化工学院College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering化学工程与工艺Chemical Engineering and Technics材料化学Materials Chemistry高分子材料Multimolecular Materials环境工程Environmental Engineering化学Chemical应用化学Applied Chemical过程装备与控制工程Processing Units and Control Engineering新闻与传播学院College of Journalism and Communication新闻学Journalism广告学Advertising广播电视新闻学Radio and TV Journalism生命科学与技术学院College of Life Science and Technology生物工程Bioengineering生物技术Biotechnology生物科学Biological Science食品科学与工程Food Science and Engineering数学与系统科学学院College of Mathematics and Systems Science数学与应用数学Mathematics and Applied Mathematics信息与计算科学Information and Computation Science资源与环境科学学院College of Resources and Environmental Science地理信息系统Geographic Information System资源环境与城乡规划管理Resources Environment and the Management of Urban and Rural Planning地理科学Geography生态学Ecology环境科学Environmental Science物理科学与技术学院College of Physical Science and Technology物理学Physics应用物理学Applied Physics信息科学与工程学院College of Information Science and Engineering电子信息科学与技术Sience and Technology of Electronic Information电子信息工程Electronic and Information Engineering通信工程Communication Engineering计算机科学与技术Computer Sience and Technology外国语学院College of Foreign Languages英语English俄语Russian日语Japanese人文学院College of Humanities文学Literature中国少数民族语言文学(维汉双语翻译)Chinese Minority Languages and Literatures (Uigur-Chinese Interpretation & Translation)中国少数民族语言文学(哈文学方向)Chinese Minority Linguistics & Literature (Kazakhstan Literature)中国少数民族语言文学(维文学方向)Chinese Minority Linguistics & Literature (Uigur Literature)中国少数民族语言文学(维现代文秘方向)Chinese Minority Linguistics & Literature (Uigur Modern Secretary)中国少数民族语言文学(维吾尔语言)Chinese Minority Linguistics & Literature(Uigur)汉语言文学(现代文秘方向)Chinese Linguistics & Literature (Modern Secretary)汉语言文学(文学方向)Chinese Linguistics & Literature (Literature)汉语言文学(影视文学方向)Chinese Linguistics & Literature (Television Literature)汉语言Chinese地质与勘察工程学院 College of Geosciences and Reconnaaissance Engineering资源勘察工程Resource Reconnaissance Engineering机械工程学院 College of Mechanical Engineering工业工程Industrial Engineering机械设计制造及其自动化 Mechanical Designing and Manufacturing Automation机械类Mechanical交通工程Traffic Engineering工业设计Industrial Designing电气工程学院College of Electrical Engineering电气工程及其自动化Electrical Engineering and Automation电子信息工程Electronic Information Engineering热能与动力工程Heat Energy and Dynamical Engineering自动化Automation建筑工程学院College of Civil Engineering and Architecture工程管理Engineering Management城市规划Urban Planning建筑学Architecture土木工程(交通土建)Civil Engineering(Civil Traffic)建筑环境与设备工程 Architectural Environment Equipment Engineering土木工程(建筑工程方向)Civil Engineering(Architecture Engineering)艺术设计学院Colleage of Arts Design服装设计与工程(服装设计)Fashion Design and Engineering(Fashion Design) 艺术设计(装潢艺术设计)Arts Design (Decorative Painting Arts Design)艺术设计(电脑艺术设计)Arts Design (Computer Arts Design)软件学院College of Software计算机科学与技术Computer Science and Technology高等职业与技术学院College of Altitude V ocation and Technology汉语Chinese计算机网络技术Computer Network Technology旅游管理Tourism Management社区管理与服务Community Management and Services文秘Secretary英语English市场营销Marketing经济与管理学院College of Economic and Management工商管理Business Administration国际经济与贸易International economic and trade金融学Finance经济学Economics信息管理与信息系统Information Management and Information System市场营销Marketing法学院College of law法学Law Study政治与公共管理学院College of Politics and Public Management行政管理Administration公共管理Public Management社会工作Social Work社会学Sociology政治学Political Science旅游学院College of Tourism旅游管理Tourism Management。

