期末复习-应用语言学
应用语言学复习（之二）
应用语言学复习（之二）应用语言学练习（之二）１、什么是第一语言？第一语言(first 1anguage)是指一个人出生之后最先接触并获得的语言。
一个人的第一语言通常是他的母语。
２、什么是母语？对这个问题目前还存在着不同的看法。
①母语是指“一个人最初学会的一种语言，在一般情况下是本民族的标准语或某一种方言”。
这个意思通常被译作“mother language”。
②母语是“指本民族的语言”。
这个意思通常被译成“native language”。
③母语还可以解释为“一个语系中作为其他语言共同起源语的语言”，如拉丁语被认为是法语、意大利语、罗马尼亚语等所有罗曼语的母语。
这个意思则通常被译成“parent language”。
④我们认为，母语就是指父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言，母语具有继承性，它体现了人们世代的语言关系。
一个人出生之后通常是使用并继承了母语，母语通常也就成为他的第一语言。
3、第一语言和母语的是什么关系？①一个人从小接触并获得的第一语言一般都是从父母一辈习得的，他继承了前辈的语言“母语”，这是最常见的情况，因此，人们通常把第一语言和母语等同起来。
②其实尽管第一语言与母语之间的关系十分密切，但二者也有所区别。
第一语言和母语是两个不同的概念，第一语言可能是母语，也可能不是母语。
就多数人而言，母语是他们的第一语言。
但由于种种原因，有些人习得的第一语言并非母语。
母语失却现象的存在，也有力地说明了第一语言和母语的不同。
在内涵上，第一语言指的是获得语言的顺序，而母语不完全是一个获得语言的顺序问题；在外延上，二者所指称的对象是交叉关系。
第一语言是语言学的概念，而母语则更多地牵涉到民族学问题。
４、本族语和非本族语的是怎么区分的？是按照言语社团、通常是按民族的界限来区分的。
本族语是指语言习得者自己的民族所使用的语言，也称民族语。
非本族语是指本民族以外的语言，可能是外语，也可能是本国其他民族的语言。
５、第一语言和本族语是怎么样的关系？一个人儿时从父母那里习得本民族语言，这时，他的第一语言和本族语是一致的；但一个人儿时从父母或当地社团那里习得外族语言，这时他的第一语言就不是本族语，出现了第一语言与本族语分离现象。
应用语言学期末复习各章知识点百题汇总
应用语言学期末复习补充问题一．名词解释个别语言学属于本体语言学，是探讨一种语言的结构和发展规律。
如：汉语语言学，英语语言学；普通语言学是研究人类语言一般的性质和普遍的性质及普遍的结构规律的学科。
由于讨论的是对各种具体语言有普遍指导意义的理论，又被称为理论语言学；共时语言学又称“描写语言学”，是指选取语言的某一个历史阶段，描写这个阶段的语言的状态。
如：现代汉语、先秦汉语；历时语言学又称“历史语言学”，它研究语言的发展变化。
如：汉语史；自然语言处理是运用计算机技术来研究、处理自然语言的交叉性学科。
主要目标是让计算机懂得和理解人的自然语言，实现人机对话；中文信息处理是自然语言信息处理的下位概念，是指用计算机对中文进行存储、转换、分析、传输等加工，以形成各种信息处理系统的科学；语言能力传统上指运用语言进行听说读写的能力或指用书面或口语进行交际的能力。
（如：语音能力、词汇能力、语法能力。
）从而规范地、正确地使用语言；语言交际能力说话者适应交际主体、主旨、语境，有效地进行言语交际的能力。
即更加得体、有效地使用语言的能力；对比分析就是把两种或两种以上的语言或方言进行共时对比，描述他们之间的异同。
目的是由此找出目标语学习者的学习难点，以便于最有效的方法来组织教学；偏误分析指对学生在第二语言学习中所产生的偏误进行分析，进而研究第二语言的学习过程。
它是研究学习过程的捷径，也是研究学习过程的第一步；应用语言学应用语言学分为狭义、广义两种。
狭义的应用语言学特指第二语言教学，中国一般取广义的，我们也取广义的，包括语言应用的各个方面，范围是开放的。
简单地说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同有关方面发生关系的学科。
进一步说，应用语言学是研究语言本体和本体语言学同应用各部分结合部、接触面，包括结合、接触的动态变化的规律性学科。
《马氏文通》（1）这是中国形成独立的语言学学科的标志。
（2）马建忠认为必须缩短学习本国语文的过程，才能学习西方先进科学技术，才能使国家富强。
应用语言学复习(之三)
应用语言学复习资料（之三）1．心理语言学的定义：心理语言学是研究人类个体如何获得、理解和生成语言的心理学分支。
它从心理过程和心理机制的角度来研究人类的语言活动特点。
2．为什么说心理语言学研究是跨学科的？首先，它以语言的结构和功能为线索来探讨人类言语活动的心理过程和机制，而语言的结构和功能是语言学的研究对象。
其次，在对言语活动的心理过程和机制进行研究的过程中，必然要涉及人脑的结构和特殊的机能，有时还要借助于对由脑损伤和发育障碍导致的病历分析。
最后，人类言语活动是在社会环境中发生和发展的，复杂的社会因素直接决定了语言系统的变化，并对言语活动产生重要影响。
因此，对于人类言语活动心理机制的研究不仅依赖于心理学的理论和方法，而且吸收和采纳了语言学、社会学、生理学、临床医学、计算机科学、数学等许多领域的理论和方法。
3．什么是元语言学意识？它包括哪些内容？元语言学意识是指儿童对语言、文字一般结构特征的认识和操作。
它包含：句法意识：对句子内部句法和语义结构的认识；语音意识：对字母与音位之间对应关系的认识；构词法意识：对字词的内部结构与整词词义的关系的认识；随着语言、文字的学习，儿童会发展各种元语言学意识，其特点表现为概括化和规则化的学习。
4．什么是词频？词频是指某个单词在书面语言中的使用次数。
词频的确定通常是对一个单词在报刊、杂志、教材等语言材料中被使用的次数进行统计而得到的。
由于词频来自于对真实语言材料的统计，所以它是一个客观变量。
但每个人对同一单词又有不同的经验，因而熟悉程度也不尽相同，它又是一个主观变量。
词频是影响单词识别速度的一个最重要的因素。
5．什么叫字词识别的词频效应？人们对高频词的识别快于对低频词的识别，这一现象叫做词频效应。
6．词频效应与语境有什么关系？语境与词频效应的作用是相加性的。
语境和词频效应作用在字词识别的同一阶段，是交互作用的。
语境对高频词的影响较小，而对低频词的影响较大。
7．什么是公共关系？它是指一个社会组织与相关的社会公众之间依靠传播沟通建立起来的关系。
应用语言学导论复习资料
1、应用语言学的定义研究语言应用的种种问题的学问就是应用语言学。
狭义的应用语言学专指语言教学，特指外语教学和第二语言教学。
广义的应用语言学是指应用于各实际领域的语言学，即指语言学知识和研究成果所应用的一切领域和方面，关心的是如何应用语言学理论、方法和成果来阐释其他应用领域所遇到的跟语言有关的问题。
简而言之，应用语言学是语言学跟其他学科相互交叉渗透所产生的一门边缘性学科。
应用语言学是交叉学科，研究的是语言本体和本体语言学同应用方面交叉的部分。
2、应用语言学的范围现在通行的是分四大块：一是广义的社会语言学。
二是语言规划。
三是语言教学。
四是语言本体和本体语言学同现代科技的关系，如计算语言学。