浙江省高考选考科目7选3大学专业要求汇总

浙江省高考选考科目7选3大学专业要求汇总

班本科科技与创意设计试验班2物理技术科技与创意设计试验班本科理科试验班类(生命、环境、化学与地学)2物理化学理科试验班本科医学试验班2物理化学医学试验班本科医学试验班类(口腔医学)2物理化学口腔医学本科应用生物科学(农学)2物理化学本科应用生物科学(生工食品)2物理化学本科工科试验班(信息)1物理工科试验班本科工科试验班(建筑与土木)1物理工科试班本科工科试验班(机械与能源)1物理工科试验班本科工科试验班(海洋)1物理工科试验班本科工科试验班(电气与自动化)1物理工科试验班本科工科试验班(航空航天与过程装备)1物理工科试验班本科理科试验班类1物理理科试验班本科社会科学试验班0不限社会科学试验班本科人文科学试验班(传媒)0不限人文科学验班本科人文科学试验班(外国语言文学)0不限人文科学试验班运动训练本科体育学类0不限武术与民族传统体育本科美术学类0不限美术学视觉传达设计环境设计本科设计学类0不限产品汉语国际教育国际经济与贸易金融学工商管理财务管理市场营销旅游管理信息管理与信息系统工程管理公共事业管理行政管理法学本科经贸、法学与管理类3物理 思想政治 历史知识产权英语翻译(英语)本科外国语言文学类3历史 地理 思想政治日语本科计算机类(中外合作办学)3物理 化学 技术软件工程制药工程(“2011计划”创新试验班)制药工程药物制剂药学本科药学类3物理 化学 生物中药学数学与应用数学应用物理学光电信息科学与工程信息与计算科学本科理学与光电信息类2物理 化学应用心理学电气工程及其自动化自动化电子信息工程本科电气通信与计算机类2物理 技术通信工程汉语国际教育秘书学本科电子信息工程3物理生物技术本科电子科学与技术3物理生物技术本科通信工程3物理生物技术本科广播电视工程3物理生物技术本科网络工程3物理生物技术本科数字媒体技术3物理生物技术本科信息管理与信息系统3物理生物技术本科经济学0不限本科英语0不限本科新闻学0不限本科广播电视学0不限本科广告学0不限本科传播学0不限本科编辑出版学0不限本科网络与新媒体0不限本科数字出版0不限本科文化产业管理0不限本科公共关系学0不限本科会展经济与管理0不限本科音乐表演(声乐)0不限本科音乐表演(民乐)0不限本科音乐表演(西洋乐)0不限本科音乐表演(钢琴)0不限本科舞蹈编导0不限本科舞蹈编导(音乐剧)0不限本科表演0不限本科戏剧影视文学0不限本科戏剧影视文学(编剧与策划)0不限本科广播电视编导0不限本科广播电视编导(媒体创意)0不限本科广播电视编导(文艺编导)0不限本科戏剧影视美术设计0不限本科戏剧影视美术设计(人物形象设计)0不限本科录音艺术0不限本科播音与主持艺术0不限本科播音与主持艺术(影视配音)0不限本科播音与主持艺术(日汉双语播音)0不限本科播音与主持艺术(法汉双语播音)0不限本科播音与主持艺术(礼仪文化)0不限本科播音与主持艺术(英汉双语播音)0不限本科动画0不限本科动画(漫插画)0不限其自动化材料成型及控制工程车辆工程汽车服务工程科术能源与环境系统工程机械设计制造及其自动化车辆工程本科机械类(中德“2+3”联合培养)3物理 化学 技术工业工程本科电气类(中外合作办学)3物理 化学 技术电气工程及其自动化(中德合作办学)电气工程及其自动化自动化测控技术与仪器本科电气类3物理 化学 技术建筑电气与智能化电气工程及其自动化电子信息工程通信工程自动化本科电气类(中德“2+3”联合培养)3物理 化学 技术能源与环境系统工程本科软件工程3物理 化学 技术本科土木工程3物理 化学 技术本科给排水科学与工程3化学 物理 生物本科土木类(中外合作办学)3物理 化学 技术土木工程(中德合作办学)本科土木类(中外合作办学)3物理 化学 技术土木工程(中法合作办学)本科土木类(中德“2+3”联合培养)3物理化学技术土木工程化学工程与工艺制药工程本科化工与制药类3化学物理生物材料科学与工程本科服装设计与工程3历史化学技术轻化工程包装工程本科轻工类3化学物理生物印刷工程本科建筑学3物理地理技术本科城乡规划3地理物理技术化学工程与工艺本科生物工程类(中德“2+3”联合培养)3化学生物物理食品科学与工程本科工程造价3物理技术思想政治信息管理与信息系统物流管理本科管理科学与工程类3物理技术生物工业工程物流管理本科管理科学与工程类(中德“2+3”联合培养)3物理技术生物工业工程本科财务管理3物理技术思想政治市场营销本科工商管理类3思想政治地理技术国际商务本科电子信息工程2物理化学本科通信工程2物理化学本科计算机科学与技术2物理化学本科物联网工程2物理化学本科数字媒体技术2物理技术本科计算机类(中德“2+3”联合培养)2物理化学计算机科学与技术本科电子信息科学与技术1物理本科经济学类(中外合作办学)0不限经济学((中美合作办学))本科国际经济与贸易(国际班)0不限本科汉语言文学0不限本科英语0不限本科德语0不限本科市场营销(国际班)0不限本科动画0不限本科摄影0不限本科视觉传达设计0不限本科环境设计0不限本科产品设计(产品创意设计方向)0不限本科产品设计(家用纺织品设计方向)0不限本科服装与服饰设计0不限本科服装与服饰设计(服装表演与形象设计方向)0不限视觉传达设计环境设计本科设计学类(中德“2+3”联合培养)0不限产品设计电子信息工程通信工程本科电子信息类3物理技术化学电子信息科学与技术计算机科学与技术本科计算机类3物理技术化学数字媒体技术土木工程建筑环境与能源应用工程风景园林本科土木类3物理技术化学工程管理本科服装设计与工程3物理化学历史本科纺织类(中外合作办学)3物理化学历史服装设计与工程(中美合作项目)纺织工程本科纺织类3化学物理历史非织造材料与工程本科轻化工程3化学生物物理本科建筑学3物理技术历史公共事业管理本科公共管理类3思想政治历史物理行政管理本科电子商务(少数民族班)3物理化学地理电子商务本科电子商务类3物理化学地理信息管理与信息系统本科表演(人物形象设计)3历史地理化学本科表演(时装表演艺术)3历史地理化学服装与服饰设计(服装艺术设计、服饰品设计)本科服装与服饰设计类0不限产品设计(纺织品艺术设计)经济学经济统计学金融学本科经济与贸易类0不限国际经济与贸易法学本科法学类0不限社会工作测绘工程信息管理与信息系统电子信息工程物联网工程本科物联网与电子信息类3物理 技术 生物计算机科学与技术环境工程木材科学与工程高分子材料与工程机械设计制造及其自动化本科环境材料与机械类3物理 化学 生物应用化学园艺园艺(观赏园艺)农学植物保护茶学本科现代农业类3化学 生物 物理农业资源与环境林学本科现代林业类3化学 生物 历史森林保护中药学生物技术本科生命科学类3化学 生物 物理生态学(生态工程技术)食品科学与工程本科食品质量与安全类3物理 化学 生物食品质量与安全本科土木工程3物理 生物 历史本科建筑学3物理 生物 历史本科风景园林3物理 生物 历史动物医学本科动物医学类3物理 化学 生物动物科学本科园林3物理 生物 历史本科林学类(中外合作办学)(林学(中加合作办学项目))3化学 生物 历史林学(中加合作办学项目)本科旅游管理3地理 历史 生物英语本科外语类0不限日语会计学农林经济管理工商管理市场营销财务管理国际经济与贸易金融工程电子商务本科经济与管理类不限城市管理信息与计算科学本科统计与数据科学类0不限应用统计学木材科学与工程(室内与家具设计)本科设计创意类不限工业设计文学汉语国际教育历史学地理科学数学与应用数学物理学化学本科初阳学院试验班23物理化学历史生物科学应用心理学机电技术教育汽车维修工程本科工程技术教育类3物理技术化学教育应用电子技术教育化学生物科本科生化科教类3化学生物物理学科学教育本科金融学3物理历史化学本科国际经济与贸易3历史地理化学本科法学3历史地理物理历史思想政治物本科社会工作3理思想政治历史地本科思想政治教育3理历史思想政治物本科汉语言文学3理思想政治历史地本科汉语国际教育3理英语翻译本科外国语言文学类3历史地理化学日语本科广告学3历史地理技术本科广告学(中外合作办学)3历史地理技术历史学历史思想政治地本科历史学类3人文教理育数学与应用数学本科数学类3物理化学历史信息与计算科学物理学材料物理本科物理学类3物理化学技术光电信息科学与工程本科地理科学3地理化学历史本科生物技术3生物化学物理生物物理思想政本科应用心理学3治机械设计制造及其自本科机械类3物理化学生物动化工业设计软件工本科计算机类(中外合作办学)3技术物理历史程本科交通运输3物理化学生物本科环境科学3化学地理生物本科城乡规划3地理物理历史本科工商管理3历史地理化学本科市场营销3历史化学生物本科财务管理3技术物理历史历史思想政治技本科文化产业管理3术本科财务会计教育3技术物理历史思想政治历史物本科行政管理3理本科电子商务3物理地理技术本科旅游管理与服务教育3技术地理历史本科应用化学2化学物理学前教育特殊教本科儿童发展与教育0不限育艺术教育美术学视觉传达设计本科美术与设计学类0不限环境设计产品设计本科小学教育0不限本科体育教育0不限电子信息工程通信工程本科电子信息类A3物理 化学 技术电子信息科学与技术电子科学与技术本科电子信息类B3物理 技术 化学微电子科学与工程自动化本科电气信息类3物理 技术 化学电气工程及其自动化工商管理财务管理市场营销本科管理学类3物理 历史 地理信息管理与信息系统能源与动力工程本科能源与流体工程类3物理 技术 化学工程力学本科经济学类(中外合作办学)3物理 历史 地理金融工程国际经济与贸易本科经济学类3物理 历史 地理金融工程本科汉语言文学3历史 地理 思想政治本科汉语国际教育3历史 地理 化学本科英语3历史 地理 化学本科工业设计3物理 技术 生物机械设计制造及其自动化本科机械类3物理 技术 化学机械电子工程材料科学与工程材料化学本科材料类3化学 物理 技术功能材料本科光电信息科学与工程3物理 技术 化学考科目数围计算机科学与技术电子信息工程物联网工程通信工程本科计算机与电子信息类3物理 化学技术软件工程国际经济与贸易市场营销物流管理电子商务财务管理本科经济与贸易类3物理 化学历史经济与金融本科法学3历史 地理思想政治本科思想政治教育(师范)3思想政治 历史 地理本科教育技术学(师范)3物理 化学技术汉语言文学(师范)汉语言文学新闻学广告学本科中国语言文学类3思想政治 历史 技术汉语国际教育英语(师范)本科外国语言文学类3历史 思想政治 物理商务英语数学与应用数学(师范)信息与计算科学本科数学类3物理 化学生物金融工程物理学(师范)科学教育(师范)本科物理学类3物理 化学生物光电信息科学与工程新能源材料与器件化学(师范)化学生物本科化学类3物理材料化学制药工程水产养殖学(水生生物科学)物理化学本科应用心理学(师范)3历史机械设计制造及物理化学其自动化本科机械类3生物机械电子工程电气工程及其自动化物理化学本科电气类3生物建筑电气与智能化工程管理物理化学本科建筑类3生物建筑学化学物理本科临床医学3生物化学物理本科口腔医学3生物化学物理本科护理学3生物旅游管理历史地理本科公共管理类3行政管理思想政治历史学(师范)本科学前教育(师范)0不限本科小学教育(师范)0不限本科体育教育(师范)0不限本科日语0不限本科工业设计0不限本科音乐学(师范)0不限理学功底。