3、应用语言学的特点:①具有学科的相对独立性。
②实用性特点。
③实验性特点。
④综合性特点。
4、应用语言学学科正式形成的标志：1964年第一届国际应用语言学大会（法国）的召开和国际应用语言学协会的成立。
5、应用语言学中收集材料的三种方法：①访谈法。
②观察法。
③问卷法。
6、社会语言学的定义心理语言学：是语言学和心理学跨学科研究的一门边缘性学科。
它研究人们学习语言和使用语言的心理过程，用实验和自然观察为主要研究方法来探讨语言行为的规律。
地理语言学：又称语言地理学和区域语言学，是从地域分布的角度研究语言或方言的学科。
其中专门研究方言差异的叫方言地理学。
神经语言学:是研究大脑内与语言有关的神经机制如何起作用的学科，是神经科学、心理生理学和语言学跨学科的边缘学科。
语言风格学:又称语言修辞学，是以语言风格为研究目标的学科。
实验语音学：是一门研究语音产生、编码传递、接受的机理和过程的学科。
早期又名仪器语音学。
是用各种实验仪器来研究、分析语音的一门学科。
人名学：顾名思义，人名学是研究人名的学科。
它主要研究人名产生和发展的规律，人名的结构及其与社会、文化、民族心理等的联系。
人名的产生和各民族的社会风俗习惯有着密切的联系。
地名学：综合研究地名的由来、语词构成、含义、语言特征、演变、功能、分布规律以及地名与自然和社会环境之间关系的一门应用学科。
应用语言学复习资料
应用语言学复习资料应用语言学复习资料应用语言学是一门研究语言在实际应用中的各种问题的学科。
它涉及到语言的使用、习得、教学以及与社会、文化等因素的关系。
在应用语言学的学习过程中，我们需要掌握一些基本概念和理论，同时也要了解一些实际应用的案例和方法。
下面，我将从不同的角度来介绍一些应用语言学的复习资料。
首先，我们可以从语言习得的角度来复习应用语言学。
语言习得是指人们在自然环境中通过接触和使用语言来获得语言能力的过程。
在这方面，我们可以阅读一些经典的研究论文，如斯金纳的行为主义理论和查尔斯·福尔斯的认知语言学理论。
此外，还可以通过观察儿童的语言习得过程来了解语言习得的基本原理。
这些资料可以帮助我们理解语言习得的过程以及如何在语言教学中应用这些原理。
其次，我们可以从语言教学的角度来复习应用语言学。
语言教学是应用语言学的一个重要领域，它研究如何有效地教授和学习一门语言。
在这方面，我们可以阅读一些关于语言教学方法和策略的书籍，如《语言教学方法与策略》和《语言教学理论与实践》。
此外，还可以了解一些新的教学技术和工具，如计算机辅助语言学习和网络教学。
这些资料可以帮助我们提高语言教学的效果，并且适应不断变化的教学环境。
另外，我们还可以从跨文化交际的角度来复习应用语言学。
跨文化交际是指不同文化背景的人们之间进行交流和理解的过程。
在这方面，我们可以阅读一些关于跨文化交际的理论和实践的书籍，如《跨文化交际》和《跨文化交际实务》。
此外，还可以了解一些跨文化交际中的问题和挑战，如语言障碍、文化差异和误解等。
这些资料可以帮助我们提高跨文化交际的能力，并且更好地适应多元化的社会环境。
最后，我们可以从语言政策和规划的角度来复习应用语言学。
语言政策和规划是指国家或地区对语言使用和发展进行管理和规划的过程。
在这方面，我们可以阅读一些关于语言政策和规划的研究和案例分析，如《语言政策与规划》和《语言政策研究导论》。
此外，还可以了解一些国际组织和机构在语言政策和规划方面的工作，如联合国教科文组织和欧洲语言组织。
应用语言学复习资料
应用语言学第一节概况一、研究意义1. 要真正地认识语言，就必须结合语言应用的研究。
2. 研究语言的应用是为了让语言更好为使用者服务。
3. 现代科学技术的发展，也对语言应用研究提出了新的需求。
4. 社会的一体化进程也需要语言的应用研究。
二、应用语言学国内外发展的历史和现状（一）国外应用语言学诞生●提出应用语言学存在的事实，几乎与语言的诞生同时，就有了语言的应用。
但是作为一门独立的学科存在，则历史很短。
1870年波兰语言学家.博杜恩.德.库尔德内首先提出“应用语言学”术语。
●标志应用语言学形成的重要事件：1946年美国在密执安大学建立了英语学院，研究如何对外国人讲授英语，并出版著名的杂志《语言学习》，这个刊物的副题就是《应用语言学杂志》。
这是世界上第一本明确冠以“应用语言学”的杂志，从此，应用语言学作为一门独立的语言学科，开始受到学术界的承认和接受。
会议：应用语言学发展上的一个重要事件是1964年第一届国际应用语言学大会在法国南锡召开并成立了国际应用语言学会，该会议每三年一次，1970年出会刊。
补充：语言学发展的大概历史：3、结构语言学时期。
19世纪与20世纪之交，结构主义语言学兴盛并取而代之。
瑞士语言学家索绪尔针对历史比较语言学的不足，提出了一系列的语言学理论，奠定了现代语言学的基础，之后在其影响下产生布拉格语言学派（语言结构的功能研究）、根本哈根语言学派（结构间的关系）和美国描写语言学派（结构的形式描写）。
4、生成语言学时期。
1956年乔姆斯基发表了《句法结构》，认为结构分析不能掌握人类语言的创造性，提出了生成语言学。
5、19世纪以后，应用语言学就已经跟历史比较语言学分道扬镳了，当时的应用语言学主要是指语言教学。
1870年，波兰语言学家博杜恩·德·库尔特内就已经提出要区分“纯粹语言学”和“应用语言学”。
6、20世纪40年代，在二战前后，由于军事、科技、文教、旅游的需要，随着外语教学的发展，人们才开始重视应用语言学的发展。
应用语言学复习
一、刺激—反应论（后天环境论）创始人是美国心理学家华生，代表人物是美国心理学家斯金纳，只是一种行为主义的理论。
（1）理论内容1）华生的主要观点：a.心理学家必须用科学的方法研究个体的行为，而不是意识。
b.研究动物行为的结果，可以用解释人的行为。
C.人类一切行为的构成要素都只是反应，或多种反应的组合。
反应多数是在环境中由刺激—反应联合形成。
2）斯金纳指出：人类语言行为只是刺激和反应。
看见、听见和感到的东西是刺激，说出的话是反应。
3）刺激—反应的哲学基础是洛克的白板论，强调后天经验的重要性。
（2）“刺激—反应论”虽然收到很多人批评，但是并非一无是处，有很多合理的成分。
总的来说，刺激—反应论可以解释儿童语言习得过程中的某些现象。
但是这种理论不能全部解释儿童母语的习得过程。
二、先天论（先天性决定论）（1）理论内容1）代表人物是语言学家乔姆斯基、卡茨，心理学家米勒与马克奈尔2）先天论受到不少批评：①儿童头脑中是否存在语言习得机制及普通语法的存在性受到质疑。
很多人接受先天学习语言能力，但不同意有普遍语法。
②语言能力可以先于智力发展，只一点也受到质疑③先天论过于低估后天环境的作用。
3）语言能力的体现机制是“语言习得机制”（LAD）特点：①人类独有。
②可以离开人类的其他功能而存在。
4）包括两部分：①普通语法。
②先天的判断、评价语言信息的能力儿童能对他所接触的语言参数定值。
语法规则不是由输入的材料归纳而来的，是由语言习得机制中的普通语言转换而来的。
（2）对先天论的评价1）先天论注重儿童或的语言的先天因素和儿童的主动性、创造性，改变行为主义儿童被动模仿的观点，能解释为什么任何一个发育正常的儿童，不需要任何系统的教育都能在3-5年的时间内掌握第一语言复杂的规则体系的主要方面，能听懂他从未听过的话、说出他从未听过的句子，能解释儿童为什么产生“过渡概括”的错误。