过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译14

过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译14

Reading material 14Evaporation1. IntroductionThe objective of evaporation is to concentrate a solution consisting of a nonvolatile solute and a volatile solvent. In the overwhelming majority of evaporations the solvent is water. Evaporation is conducted by vaporizing a portion of the solvent to produce a concentrated solution of thick liquor. Evaporation differs from drying in that the residue is a liquid-sometimes is highly viscous one-rather than a solid; it differs from distillation in that the vapor usually is a single component, and even when the vapor is a mixture, no attempt is made in the evaporation step to separate the vapor into fractions; it differs from crystallization in that emphasis is placed on concentrating a solution rather than forming and building crystals. In certain situations, e.g., in the evaporation of brine to produce common salt, the line between evaporation and crystallization is far from sharp. Evaporation sometimes produces a slurry of crystal in a saturated mother liquor.Normally, in evaporation the thick liquor is the valuable product and the vapor is condensed and discarded. In one specific situation, however, the reverse is true. Mineral-bearing water often is evaporated to give a solid-free product for boiler feed, for special process requirements, or for human consumption. This technique is often called water distillation, but technically it is evaporation. Large-scale evaporation processes have been developed and used for recovering potable water from seawater. Here the condensed water is the desired product. Only a fraction of the total water in the feed is recovered, and the remainder is returned to the sea.2. Liquid CharacteristicsThe practical solution of an evaporation problem is profoundly affected by the character of the liquor to be concentrated. It is the wide variation in liquor characteristics (which demands judgment and experience in designing and operating evaporators) that broadens this operation from simple heat transfer to a separate art. Some of the most important properties of evaporating liquids are as follows. Concentration Although the thin liquor fed to an evaporator may be sufficiently dilute to have many of the physical of water, as the concentration increases, the solution becomes more and more individualistic. The density and viscosity increase with solid content until either the solution becomes saturated or the liquor becomes too viscous for adequate heat transfer. Continued boiling of a saturated solution causes crystals to form; these must be removed or the tubes clog. The boiling point of the solution may also rise considerably as the solid content increases, so that the boiling temperature of a concentrated solution may be much higher than that of water at the same pressure.FoamingSome materials, especially organic substances, foam during vaporization. A stable foam accompanies the vapor out of the evaporator, causing heavy entertainment. In the extreme cases, the entire mass of liquid may boil over into the vapor outletand be lost.Temperature sensitivity Many fine chemicals pharmaceutical products, and foods are damaged when heated to moderate temperatures for relatively short times. In concentrating such materials special techniques are needed to reduce both the temperature of the liquid and the time of heating.Scale Some solutions deposit scale on the heating surface. The overall coefficient then steadily diminished, until the evaporator must be shut down and the tubes cleaned. When the scale is hard and insoluble, the cleaning is difficult and expensive.Materials of construction Whenever possible, evaporator are made of some kind of steel. Many solutions, however, attack ferrous metals or are contaminated by them. Special materials such as copper, nickel, stainless steel, aluminum, imperious graphite, and lead are then used. Since these materials are expensive, high heat transfer rates become especially desired to minimize the first cost of the equipment. Many other liquid characteristics must be considered by the designer of an evaporator. Some of these are specific heat, heat of concentration, freezing point, gas liberation on boiling, toxicity, explosion hazards, radioactivity, and necessity for sterile operation. Because of the variation in liquor properties, many different evaporator designers have been developed. The choice for any specific problem depends primarily on the characteristics of the liquid.3. Single and multiple-effect operationMost evaporators are heated by steam condensing on the metal tubes. Nearly always the material to be evaporated flows inside the tubes. Usually the steam is at low pressure, below 3 atm abs; often the boiling liquid is under moderate vacuum, at pressure down to about 0.05 atm abs. Reducing the boiling temperature of the liquid increase the temperature difference between the steam and the boiling liquid and thus increase the heat transfer rate in the evaporator.When a single evaporator is used, the vapor from the boiling liquid is condensed and discarded. This method is called single-effect evaporation, and although it is simple, it utilizes steam ineffectively. To evaporate 1 kg water from a solution call for from 1 to 1.3 kg of steam. If the vapor from one evaporator is fed into steam chest of a second evaporator and the vapor from second is then sent to a condenser, the operation becomes double-effect. The heat in the original steam is reused in the second effect, and the evaporation achieved by a unit mass of steam fed to the first effect is approximately doubled. Additional effects can be added in the same manner. The general method of increasing the evaporation per kilogram of steam by using a series of evaporator between the steam supply and the condenser is called multiple-effect evaporation.4. General types of evaporatorHorizontal-tube natural circulation evaporator the horizontal bundle of heating tubes is similar to the bundle of tubes in a heat exchanger. The steam enters into the tubes, where it condenses. The steam condensate leaves at the other end of the tubes. The boiling liquid solution covers the tubes. The vapor leaves the liquid surface, often goes through some deentraining device such as a baffle to preventcarryover of liquid droplets, and leaves out the top. This type is relatively cheap and is used for no viscous liquid having high heat transfer coefficients and liquids that do not deposit scale. Since liquid circulation is poor, they are unsuitable for viscous liquid. In almost all cases, this evaporator and the types discussed below are operating continuously, where the feed enters at a constant rate and the concentrate leaves at a concentrate rate.Vertical-type natural circulation evaporator in this type of evaporator, vertical rather than horizontal tubes are used, and the liquid is inside the tubes and the steam condenses outside the tubes. Because of boiling and decreases in density, the liquid rises in the tubes by natural circulation and flows downward through a large central open space or downcomer. This natural circulation increases the heat transfer coefficient. It is not used with viscous liquid. This type is often called the short-tube evaporator. A variation of this is the basket type. Where vertical tubes are used, but the heating element is held suspended in the body so there is an annular open space as the downcomer. The basket type differs from the vertical natural circulation evaporator, which has a central instead of annular open space as the downcomer, this type is widely used in the sugar, salt, and caustic soda industries.Long-tube vertical-type evaporator since the heat transfer coefficient on the steam side is very high compared to that on the evaporating liquid side, high liquid velocities are desirable. In a long-tube vertical-type evaporator the liquid is inside the tubes. The tubes are 3 to 10 m long and the formation of vapor bubbles inside the tubes causes a pumping action giving quite high liquid velocities. Generally, the liquid passes through the tubes only once and is not reticulated. Contact times can be quite low in this type. In some case,as when the ratio of the feed to evaporation rate is low.Natural recirculation of the product through the evaporators done by adding a large pipe connection between the outlet concentrate line and the feed line. This is widely used for producing condensed milk. Falling-film evaporator a variation of the long tube type is the falling-film evaporator, wherein the liquid is fed to the top of the tubes and flows down the walls as a thin film. Vapor-liquid separation usually takes place at the bottom. This type is widely used for concentrating heat-sensitive material such as orange juice and the other fruit juices, because the holdup time is very small (5 to 10 s or more).and the heat-transfer coefficients are high.Forced-circulation type evaporator this liquid film heat transfer coefficient can be increased by pumping to cause forced circulation of the liquid inside the tubes. This could be done in the long tube vertical type by adding a pipe concentrate with a pump between the outlet concentrate line and the feed line. However, usually in a forced-circulation type, the vertical tubes are shorter than in the long-tube type. Also, in other cases a separate and external horizontal heat exchanger is used. This type is very useful for viscous liquids.阅读材料14蒸发1、介绍蒸发的目的是浓缩不易挥发的溶质和易挥发的溶剂组成的溶液。

过程装备与控制工程专业U形管换热器毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

过程装备与控制工程专业U形管换热器毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计(论文)外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目:U形管换热器文献、资料英文题目:文献、资料来源:文献、资料发表(出版)日期:院(部):专业:过程装备与控制工程专业班级:姓名:学号:指导教师:翻译日期: 2017.02.14毕业设计(论文)外文翻译毕业设计(论文)题目: U形管式换热器设计外文题目: U-tube heat exchangers译文题目:指导教师评阅意见U-tube heat exchangersM. Spiga and G. Spiga, Bologna1 Summary:Some analytical solutions are provided to predict the steady temperature distributions of both fluids in U-tube heat exchangers. The energy equations are solved assuming that the fluids remain unmixed and single-phased. The analytical predictions are compared with the design data and the numerical results concerning the heat exchanger of a spent nuclear fuel pool plant, assuming distinctly full mixing and no mixing conditions for the secondary fluid (shell side). The investigation is carried out by studying the influence of all the usual dimensionless parameters (flow capacitance ratio, heat transfer resistance ratio and number of transfer units), to get an immediate and significant insight into the thermal behaviour of the heat Exchanger.More detailed and accurate studies about the knowledge of the fluid temperature distribution inside heat exchangers are greatly required nowadays. This is needed to provide correct evaluation of thermal and structural performances, mainly in the industrial fields (such as nuclear engineering) where larger, more efficient and reliable units are sought, and where a good thermal design can not leave integrity and safety requirements out of consideration [1--3]. In this view, the huge amount of scientific and technical informations available in several texts [4, 5], mainly concerning charts and maps useful for exit temperatures and effectiveness considerations, are not quite satisfactory for a more rigorous and local analysis. In fact the investigation of the thermomechanieal behaviour (thermal stresses, plasticity, creep, fracture mechanics) of tubes, plates, fins and structural components in the heat exchanger insists on the temperature distribution. So it should be very useful to equip the stress analysis codes for heat exchangers withsimple analytical expressions for the temperature map (without resorting to time consuming numerical solutions for the thermal problem), allowing a sensible saving in computer costs. Analytical predictions provide the thermal map of a heat exchanger, aiding in the designoptimization.Moreover they greatly reduce the need of scale model testing (generally prohibitively expensive in nuclear engineering), and furnish an accurate benchmark for the validation of more refined numerical solutions obtained by computer codes. The purpose of this paper is to present the local bulk-wall and fluid temperature distributions forU-tube heat exchangers, solving analytically the energy balance equations.122 General assumptionsLet m, c, h, and A denote mass flow rate (kg/s), specific heat (J/kg -1 K-l), heat transfer coefficient(Wm -2 K-l), and heat transfer surface (m2) for each leg, respectively. The theoretical analysis is based on classical assumptions [6] :-- steady state working conditions,-- equal flow distribution (same mass flow rate for every tube of the bundle),-- single phase fluid flow,-- constant physical properties of exchanger core and fluids,-- adiabatic exchanger shell or shroud,-- no heat conduction in the axial direction,-- constant thermal conductances hA comprehending wall resistance and fouling.According to this last assumption, the wall temperature is the same for the primary and secondary flow. However the heat transfer balance between the fluids is quite respected, since the fluid-wall conductances are appropriately reduced to account for the wall thermal resistance and thefouling factor [6]. The dimensionless parameters typical of the heat transfer phenomena between the fluids arethe flow capacitance and the heat transfer resistance ratiosand the number of transfer units, commonly labaled NTU in the literature,where (mc)min stands for the smaller of the two values (mc)sand (mc)p.In (1) the subscripts s and p refer to secondary and primary fluid, respectively. Only three of the previous five numbers are independent, in fact :The boundary conditions are the inlet temperatures of both fluids3 Parallel and counter flow solutionsThe well known monodimensional solutions for single-pass parallel and counterflow heat exchanger,which will be useful later for the analysis of U-tube heat exchangers, are presented below. If t, T,νare wall, primary fluid, and secondary fluid bulk temperatures (K), and ξ and L represent the longitudinal space coordinate and the heat exchanger length (m), the energy balance equations in dimensionless coordinate x = ξ/L, for parallel and counterflow respectivelyread asM. Spiga and G. Spiga: Temperature profiles in U-tube heat exchangersAfter some algebra, a second order differential equation is deduced for the temperature of the primary (or secondary) fluid, leading to the solutionwhere the integration constants follow from the boundary conditions T(0)=T i , ν(0)≒νifor parallel T(1) = Ti ,ν(0) = νifor counter flow. They are given-- for parallel flow by - for counterflow byWishing to give prominence to the number of transfer units, it can be noticed thatFor counterflow heat exchangers, when E = 1, the solutions (5), (6) degenerate and the fluidtemperatures are given byIt can be realized that (5) -(9) actually depend only on the two parametersE, NTU. However a formalism involving the numbers E, Ns. R has been chosen here in order to avoid the double formalism (E ≤1 and E > 1) connected to NTU.4 U-tube heat exchangerIn the primary side of the U-tube heat exchanger, whose schematic drawing is shown in Fig. 1, the hot fluid enters the inlet plenum flowing inside the tubes, and exits from the outlet plenum. In the secondary side the fluid flows in the tube bundle (shell side). This arrangement suggests that the heat exchanger can be considered as formed by the coupling of a parallel and a counter-flow heat exchanger, each with a heigth equal to the half length of the mean U-tube. However it is necessary to take into account the interactions in the secondary fluid between the hot and the cold leg, considering that the two flows are not physically separated. Two extreme opposite conditions can be investigated: no mixing and full mixing in the two streams of the secondary fluid. The actual heat transfer phenomena are certainly characterized by only a partial mixing ofthe shell side fluid between the legs, hence the analysis of these two extreme theoretical conditions will provide an upper and a lower limit for the actual temperature distribution.4.1 No mixing conditionsIn this hypothesis the U-tube heat exchanger can be modelled by two independent heat exchangers, a cocurrent heat exchanger for the hot leg and a eountercurrent heat exchanger for the cold leg. The only coupling condition is that, for the primary fluid, the inlet temperature in the cold side must be the exit temperature of the hot side. The numbers R, E, N, NTU can have different values for the two legs, because of thedifferent values of the heat transfer coefficients and physical properties. The energy balance equations are the same given in (2)--(4), where now the numbers E and Ns must be changed in E/2 and 2Ns in both legs, if we want to use in their definition the total secondary mass flow rate, since it is reduced in every leg to half the inlet mass flow rate ms. Of course it is understood that the area A to be used here is half of the total exchange area of the unit, as it occurs for the length L too. Recalling (5)--(9) and resorting to the subscripts c and h to label the cold and hot leg, respectively, the temperature profile is given bywhere the integration constants are:M. Spiga and G. Spiga: Temperature profiles in U-tube heat exchangersIf E, = 2 the solutions (13), (14) for the cold leg degenerate into4.2 Full mixing conditionsA different approach can be proposed to predict the temperature distributions in the core wall and fluids of the U-tube heat exchanger. The assumption of full mixing implies that the temperaturesof the secondary fluid in the two legs, at the same longitudinal section, are exactly coinciding. In this situation the steady state energy balance equations constitute the following differential set :The bulk wall temperature in both sides is thenand (18)--(22) are simplified to a set of three equations, whose summation gives a differential equation for the secondary fluid temperature, withgeneral solutionwhere # is an integration constant to be specified. Consequently a second order differential equation is deduced for the primary fluid temperature in the hot leg :where the numbers B, C and D are defined asThe solution to (24) allows to determine the temperaturesand the number G is defined asThe boundary conditions for the fluids i.e. provide the integration constantsAgain the fluid temperatures depend only on the numbers E and NTU.5 ResultsThe analytical solutions allow to deduce useful informations about temperature profiles and effectiveness. Concerning the U-tube heat exchanger, the solutions (10)--(15) and (25)--(27) have been used as a benchmark for the numerical predictions of a computer code [7], already validated, obtaining a very satisfactory agreement.M. Spiga and G. Spiga: Temperature profiles in U-tube heat exchangers 163 Moreover a testing has been performed considering a Shutte & Koerting Co. U-tube heat exchanger, designed for the cooling system of a spent nuclear fuel storage pool. The demineralized water of the fuel pit flows inside the tubes, the raw water in the shell side. The correct determination of the thermal resistances is very important to get a reliable prediction ; for every leg the heat transfer coefficients have been evaluated by the Bittus-Boelter correlation in the tube side [8], by the Weisman correlation in the shell side [9] ; the wall material isstainless steel AISI 304.and the circles indicate the experimental data supplied by the manufacturer. The numbers E, NTU, R for the hot and the cold leg are respectively 1.010, 0.389, 0.502 and 1.011, 0.38~, 0.520. The difference between the experimental datum and the analytical prediction of the exit temperature is 0.7% for the primary fluid, 0.9% for the secondary fluid. The average exit temperature of the secondary fluid in the no mixing model differs from the full mixing result only by 0.6%. It is worth pointing out the relatively small differences between the profiles obtained through the two different hypotheses (full and no mixing conditions), mainly for the primary fluid; the actual temperature distribution is certainly bounded between these upper and lower limits,hence it is very well specified. Figures 3-5 report the longitudinal temperaturedistribution in the core wall, τw = (t -- νi)/(Ti -- νi), emphasizing theeffects of the parameters E, NTU, R.As above discussed this profile can be very useful for detailed stress analysis, for instance as anM. Spiga and G. Spiga: Temperature profiles in U-tube heat exchangersinput for related computer codes. In particular the thermal conditions at the U-bend transitions are responsible of a relative movement between the hot and the cold leg, producing hoop stresses with possible occurrence of tube cracking . It is evident that the cold leg is more constrained than the hot leg; the axial thermal gradient is higher in the inlet region and increases with increasing values of E, NTU, R. The heat exchanger effectiveness e, defined as the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate(mc)p (Ti-- Tout), Tout=Tc(O), to the maximum hypothetical rateunder the same conditions (mc)min (Ti- νi), is shown in Figs. 6, 7respectively versus the number of transfer units and the flow capacitance ratio. As known, the balanced heat exchangers E = 1) present the worst behaviour ; the effectiveness does not depend on R and is the same for reciprocal values of the flow capacitance ratio.U形管换热器m . Spiga和g . Spiga,博洛尼亚摘要:分析解决方案提供一些两相流体在u形管换热器中的分布情况。