2）认为语言是一种规则体系，是一种以规则为基础的复杂系统而并非习惯的总和，儿童之所以能掌握，是因为人类有天生的、具有受遗传因素决定的掌握语言规则的能力，即“语言能力”三、认知论（先天与后天相互作用）（1）理论基础1）认知论以瑞士著名的儿童心理学家皮亚杰的“认知论”为理论基础，认为儿童的语言发展是天生能力与客观的经验相互作用的结果。
应用语言学复习资料
应用语言学复习资料注意：1. 另一个TERM 是silent way2. 对比关系是听说法和直接法3. 关系是应用语言学与语言学的关系ACT----active control of thoughtAILA/IAAL----international association of applied linguisticsAL----applied linguisticsALAA----applied linguistics association of AustraliaALANA----applied linguistics association of New ZealandALM----the audio-lingual methodASTP----the army specialized training programBAAL----British association of applied linguisticsBICS----basic interpersonal communicative skillsCA----contrastive analysisCAAL/ACLA----Canadian association of applied linguisticsCAGR----compound annual growth rateCAH----the contrastive analysis hypothesisCAL----critical applied linguisticsCALL----computer aided language learningCALP----cognitive/academic language proficiencyCDA----critical discourse analysisCDS----child-directed speakerCLL----community language learningCLT----communicative language teachingCP----co-operative principleCUP----Cambridge University PressESF----the European science foundationEUROSLA----European second language associationFLT----foreign language teachingFLA----first language acquisitionFSI----the Foreign Service institute‟sFUO-finite utterance organizationGCSE----general certificate of second educationGB----government and bindingGUFS----Guangdong University of foreign studiesICT----information and communication technologyIDC----international data corporationInJAL----international Journal of Applied LinguisticsIP----input processingIRAL----international review of applied linguistics in language teaching ISBU----interlanguage studies bulletinIUO----infinite utterance organizationLAD----language acquisition deviceMME----the micro-momentary expression testMLAT----modern language aptitude testNS----native speakerNNS----non-native speakerNUO----nominal utterance organizationOPI----oral proficiency interviewOUP----Oxford University PressPDP----parallel distributed processingPDAQ----the professed difference in attitude questionnaireSLA----second language acquisitionSLI-----special language impairmentSLL----second language learningSLR----second language researchS-R----stimulus-responseSSLA----studies in second language acquisitionTESOL-----teachers of English to speakers of other languageTG----transformational grammar/ transformational-generative grammarTL----theoretical languageTLU----target-like useTOEFL----theTest of English as a Foreign LanguageTRR----total physical responseU of C----University of CalgaryUCLA----university of California Los AngelesUG----universal grammarWCAL----world congress of applied linguisticsZPD----zone of proximal developmentMayes Briggs character types: E/I----extroversion-introversionS/N----sensing-intuitionT/F----thinking-feelingJ/P----judging-perceivingNP----noun-phrase VP----verb-phrase DP----determiner-phraseCP----complementizer phrase IP----infection phrase TP----tense phraseAgrP----agreement phrase PP----prepositional phraseTerms:Language----language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. / A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture. / A language is “a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements”. / Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols”.Language is an emotional subject: it belongs to everyone, so most people feel they have a right to hold an opinion about it. Languages are equal on having developed to express the needs of their users, all languages meet the social and psychological needs of their speakers. Language is magical, a mystery which, esp. in its written form, is thought to contain special powers, which only theinitiated are allowed to understand or control.Linguistics----it is the scientific study of human language in all its aspects, providing a methodology for exploring the structure of particular languages and investigates what is universal to all human languages; how languages are different, how language varies over time and between different societies, how language is learnt, and how language is used for human communication.Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language. This definition is well accepted because it succinctly pinpoints the objects and methods of linguistics as a discipline.Applied linguistics----it can be defined in a broad sense or in a narrow sense. Broadly speaking, applied linguistics covers more than the teaching and learning of languages. It includes speech pathology and therapy, translation, machine translation and language policy, etc.. In one word, it includes anything to which linguistics could be applied. Foreign and second language learning and teaching research is a central part of applied linguistics. So narrowly speaking, applied linguistics means the application of linguistics findings to language teaching and learning. It is concerned with approaches to language teachers, with language learning, with syllabus design, with materials development and with the assessment and testing of language learning, with the educational policy in general and language learning and teaching policy in particular of a country.Psycholinguistics----it is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics in abroad sense, but psycholinguistics has become an independent discipline through recent developments. Generally speaking, psycholinguistics studies language in relation to the properties of the human mind. As such it studies the relationship between linguistics behavior and psychological processes that are hypothesized to underlie such behavior. In other words, psycholinguistics studies the mental process that a person uses in producing and understanding language, and how humans learn language. There have beenQuestions:1. Why does the examination of social relationships play a crucial role in applied linguistics?1) The first reason is that in the partial move from linguistics applied to applied linguistics, it has been accepted that the social aspect is essential to all understanding of language in use, that in the specific