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过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译

过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译

Unit 19 Types of Heat ExchangersHeat exchangers are equipment primarily for transferring heat between hot and cold have separate passages for the two streams and operate most versatile and widely used exchangers are the shell-and-tube types but various plate and other types are valuable and economically competitive or superior in some other types will be discussed briefly but most of the space following will be devoted to the shell-and-tube types primarily because of their importance but also because they are most completely documented in the they can be designed with a degree of confidence to fit into a other types are largely proprietary and for the most part must be process designed by their manufacturers.Plate-and-Frame Exchangers Plate-and-frame exchangers are assemblies of pressed corrugated plates on a frame. Gaskets in grooves around the periphery contain the fluids and direct the flows into and out of the spaces between the spacing and the presence of the corrugations result in high coefficients on both sides several times those of shell-and­tube equipment and fouling factors are accessibility of the heat exchange surface for cleaning makes them particularly suitable for fouling services and where a high degree of sanitation is required as in food and pharmaceutical pressures and temperatures are limited by the natures of the available gasketing materials with usual maxima of 300 psig and 400 F.Since plate-and-frame exchangers are made by comparatively few concerns most process design information about them is proprietary but may be made available to serious factors and heat transfer coefficients vary with the plate spacing and the kinds of costs per unit of heat transfer are said to be lower than for shell-and-tube stainless steel construction the plate-and-frame construction cot is 50%-70% that of the shell-and-tube.Spiral Heat Exchangers In spiral heat exchangers the hot fluid enters at the center of the spiral element and flows to the periphery; flow of the cold liquid is countercurrent entering at the periphery and leaving at the transfer coefficients are high on both sides and there is no correction to the log mean temperature difference because of the true countercurrent'action. These factors may lead to surface requirements 20% or so less than those of shell-and-tube exchangers. Spiral types generally may be superior with highly viscous fluids at moderate pressures.Compact (Plate-Fin) Exchangers Compact exchangers are used primarily for gas they have surfaces of the order of 1200 m2 /m3 corrugation height mm corrugation thickness mm and fin density 230-700 fins/ large extended surface permits about four times the heat transfer rate per unit volume that can be achieved with shell-and-tube have beendesigned for pressiIres up to 80 atm or close spacings militate against fouling compact exchangers are used in cryogenic services and also for heat recovery at high temperatures in connection with gas mobile units as in motor vehicles compact exchangers have the great merits of compactness and light kind of arrangement of cross and countercurrent flows is feasible and three or more different streams can be accommodated in the same drop heat transfer relations and other aspects of design are well documented.Air Coolers In such equipment the process fluid flows through finned tubes and cooling air is blown across them with fans. The economics of application of air coolers favors services that allow 25-40 1" temperature difference between ambient air and process the range above 10 Mbtu/l air coolers can be economically competítíve with watercoolers when water of adequate quality is available in su Hicient amountDouble-Pipe Exchangers This kind of exchanger consísts of a central pipe supported withín a larger one by packíng glands. The straight length is limited to a maximum of about 20 ft;otherwise the center pipe wi1l sag and cause poor distribution in the is customary to operate with the high pressure high temperature high density and corrosive fluid in the inner pipe and the less demanding one in the annulus. The inner surface can be provide with scrapers as in dewaxing of oils or crystallization from longitudinal fins in the annular space can be used to improve heat transfer with gases or viscous greater heat transfer surfaces are needed several double-pipes can be stacked in any combination of series or parallel.Double-pipe exchangers have largely lost out to shell-and-tube units in recent may be worth considering in these situations:1. When the shell-side coefficient is less than half that of the tubeside;the annular side coeHicient can be made comparable to the tube side.2. Temperature crosses that require multishell shell-and-tube units can be avoided by the inherent true countercurrent flow in double pipes.3. High pressures can be accommodated more economically in the annulus than they can in a larger diameter shell.4. At duties requiring only 100~200 sqft of surface the double-pipe may be more economical even in comparison with off-the-shell unts.Shell-and-Tube Exchangers This type of exchangers will be discussed in the following section.(Selected from: Stanley Chemical Process Equiment Butterworth Publishers 1988.)Words and Expressionsn.通道,通过a.多用途的,通用的a.专利的,私有的v.成波纹状,起波纹;corrugation nn.沟,槽n.系数n.密封垫片v.弄脏,堵塞;fouling factor 污垢系数n.卫生a.制药的;药物的n. ; a.逆流n.翅片;v.装翅片v.妨碍,起作用a.冷冻的,低温的n.恢复,回收,再生n.填料盖,密封套v.下垂,下沉n.环状空间; annular a环形的.v.脱蜡n.结晶,结晶体n.堆积,烟囱α.内在的,固有的v.调节,适度,容纳Unit 19 换热器的种类换热器起初是为了在热流和冷流中传热。