case of language teaching all formal language learning must take account of the context in which that learning takes place and further-more that the context determines and affects that learning.2) The second reason is that there is noticeable now a loss of confidence in the techniques offered by Cordor and widely used in the 1960s and 1970s as general statements of how to proceed. When talking about the change of applied linguistics practice, Davies (1999) argues that it is a move from the linguistics applied to the applied linguistics models.2. The relation between applied linguistics and second language acquisition.Applied linguistics draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives o address real world issues and problems in which language is central. SLA draws on multidisciplinary theoretical and empirical perspectives to address the specific issue of how people acquire a second language and eh specific problem of why everyone dose not do so successfully.3. The relationship between psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.Psycholinguistics can or should play a role in applied linguistics. The acquisition and use of a second language seem to be the appropriate chunk of applied linguistics in this context. Thepsycholinguistics interest would be in the processing mechanisms involved in using more than one language and the acquisition of additional languages. The applied linguistics interest would be in understanding why language learners behave the way they do. This interpretation means that multilingual processing can be defined as the intersection or shared by interest across psycholinguistics and applied linguistics.4. The relationship between applied linguistics and linguistics.Linguistics and applied linguistics is inherently a multidisciplinary study, drawing on methodologies and theories from many fields, including archaeology, psychology, anthropology, history, literature, philosophy, sociology, social theory, education, the mathematical sciences and computer science. Thus it has contributions to make to a range of study and professional practice areas. Applied linguistics is doing with the Internalized language, and linguistics is doing with the Externalized language. Applied linguistics is really still linguistics happening to be involved in application, which they may label as applied linguistics. Applied linguistics is just another area, part of linguistics. Linguistics differs from applied linguistics, for linguistics focuses on language, while applied linguistics focuses on language practice. Applied linguistics contains linguistics, applied linguistics and linguistics are automated entities, applied linguistics is part of linguistics.5. The relationship between language and applied linguistics.Applied linguistics maintains a close relationship to language. Language is part of applied linguistics. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, while applied linguistics is an approach to understanding language issues in the real world, and therefore applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.6. The sub-field of applied linguisticsApplied linguistics can cover a very large area, such as: language acquisition, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, ethno linguistics, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, text linguistics, etc.. All the sub-branches of linguistics could be called applied linguistics except the theoretical linguistics.Assessments:Assessment of grammar-translation or traditional methodIn spite of the virulent attacks that reformers made, the grammar translation or traditional method has maintained itself remarkably well. As we have already noted in our study of language learning, the first language as a reference system is indeed very important for the second language learner. Therefore, translation in one form or another, or other cross lingual techniques can play a certain part in language learning. Moreover, some learners endeavor to understand the grammatical system of the second language. Hence grammar teaching, too, may have some importance for them. Furthermore, thinking about formal features of the second language and translation as a practice technique put the learner into an active problem-solving situation. In the terms of the basic strategies already set out it forms part of the “academic”(explicit) learning strategy. Finally, grammar- translation appears didactically relatively easy to apply. The major defect of grammar-translation lies in the overemphasis on the language as a mass of rules (and exceptions) and in the limitations of practice techniques which never emancipate the learner from the dominance of the first language. In addition, the sheer size of the task of memorization and the lack of coherence with which the language facts have been presented to the learner invalidate the claim, made in the nineteenth century, that this method provides a safe, easy, and practical entry into a second language.Assessment of the direct methodThe direct method was the first of the methods in which the impetus came both from the inventiveness of a few practitioners and from the critical and theoretical thought about the nature of language learning situation one of language use and to train the learner to abandon the first language as the frame of reference. It demanded inventiveness on the part of teachers and led to the development of new non-translational techniques of language instruction. The use of a text as a basis of language learning, demonstrations of pictures and objects, the emphasis on question and answer, spoken narratives, dictation, imitation, and a host of new types of grammatical exercises have resulted from the direct method. Language pedagogy in the present century, for example, Palmer in the twenties and the audio-lingual and audiovisual methods in the fifties and sixties, adopted many of the techniques first developed by direct method teachers. On the L1-L2 issue, the direct method constitutes a radical attempt to exclude L1 in L2 learning.Two major problems have persistently troubled direct method teaching. One has been how to convey