专业代码

专业代码

修订后修订前专业代码学科门类、专业类、专业名称01 学科门类:哲学01 学科门类:哲学0101 哲学类0101 哲学类010101 哲学010101 哲学010102 逻辑学010102* 逻辑学010103K 宗教学010103* 宗教学010104M 伦理学010104W 伦理学02 学科门类:经济学02 学科门类:经济学0201 经济学类0201 经济学类020101 经济学020101 经济学020116S 海洋经济学020102 经济统计学071601 统计学(部分)020103M 国民经济管理020105W 国民经济管理020104M 资源与环境经济学020108W 环境经济020115W 环境资源与发展经济学020105M 商务经济学020118H 商务经济学020106M 能源经济020121S 能源经济0202 财政学类020201K 财政学020103 财政学020202 税务学020110W 税务0203 金融学类020301K 金融学020104 金融学020302 金融工程020109W 金融工程020303 保险020107W 保险020304 投资学020114W 投资学020305M 金融数学020119H 金融数学020306M 信用管理(可授经济学、管理学学位)020111W 信用管理020307M 经济与金融020120S 经济与金融0204 经济与贸易类020401 国际经济与贸易020102 国际经济与贸易020402 贸易经济020106W 贸易经济020117S 国际文化贸易03 学科门类:法学03 学科门类:法学0301 法学类0301 法学类030101K 法学030101 法学030103S 知识产权注:专业代码加有“K”者为国家控制专业;专业代码加有“M”者为拟列入《普通高等学校本科自设特殊专业名录》专业。

030102M 知识产权法030102W 知识产权法030103M 狱政学030120W 监狱学0302 政治学类0304 政治学类030201 政治学与行政学030401 政治学与行政学030202 国际政治030402 国际政治030406W 国际政治经济学030203 外交学030403* 外交学030204M 国际事务与国际关系030408H 国际事务与国际关系030405W 国际文化交流030409H 欧洲事务与欧洲关系030410H 东亚事务与东亚关系030407S 国际事务030205M 政治学、经济学与哲学030411S 政治学、经济学与哲学0303 社会学类0303 社会学类030301 社会学030301* 社会学030302 社会工作030302 社会工作030303 人类学030304W 人类学030304M 女性学030305S 女性学030305M 家政学030303W 家政学0304 民族学类030401 民族学060105* 民族学0305 马克思主义理论类0302 马克思主义理论类030501 科学社会主义030201* 科学社会主义与国际共产主义运动030502 **党史030202* 中国革命史与**党史030503 思想政治教育030404 思想政治教育0306K 公安学类0305 公安学类030601K 治安学030501 治安学030602K 侦查学030502 侦查学030603K 边防管理030503 边防管理030604MK 禁毒学030505W 禁毒学030605MK 警犬技术030506W 警犬技术030606MK 经济犯罪侦查030507W 经济犯罪侦查030607MK 边防指挥030508W 边防指挥030608MK 消防指挥030509W 消防指挥030609MK 警卫学030510W 警卫学030610MK 公安情报学030511S 公安情报学030611MK 犯罪学030512S 犯罪学030612MK 公安管理学030513S 公安管理学030613MK 涉外警务030514S 涉外警务030614MK 国内安全保卫030515S 国内安全保卫030615MK 警务指挥与战术030516S 警务指挥与战术04 学科门类:教育学04 学科门类:教育学0401 教育学类0401 教育学类040101 教育学040101 教育学110306W 高等教育管理(部分)040102 科学教育040108W 科学教育040103 人文教育040107W 人文教育040104 教育信息技术(可授教育学、理学、工学学位)040104 教育技术学040105 艺术教育(可授教育学、艺术学学位)040106W 艺术教育040106 学前教育040102 学前教育040107 小学教育040105W 小学教育040108M 特殊教育040103 特殊教育040109S 言语听觉科学040109M 华文教育040110S 华文教育040304W 林木生产教育[撤销,无布点]040305W 特用动物教育[撤销,无布点]040309W 农业机械教育[撤销,无布点]040310W 农业建筑与环境控制教育[撤销,无布点]040319W 制浆造纸工艺教育[撤销,无布点]040320W 印刷工艺教育[撤销,无布点]040321W 橡塑制品成型工艺教育[撤销,无布点]040323W 纺织工艺教育[撤销,无布点]040324W 染整工艺教育[撤销,无布点]040325W 化工工艺教育[撤销,无布点]040326W 化工分析与检测技术教育[撤销,无布点]040327W 建筑材料工程教育[撤销,无布点]0402 心理学类0715 心理学类040201 心理学(可授教育学、理学学位)071501 心理学040202 应用心理学(可授教育学、理学学位)071502 应用心理学0403 体育学类0402 体育学类040301 体育教育040201 体育教育040302K 运动训练040202* 运动训练040303 社会体育指导与管理040203 社会体育040304K 武术与民族传统体育040205* 民族传统体育040305 运动科学040204* 运动人体科学040306M 体育康复与健康040206S 运动康复与健康040307M 休闲体育040207S 休闲体育05 学科门类:文学05 学科门类:文学0501 中国语言文学类0501 中国语言文学类050101 汉语言文学050101 汉语言文学050102 汉语言050102 汉语言050103 汉语国际教育050103* 对外汉语050106W 中国语言文化050108S 中国学050104 中国少数民族语言文学050104 中国少数民族语言文学050105 古典文献学050105* 古典文献050106M 应用语言学050107W 应用语言学050107M 秘书学040335W 文秘教育0502 外国语言文学类0502 外国语言文学类050201 英语050201 英语070413S 生物医学英语050202 俄语050202 俄语050203 德语050203* 德语050204 法语050204* 法语050205 西班牙语050205* 西班牙语050206 阿拉伯语050206* 阿拉伯语050207 日语050207 日语050208 波斯语050208△波斯语050209 朝鲜语050209* 朝鲜语050248W 韩国语050210 菲律宾语050210△菲律宾语050211 梵语巴利语050211△梵语巴利语050212 印度尼西亚语050212△印度尼西亚语050213 印地语050213△印地语050214 柬埔寨语050214△柬埔寨语050215 老挝语050215△老挝语050216 缅甸语050216△缅甸语050217 马来语050217△马来语050218 蒙古语050218△蒙古语050219 僧加罗语050219△僧加罗语050220 泰语050220* 泰语050221 乌尔都语050221△乌尔都语050222 希伯莱语050222△希伯莱语050223 越南语050223* 越南语050224 豪萨语050224△豪萨语050225 斯瓦希里语050225△斯瓦希里语050226 阿尔巴尼亚语050226△阿尔巴尼亚语050227 保加利亚语050227△保加利亚语050228 波兰语050228△波兰语050229 捷克语050229△捷克语050230 斯洛伐克语050238W 捷克语—斯洛伐克语050231 罗马尼亚语050230△罗马尼亚语050232 葡萄牙语050231* 葡萄牙语050233 瑞典语050232△瑞典语050234 塞尔维亚语050233△塞尔维亚—克罗地亚语050250W 塞尔维亚语050235 土耳其语050234△土耳其语050236 希腊语050235△希腊语050237 匈牙利语050236△匈牙利语050238 意大利语050237* 意大利语050239 泰米尔语050239W 泰米尔语050240 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水产养殖学040307W 水产养殖教育090602 海洋渔业科学与技术090702 海洋渔业科学与技术090603M 水族科学与技术090703S 水族科学与技术0907 草学类0902 草业科学类090701 草业科学090201 草业科学10 学科门类:医学10 学科门类:医学1001 基础医学类1001 基础医学类100101 基础医学100101* 基础医学1002K 临床医学类1003 临床医学与医学技术类100201K 临床医学100301 临床医学100308W 精神医学100310W 听力学100202K 麻醉学100302* 麻醉学1003K 口腔医学类1004 口腔医学类100301K 口腔医学100401 口腔医学100402W 口腔修复工艺学1004K 公共卫生与预防医学类1002 预防医学类100401K 预防医学100201 预防医学100402 卫生检验(授予理学学位)100202S 卫生检验100403K 妇幼保健医学100203S 妇幼保健医学100404 营养学(授予理学学位)100204S 营养学040332W 食品营养与检验教育(部分)040333W 烹饪与营养教育1005K 中医学类1005 中医学类100501K 中医学100501 中医学100502K 针灸推拿学100502 针灸推拿学100503MK 藏医学100504 藏医学100504MK 蒙医学100503 蒙医学100505MK 维医学100506W 维医学1006K 中西医结合类100601K 中西医临床医学100505W 中西医临床医学1007 药学类1008 药学类100701 药学(授予理学学位)100801 药学100807W 应用药学100702 药物制剂(授予理学学位)100803 药物制剂100703MK 临床药学(授予理学学位)100808S 临床药学100704M 药事管理(授予理学学位)100810S 药事管理100705M 药物分析(授予理学学位)100812S 药物分析100706M 药物化学(授予理学学位)100813S 药物化学100707M 海洋药学(授予理学学位)100809S 海洋药学1008 中药学类1008 药学类100801 中药学(授予理学学位)100802 中药学100802 中药资源与开发(授予理学学位)100806W 中药资源与开发100804W 中草药栽培与鉴定100803M 藏药学(授予理学学位)100805W 藏药学100804M 蒙药学(授予理学学位)100811W 蒙药学100805M 中药制药(授予理学学位)100814S 中药制药1009 特种医学类100901 法医学100601* 法医学100902MK 放射医学100305W 放射医学1010 医学技术类1003 临床医学与医学技术类101001 医学检验(授予理学学位)100304* 医学检验101002 医学实验技术(授予理学学位)100311W 医学实验学100309W 医学技术100312S 医学美容技术101003 医学影像(授予理学学位)100303* 医学影像学080629S 医学影像工程101004 眼视光学(授予理学学位)100306W 眼视光学101005 康复治疗学(授予理学学位)100307W 康复治疗学1011 护理学类1007 护理学类101101 护理学(授予理学学位)100701 护理学11 学科门类:管理学11 学科门类:管理学1101 管理科学与工程类1101 管理科学与工程类110101 管理科学110101* 管理科学110109S 管理科学与工程110102 信息管理与信息系统(可授管理学、工学学位)110102 信息管理与信息系统110103 工业工程(可授管理学、工学学位)110103 工业工程110110S 标准化工程110107S 产品质量工程080715S 总图设计与工业运输(部分)110104 工程管理(可授管理学、工学学位)110104 工程管理110108S 项目管理110105 物流工程与管理(可授管理学、工学学位)110210W 物流管理081207W 物流工程080715S 总图设计与工业运输(部分)110106 房地产开发与管理110106W 房地产经营管理110107 工程造价(可授管理学、工学学位)110105W 工程造价1102 工商管理类1102 工商管理类110201K 工商管理110201 工商管理110217S 商务策划管理110213S 特许经营管理110207W 商品学110214S 连锁经营管理110317S 食品经济管理110202 市场营销110202 市场营销040336W 市场营销教育110219S 采购管理110203K 会计学110203 会计学040334W 财务会计教育110204 财务管理110204 财务管理110205 国际商务110211W 国际商务110206 人力资源管理110205 人力资源管理110314S 劳动关系110207 审计学110208W 审计学110208 资产评估110215S 资产评估110209 电子商务(可授管理学、经济学、工学学位)110209W 电子商务020112W 网络经济学110216H 电子商务及法律110210K 旅游管理110206 旅游管理040331W 旅游管理与服务教育110211 酒店管理110218S 酒店管理110212 物业管理110212S 物业管理110213 文化产业管理(可授管理学、艺术学学位)110310S 文化产业管理110214 会展经济与管理110311S 会展经济与管理110215M 体育经济与管理020113W 体育经济110316S 体育产业管理1103 农业经济管理类1104 农业经济管理类110301 农林经济管理110401 农林经济管理040312W 农业经营管理教育110302 农村区域发展(可授管理学、农学学位)110402 农村区域发展1104 公共管理类1103 公共管理类110401 公共事业管理110302 公共事业管理110309W 公共管理110315S 公共安全管理110312S 国防教育与管理110318S 应急管理110306W 高等教育管理(部分)040337W 职业技术教育管理110402 行政管理110301 行政管理110305W 公共关系学110307W 公共政策学110403 劳动与社会保障110303* 劳动与社会保障110404 土地资源管理110304* 土地资源管理110405 城市管理110308W 城市管理110406M 海关管理110319S 海关管理110407M 交通管理110313S 航运管理110408M 海事管理081208W 海事管理1105 图书档案学类1105 图书档案学类110501 图书馆学110501 图书馆学110502 档案学110502 档案学110503 信息资源管理110503W 信息资源管理12 学科门类:艺术学1201 艺术学理论类120101M 艺术史论050422W 艺术学1202 音乐与舞蹈学类120201 音乐表演050403 音乐表演120202 音乐学050401 音乐学120203 作曲与作曲技术理论050402 作曲与作曲技术理论120204 舞蹈表演050409 舞蹈学(部分)120205 舞蹈学050409 舞蹈学(部分)120206 舞蹈编导050410 舞蹈编导120207M 艺术与科技050428S 音乐科技与艺术1203 戏剧与影视学类120301 表演050412 表演120302 戏剧学050411 戏剧学120303 电影学050423W 影视学120304 戏剧影视文学050414 戏剧影视文学120305 广播电视编导050420 广播电视编导050424S 广播影视编导120306 戏剧影视导演050413 导演120307 戏剧影视美术设计050415 戏剧影视美术设计120308 录音艺术050417 录音艺术120309 播音与主持艺术050419* 播音与主持艺术120310 动画050418 动画120311M 影视摄制050432S 数字电影技术050426S 照明艺术050421W 影视教育[撤销,无布点]1204 美术学类120401 美术学050406 美术学120402 绘画050404 绘画120403 雕塑050405 雕塑120404 摄影050416 摄影120405M 中国画与书法050425S 书法学050429S 中国画1205 设计学类120501 艺术设计学050407 艺术设计学120502 艺术设计050408 艺术设计050430S 公共艺术040330W 装潢设计与工艺教育120503M 会展艺术与技术050427S 会展艺术与技术。