meaning without translating, and how to safeguard against misunderstanding without reference to the first language. Another has been how to apply the direct method beyond elementary stages of language learning. The direct method—has extended the repertoire of language instruction in the early stages of teaching, but has added relatively little to the teaching of advanced learners. In a way, particularly because of the insistence on the use of the second language in classroom communication, the direct method can legitimately be looked upon as a predecessor of present-day …immersion‟ techniques.Assessment of the audio-lingual methodIn the early sixties audiolingualism had raised hopes of ushering in a golden age of language learning. By the end of the decade it became the whipping boy for all that was wrong with language teaching. Its theoretical basis was found to be weak. But also in practical terms its hopes had not been fulfilled. Empirical research did not conclusively establish its superiority, and teachers, using audio-lingual materials and applying the audio-lingual method conscientiously, complained about the lack of effectiveness of the techniques in the long run and the boredom they engendered among students.In view of these criticisms, it is necessary to remind oneself of the major contributions of audiolingualism to language teaching. First, it was among the first theories to recommend the development of a language teaching theory on declared linguistic and psychological principles. Second, it attempted to make language learning accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. In other words, this theory proposed that language teaching should be organized in such a way as not to demand great intellectual feats of abstract reasoning to learn a language. Third, it stressed syntactical progression, while previously methods had tended to be preoccupied with vocabulary and morphology. Fourth, it led to the development of simple techniques, without translation, of varied, graded, and intensive practice of specific features of the language. Last, it developed the separation of the language skills into a pedagogical device. The audio-lingual method introduced specifically designed techniques of auditory and oral practice, while previously oral practice had been simply textbook exercises read aloud, and the sequencing of different language skills had not been treated consistently as pedagogically relevant.1. The oral approach and situational language teaching----Harild Palmer & A.S. Hornby, teacher‟s role is ________________2. The audio-lingual method----Bloomfield, teacher‟s role is the dominator of the whole process.3. Communicative language teaching----Noam Chomsky, the role is the facilitator, participator, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager.4. Total physical response----James Asher, the role is the instructor of the whole process.5. The silent way----Caleb Gattegno, the role is dramatist.6. Community language learning----Charles A., the role is the counselor.7. The natural way----Tracy Terrell, the