过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译

过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译

1、In our comparison of the net electrical power output of both combined heat and power (CHP)and power-only plants, the electrical output of the CHP plants is assumed to be the output that could the oretically be produced if there were no heat output.net electrical power 净电力combined heat and power 热电联供Plant 设备be assumed to be 假设为Theoretically 理论地;理论上在我们的热电联供和只供电的设备的净电力输出比较中,热电联供设备的电力输出是看做理论上如果没有热输出时产生的输出量。

2、The lower heating value is defined here as the higher heating value (HHV) minus the energy necessary to evaporate the water that is created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel and minus the energy needed to evaporate the moisture that was already part of the fuel before combustion.heating value 热值Evaporate [ɪ'væpəret]vt. 使……蒸发;使……脱水;使……消失vi. 蒸发,挥发;消失,失踪Combustion [kəm'bʌstʃən] n. 燃烧,氧化;骚动moisture ['mɒɪstʃə] n. 水分;湿度;潮湿;降雨量低热值在这里定义为高热值减去使水分蒸发所需要的能量,这些能量包括使燃料中的氢燃烧产生的水分蒸发所必需的能量和使燃料燃烧前所含有的水分蒸发所需要的能量。

合肥工业大学各学院、专业名称及其英文翻译

合肥工业大学各学院、专业名称及其英文翻译

合肥工业大学各学院、专业名称及其英文翻译仪器科学与光电工程学院 School of Instrument Science and Opto-electronic Engineering1、测控技术与仪器 Measurement & Control Technology and Instrument2、光信息科学与技术 Optic Information Science & Technology机械与汽车工程学院 School of Machinery and Automobile Engineering3、车辆工程 Vehicles Engineering4、工业工程 Industrial Engineering5、工业设计 Industry Design6、过程装备与控制工程 Process Equipment & Control Engineering7、机械设计制造及其自动化 Machine Design & Manufacture & Its Automation8、交通工程 Transportation Engineering9、热能与动力工程 Thermal Energy & Power Engineering材料科学与工程学院 School of Material Science and Engineering10、金属材料工程 Metal Materials Engineering11、材料物理 Materials Physics12、无机非金属材料工程 Inorganic Non-metallic Materials Engineering13、材料成型及控制工程 Material Forming & Control Engineering电气与自动化工程学院 School of Electric Engineering and Automation14、电气工程及其自动化 Electric Engineering and Automation15、生物医学工程 Biomedical Engineering16、自动化 Automation计算机与信息学院 School of Computer and Information17、计算机科学与技术 Computer Science & Technology18、电子信息工程 Electronic Information Engineering19、电子信息科学与技术 Electronic Information Science & Technology20、通信工程 Communications Engineering21、信息安全Information Security化学工程学院 School of Chemical Engineering22、高分子材料与工程 Macromolecule Material and Engineering23、化学工程与工艺 Chemical Engineering and Technics24、制药工程 Pharmacy Engineering25、应用化学 Applied Chemistry土木建筑工程学院 School of Civil Engineering26、给排水工程 Water Supply & Drainage Engineering27、工程力学 Engineering Mechanics28、水利水电工程 Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering29、土木工程 Civil Engineering30、建筑环境与设备工程 Architectural Environment & Equipment Engineering建筑与艺术学院 School of Architecture and Arts31、城市规划 Urban Planning32、建筑学 Architecture33、艺术设计 Artistic Design资源与环境学院 School of Resources and Environment34、地理信息系统 Geographic Information System35、环境工程 Environment Engineering36、勘查技术与工程 Exploration Technology & Engineering37、资源勘查工程 Resources Exploration Engineering理学院 School of Sciences38、电子科学与技术 Electronic Science & Technology39、数学与应用数学 Applied Mathematics40、微电子学 Microelectronics41、信息与计算科学 Science of Information & Computation42、应用物理学 Applied Physics管理学院 School of Management43、电子商务 Electronic Commerce44、会计学 Accounting45、工商管理 Business Management46、劳动与社会保障 Labour and Social Security47、信息管理与信息系统 Information Management & System48、旅游管理 Tourism Management49、市场营销 Marketing人文经济学院 School of Humanities and Economics50、财政学 Finance51、广告学 Advertisement52、国际经济与贸易 International Economy & Trade53、经济学 Economics54、思想政治教育 Education in Ideology and Politics55、英语 English56、法学 Law57、社会工作 Social Work生物与食品工程学院 School of Biotechnology and Food Engineering58、生物工程 Bioengineering59、生物技术 Biotechnology60、食品科学与工程 Food Science and Engineering。

大学专业英文翻译

大学专业英文翻译

建筑系:Architecture土木工程:Civil Engineering流体机械及工程Fluid Machinery and Engineering制冷及低温工程Refrigeration and Cryogenic Engineering化工过程机械Chemical Process Equipment电气工程Electrical Engineering电机与电器Electric Machines and Electric Apparatus电力系统及其自动化Power System and its Automation高电压与绝缘技术High V oltage and Insulation Technology电力电子与电力传动Power Electronics and Power Drives电工理论与新技术Theory and New Technology of Electrical Engineering电子科学与技术Electronics Science and Technology物理电子学Physical Electronics电路与系统Circuits and Systems微电子学与固体电子学Microelectronics and Solid State Electronics电磁场与微波技术Electromagnetic Field and Microwave Technology信息与通信工程Information and Communication Engineering通信与信息系统Communication and Information Systems信号与信息处理Signal and Information Processing控制科学与工程Control Science and Engineering控制理论与控制工程Control Theory and Control Engineering检测技术与自动化装置Detection Technology and Automatic Equipment系统工程Systems Engineering模式识别与智能系统Pattern Recognition and Intelligent Systems导航、制导与控制Navigation, Guidance and Control计算机科学与技术Computer Science and Technology计算机软件与理论Computer Software and Theory计算机系统结构Computer Systems Organization计算机应用技术Computer Applied Technology建筑学Architecture建筑历史与理论Architectural History and Theory建筑设计及其理论Architectural Design and Theory城市规划与设计(含风景园林规划与设计)Urban Planning and Design (including Landscape Planning and Design)建筑技术科学Building Technology Science土木工程Civil Engineering岩土工程Geotechnical Engineering结构工程Structural Engineering市政工程Municipal Engineering供热、供燃气、通风及空调工程Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Engineering防灾减灾工程及防护工程Disaster Prevention and Reduction Engineering and Protective Engineering桥梁与隧道工程Bridge and Tunnel Engineering水利工程Hydraulic Engineering水文学及水资源Hydrology and Water Resources水力学及河流动力学Hydraulics and River Dynamics水工结构工程Hydraulic Structure Engineering水利水电工程Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering港口、海岸及近海工程Harbor, Coastal and Offshore Engineering测绘科学与技术Surveying and Mapping大地测量学与测量工程Geodesy and Survey Engineering摄影测量与遥感Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing地图制图学与地理信息工程Cartography and Geographic Information Engineering 化学工程与技术Chemical Engineering and Technology化学工程Chemical Engineering化学工艺Chemical Technology生物化工Biochemical Engineering应用化学Applied Chemistry工业催化Industrial Catalysis地质资源与地质工程Geological Resources and Geological Engineering矿产普查与勘探Mineral Resource Prospecting and Exploration地球探测与信息技术Geodetection and Information Technology地质工程Geological Engineering矿业工程Mineral Engineering采矿工程Mining Engineering矿物加工工程Mineral Processing Engineering安全技术及工程Safety Technology and Engineering石油与天然气工程Oil and Natural Gas Engineering油气井工程Oil-Gas Well Engineering油气田开发工程Oil-Gas Field Development Engineering油气储运工程Oil-Gas Storage and Transportation Engineering纺织科学与工程Textile Science and Engineering纺织工程Textile Engineering纺织材料与纺织品设计Textile Material and Textiles Design纺织化学与染整工程Textile Chemistry and Dyeing and Finishing Engineering服装设计与工程Clothing Design and Engineering轻工技术与工程The Light Industry Technology and Engineering制浆造纸工程Pulp and Paper Engineering制糖工程Sugar Engineering发酵工程Fermentation Engineering皮革化学与工程Leather Chemistry and Engineering交通运输工程Communication and Transportation Engineering道路与铁道工程Highway and Railway Engineering交通信息工程及控制Traffic Information Engineering & Control交通运输规划与管理Transportation Planning and Management载运工具运用工程Vehicle Operation Engineering船舶与海洋工程Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering船舶与海洋结构物设计制造Design and Construction of Naval Architecture and Ocean Structure轮机工程Marine Engine Engineering水声工程Underwater Acoustics Engineering航空宇航科学与技术Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology飞行器设计Flight Vehicle Design航空宇航推进理论与工程Aerospace Propulsion Theory and Engineering航空宇航器制造工程Manufacturing Engineering of Aerospace Vehicle人机与环境工程Man-Machine and Environmental Engineering兵器科学与技术Armament Science and Technology武器系统与运用工程Weapon Systems and Utilization Engineering兵器发射理论与技术Armament Launch Theory and Technology火炮、自动武器与弹药工程Artillery, Automatic Gun and Ammunition Engineering军事化学与烟火技术Military Chemistry and Pyrotechnics核科学与技术Nuclear Science and Technology核能科学与工程Nuclear Energy Science and Engineering核燃料循环与材料Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Materials核技术及应用Nuclear Technology and Applications辐射防护及环境保护Radiation and Environmental Protection农业工程Agricultural Engineering农业机械化工程Agricultural Mechanization Engineering农业水土工程Agricultural Water-Soil Engineering农业生物环境与能源工程Agricultural Biological Environmental and Energy Engineering农业电气化与自动化Agricultural Electrification and Automation林业工程Forestry Engineering森林工程Forest Engineering木材科学与技术Wood Science and Technology林产化学加工工程Chemical Processing Engineering of Forest Products环境科学与工程Environmental Science and Engineering环境科学Environmental Science环境工程Environmental Engineering生物医学工程Biomedical Engineering食品科学与工程Food Science and Engineering食品科学Food Science粮食、油脂及植物蛋白工程Cereals, Oils and Vegetable Protein Engineering农产品加工及贮藏工程Processing and Storage of Agriculture Products水产品加工及贮藏工程Processing and Storage of Aquatic Products农学Agriculture作物学Crop Science作物栽培学与耕作学Crop Cultivation and Farming System作物遗传育种学Crop Genetics and Breeding园艺学Horticulture果树学Pomology蔬菜学Olericulture茶学Tea Science农业资源利用学Utilization Science of Agricultural Resources土壤学Soil Science植物营养学Plant Nutrition植物保护学Plant Protection植物病理学Plant Pathology农业昆虫与害虫防治Agricultural Entomology and Pest Control农药学Pesticide Science畜牧学Animal Science动物遗传育种与繁殖Animal Genetics, Breeding and ReproductionScience动物营养与饲料科学Animal Nutrition and Feed Science草业科学Practaculture Science特种经济动物饲养学(含蚕、蜂等)The Rearing of Special-type EconomicAnimals (including Silkworm, Honeybees, etc.)兽医学Veterinary Medicine基础兽医学Basic Veterinary Medicine预防兽医学Preventive Veterinary Medicine临床兽医学Clinical Veterinary Medicine林学Forestry林木遗传育种学Forest Tree Genetics and Breeding森林培育学Silviculture森林保护学Forest Protection森林经理学Forest Management野生动植物保护与利用Wildlife Conservation and Utilization园林植物与观赏园艺Ornamental Plants and Horticulture水土保持与荒漠化防治Soil and Water Conservation and Desertification Combating水产学Fisheries Science水产养殖学Aquaculture Science捕捞学Fishing Science渔业资源学Science of Fisheries Resources医学Medicine基础医学Basic Medicine人体解剖与组织胚胎学Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology免疫学Immunology病原生物学Pathogenic Organisms病理学与病理生理学Pathology and Pathophysiology法医学Forensic Medicine放射医学Radiation Medicine航空航天与航海医学Aerospace and Nautical medicine临床医学Clinical Medicine内科学(含心血管病学、血液病学、呼吸系病学、消化系病学、内分泌与代谢病学、肾脏病学、风湿病学、传染病学)Internal medicine (including Cardiology, Hematology, Respiratory, Gastroenterology, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nephrology, Rheuma-tology, InfectiousDiseases)儿科学Pediatrics老年医学Geriatrics神经病学Neurology精神病与精神卫生学Psychiatry and Mental Health皮肤病与性病学Dermatology and Venereology影像医学与核医学Imaging and Nuclear Medicine临床检验诊断学Clinical Laboratory Diagnostics护理学Nursing外科学(含普通外科学、骨外科学、泌尿外科学、胸心血管外科学、神经外科学、整形外科学、烧伤外科学、野战外科学)Surgery (General Surgery, Orthopedics, Urology, Cardiothoracic Surgery, Neurosurgery, Plastic Surgery, Burn Surgery, Field Surgery)妇产科学Obstetrics and Gynecology眼科学Ophthalmic Specialty耳鼻咽喉科学Otolaryngology肿瘤学Oncology康复医学与理疗学Rehabilitation Medicine & Physical Therapy运动医学Sports 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Science and Engineering10、金属材料工程 Metal Materials Engineering11、材料物理 Materials Physics12、无机非金属材料工程 Inorganic Non-metallic Materials Engineering13、材料成型及控制工程 Material Forming & Control Engineering电气与自动化工程学院 School of Electric Engineering and Automation14、电气工程及其自动化 Electric Engineering and Automation15、生物医学工程 Biomedical Engineering16、自动化 Automation计算机与信息学院 School of Computer and Information17、计算机科学与技术 Computer Science & Technology18、电子信息工程 Electronic Information Engineering19、电子信息科学与技术 Electronic Information Science & Technology20、通信工程 Communications Engineering21、信息安全Information Security化学工程学院 School of Chemical Engineering22、高分子材料与工程 Macromolecule Material and Engineering23、化学工程与工艺 Chemical Engineering and Technics24、制药工程 Pharmacy Engineering25、应用化学 Applied Chemistry土木建筑工程学院 School of Civil Engineering26、给排水工程 Water Supply & Drainage Engineering27、工程力学 Engineering Mechanics28、水利水电工程 Hydraulic and Hydro-Power Engineering29、土木工程 Civil Engineering30、建筑环境与设备工程 Architectural Environment & 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过程装备与控制工程专业外语(原文+翻译)

过程装备与控制工程专业外语(原文+翻译)

Unit 21Pumps1. IntroductionPump, device used to raise, transfer, or compress liquids and gases. Four' general classes of pumps for liquids are described below t In all of them , steps are taken to prevent cavitation (the formation of a vacuull1), which would reduce the flow and damage the structure of the pump, - pumps used for gases and vapors are usually known as compressors . The study of fluids in motion is called fluid dynamics.1.介绍泵是提出,转移或压缩液体和气体的设备。

下面介绍四种类型的泵。

在所有的这些中,我们一步步采取措施防止气蚀,气蚀将减少流量并且破坏泵的结构。

用来处理气体和蒸汽的泵称为压缩机,研究流体的运动的科学成为流体动力学。

Water Pump, device lor moving water from one location to another, using tubes or other machinery. Water pumps operate under pressures ranging from a fraction of a pound to more than 10,000 pounds per square inch. Everyday examples of water pumps range from small electric pumps that circulate and aerate water in aquariums and fountains to sump pumps that remove 'Water from beneath the foundations of homes.水泵是用管子或其他机械把水从一个地方传到另一个地方。

过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译 重点文章

过程装备与控制工程专业英语翻译 重点文章

Unit 5 Mechanical VibrationsA mechanical vibration is an oscillatory,periodically repeated motion of a particle or body about a position of equilibrium .An engineer is frequently confronted with the problem of machinery and structures.机械振动是质点或物体在其平衡位置附近所作的震荡的,周期性的往复运动。

工程师经常面临机械振动的问题,因为在某种程度上他们在几乎所有的机械和结构中遇到过这些问题Most vibrations are undesirable in machines and structures because they produce excessive stresses or repeated stresses;大多数的震动在机械和结构中是不希望存在的,因为震动会产生附加应力或者交变应力。

cause added wear;increase bearing loads; induce fatigue;create acute passenger discomfort in planes,ships,trains,buses,and automobiles;and absorb energy that could otherwise do useful work.引起额外磨损,增大轴承载荷,导致疲劳破坏,使飞机、船、火车及汽车上的乘客产生严重的不舒服感,并且振动会吸收本可以做有用功的能量。

The collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940 is an example of structural failure due to excessive stresses produced by vibrations.The accuracy of precision instruments,tools,and machines may be impaired by excessive vibrations.1940年(发生的)塔克马窄桥的垮塌事件就是一个因为震动产生的附加应力导致结构失效的例子。

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过程装备与控制工程专业英语
本文为过程装备与控制工程专业英语的个人翻译尝试。

By Liyer
PART 1 engineering mechanic
Unit 1 introduction to mechanicof materials
材料力学是应用力学的分支,用于解决固体遭受外部多种载荷产生的力学行为。

对这个课题领域的另外的称呼有材料强度与固体变形的力学。

本章节提及固体包括经受轴向载荷的杆、扭转的轴、弯曲的梁和被压缩的圆柱。

材料力学研究的主要目标是在外部载荷加载的时候确定结构的应力、压力和应变以及固体微元的具体变化。

如果能够得到物体从受载到失效的所有与载荷对应的这些物理量,我们就对物体的力学性能有了一个全面的了解。

对力学行为的理解对于各种类型结构的安全设计是十分必要的,不管是飞机和天线、建筑和桥梁、机器和发动机、或者是船和飞行器。

这就是材料力学在这么多工程领域里都属于基础学科的原因。

静力学和动力学也是基本的,但是这些学科主要解决与粒子和刚体相关的力和运动问题。

在材料力学中,我们可以通过检测一个在有限维度内受力变形的实物的应力和应变来进一步学习。

而为了确定应力和应变,我们一般使用材料的物理性质以及一些理论公式和概念。

理论分析和实验结果在材料力学中也扮演着重要的角色。

我们从理论中为预测力学状态导出了准则和公式,但这些表达方式不能被用于实际的设计中,除非材料的物性已知。

只有通过在实验室细心的实验测试,我们方能得到材料的物性。

而且,并不是所有实际问题都能通过理论分析来解决,在这种情况下,物性试验就是必要的了。

材料力学的发展是理论和实验的有趣的结合-理论有时候指明了可以得到重大进展的路,有时候实验也做到这一点。

一些著名的科学家,如Leonardo da Vinci和Galileo Galilei通过实验确定绳索、杆和梁等的强度,尽管从今天的观点,他们没有得出详尽的理论体系来解释他们的实验结果。

相反的,著名的数学家Leonhard Euler在1744年得出了圆柱体的数学理论并且计算了圆柱体的临界载荷,远早于任何能够证明他的结果重要性的实验证据出现。

没有合适的实验来支撑他的结果,欧拉的理论尽管在现在成了设计和多门学科的基础,但在当时还是延续了100多年无人问津。

在学习材料力学的过程中,你会发现你应该分成两个方面进行努力:其一是理解概念的逻辑发展,其次是将这些概念应用到实际情况中去。

材料力学问题很多是图形表示的,还有一些是符号表示的(或者代数式的)。

数值化问题的一个优点在于所有数量的量级在计算的每个阶段都是十分明显的,因此就有机会去判断数值是否合理。

符号化问题的主要优点在于他们得出主要目的的公式。

一个公式可以表征变量对最终结果的影响。

一个公式可以显示影响结果的变量;比如说,一个量可能可以抵消结果,但是在数值计算中这个量并不明显。

而且,一个符号化的算式可以展示变量影响结果的方式,甚至当一个变量是分子,而另外一个变量是分母。

进一步说,一个符号化的结果可以让我们有机会在工作的每个阶段了解维度。

最后,代数计算最重要的一个理由在于可以得出一个可以应用于各种不同问题的总方程。

相反的,数值计算仅仅适用于一种
类型的环境。

因为工程师必须精通这两种计算,所以在这个单元,你会发现数值问题与代数问题的结合。

数值问题要求你做到精确的测量工作。

随着当下的工程实际,单位一般采用国际单位制或者是USCS体系。

阅读材料
静止与运动导论
自然现象的单调性。

假如我们把一块石头放到水里,它会沉到水底;假如我们将一块软木丢到水中,它将会浮到水面上。

这两种现象被广泛的接受,不仅仅只对于其中几块石头和木头,而是对于所有的石头和软木。

如果给我们一块石头,我们会很自信的认为,如果将它丢到水里,它一定会沉下去。

我们是有什么正当的理由认为这样一块全新的、没有被丢进过水中的石头必定会沉到水底呢?我们知道有上百万石头在不同时段内被丢进水里,他们都沉到了水底,没有一块表现出不同的地方。

从这里我们可以推断出当石头被丢入水中时,自然界都采用了相似的处理方式,所以我们可以很自信的认为一个从没被丢入水中的石头会如同其他无可计数的被测试过的石块一样,受到自然界的相同的压力,因此他们都将会沉入水底。

这种原则就被称作自然现象的单调性,我们发现自然界的某种表现时,在相同的条件下,它会再次发生。

自然规律。

一些原则只是通过呈现大量的事件来说明自然的行为是由一些特定的法则管理支配的,而这些我们称之为自然规律。

比如说,假如我们发现每一块丢入水中的石头都沉入水底,那么就如先前所说,自然现象的单调性法则会引导我们猜想,所有的在任何时段被丢入水中的石头都会沉入水底。

接着我们就可以宣称,被丢入水中的石头下沉是自然规律。

用于了解自然规律的这部分学科称为自然科学。

自然科学分为两大部分,实验和理论推导。

实验科学通过不断的观测自然现象来发现自然规律。

理论科学则依据实验得出的自然规律为基础,试图化简他们,尽可能获得简单的方程式,然后发现如何通过这些规律来预测如果添加实验中没有加入的条件,会发生的现象。

比如说,实验发现石头下沉,木筏上浮,以及其它一系列规律。

从理论物理中我们得到了自然界下沉与上浮现象的规律,进一步,我们可以在实验没有进行之前,预测某个物体是否下沉还是上浮。

例如,实验不能够得出一艘50000吨的船下沉还是上浮,因为不可能专门为了实验建造一艘50000吨的船只。

而海军的设计师则可以通过自然单调性、实验得到的自然法则,以及对来自理论的法则进行处理之后,建造一艘50000吨的船只,并且相信船只的表现将和通过理论推导得到的一样。

力学科学。

自然科学的分支,处理解决物体在空间的运动,以及导致或者可能导致这种运动的自然力问题。

而关于这些力和物体运动的规律早已被熟知,并已经被牛顿简化为最简形式。

因此,我们认为实验科学是一个完善的科学分支。

我们开始通过力学实验来构建规则,讨论如何通过这些法则来预测物体的运动,例如,物体掉落到地上,武器的发射,地球的运动和行星的运动。

而我们必须要讨论问题的一个重要层面,那就是物体没有产生运动,自然力均匀的平衡物体,没有运动发生。

这类问题就称作静力学。

静止状态。

在我们了解物体运动的原因之前,我们必须知道物体处于静止状态的含义。

通俗的描述就是,如果车厢没有在铁轨上运动,我们就认为火车处于静止状态。

然而,我们知道这列火车的静止状态就如同地球的静止一样,实际
上并不是静止的,而是围绕着太阳以很大的速度运行着。

另外,一只在火车厢墙壁上的飞虫如果保持在车上的某一点位置不变,在某个方面也可以认为它处于静止状态。

实际上,这只飞虫不可能保持静止,他会参与到地球围绕太阳的运动中,同样的太阳也会参与到太阳系围绕宇宙空间的运动。

这些例子都表明了,赋予静止与运动一个清晰准确的概念是很必要的。

显然如果我们在第一个例子补充说明火车相对于地球是静止的,第二个例子中,飞虫相对于火车静止,那我们的陈述就是足够准确的。

参考系。

因此,在讨论静止与运动之前,引入参考系的概念是很必要的。

地球为火车的运动提供了一个参考系。

当以地球为参考系的时候,如果火车并没有在铁轨上移动的时候,火车就是静止的。

所以我们同样认为飞虫相对于火车车厢是静止的。

显然,任何体系,不管是虚拟的还是真实的,不论是任何材料,只要满足刚体条件,即自身不改变形状大小,都可以作为参考系。

我们可以依据之前的讨论认为某一点如果与参考系上任意一点的距离保持不变,它就处于静止状态。

相对于参考系的运动。

在明确定义参考系之后,我们不仅可以讨论相对于参考系的静止状态,同时可以讨论运动状态。

当火车在铁轨上运动一英里时,我们说火车相对于参考系地球,运动了一英里。

当飞虫从地板爬到天花板上的时候,我们认为飞虫相对于参考系车厢,移动了八英尺。

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