role is the provider of the target language, the classroom atmosphere and the rich activities.8. Suggestopedia----Georgi Lozanov, the role is to create situations.Comparing TPR & CLL:Differences:1) At the level of design, TPR typically has a written syllabus with paced introduction of structures and vocabulary; CLL has no syllabus and operates out of what learners feel they need to know.2) At the level of teacher‟s role, in TPR the teachers‟role is one of drill master, director, and motivator; in CLL the teacher/knower is counselor, supporter, and facilitator.3) About the learners, in TPR learners are physically active and mobile; CLL learners are sedentary and in a fixed configuration4) About the relationship, TPR assumes no particular relationship among learners and emphasizes the importance of individuals acting alone; CLL is rooted in a communal relationship between learners and teachers acting supportively and in concert.5) At the level of procedure, TPR language practice is largely mechanical, with much emphasis on listening; CLL language practice if innovative, with emphasis on production.Similarities:1)In approach, both TPR and CLL see stress, defensiveness, and embarrassment as the majorblocks to successful language learning.2)They both see the learners‟commitment, attention, and group participating as central toovercoming these barriers.3)They both view the stages of adult language learning as recapitulations of the stages ofchildhood learning.4)Both CLL and TPR consider mediation, memory, and recall of linguistic elements to be centralissues.5)They both hold that learning is multimodal.6)At the level of design, both of them assumed that materials can be locally produced as needed.。
(完整word版)应用语言学期末考试重点(背了不后悔)(word文档良心出品)
应用语言学重点【概况】●什么是应用语言学？应用语言学：研究语言应用的种种问题的学问。
语言学语言本体研究理论语言学（普通语言学）●1870年波兰语言学家博杜恩·德·库尔特内提出“应用语言学”术语。
●广义应用语言学：应用于各实际领域的语言学。
●狭义应用语言学：专指语言教学，特指外语教学和第二语言教学。
●※应用语言学的研究方法：调查和比较（收集材料方法：访谈法、观察法、问卷法）、定量和定性方法、实验法。
【语言教学】论述简答●什么是语言教学？（上位学科+定义+理解）P351是应用语言学的重要内容。
2是指运用特定方法，将语言知识和相关的理论通过教育者有目的、有计划地传授给学习者，以达到使学习者掌握一门具体语言并用于交际的教学活动，她是教育工作的重要组成部分。
3包括第一语言教学和第二语言教学。
●语言教学基本过程（7个）P39：制定语言教学政策、进行语言教学的总体设计、编写语言教学的教材、师资选拔和培训、课堂教学、语言测试、语言教学研究。
●第一语言：一个人出生后最先接触并获得的语言，一个人的第一语言通常是他的母语。
●母语：1母语就是指父母乃至多代以前一直沿用下来的语言。
母语有继承性，它体现了人们世代的语言关系。
2比如一个汉族儿童自幼所习得的语言就是他祖祖辈辈沿用下来的汉语，汉语就是他的母语，也是他的第一语言。
●第一语言与母语关系：二者是不同概念，第一语言不等于母语，第一语言可能是母语，也可能不是母语。
在内涵上，第一语言的立足点是获得语言的顺序，而母语不完全是获得语言的顺序问题；在外延上，二者所指称的对象是交叉关系。
第一语言是语言学概念，而母语则更多地牵涉到民族学问题。
比如美国华侨，其子女先学英语，他们的第一语言是英语，而不是母语汉语。
●本族语：指语言习得者自己的民族所使用的语言，也称民族语。
●本族语与母语关系：一个人的母语可以是他的本族语，也可以是非本族语，本族语与母语不能完全划等号，母语的专用和本族语的死亡就是很好的证明。
语言学纲要期末复习参考资料
导言一、填空题1.语言学是研究语言的学科，语言是语言学的研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究人类语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
2.中国、印度、希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
3.我国传统语言学包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学等三门分支学科，合称“小学”。
二、判断题1.综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律，这是具体语言学的任务。
（错）2.世界上有几千种语言，有些语言的研究已经比较深入，大部分语言的研究还很不够，甚至还没有人去研究。
（对）·三、名词解释1.普通语言学以人类一般语言为研究对象，探究人类语言的起源、发展、本质。
探究人类语言内部结构的共性及普遍规律的语言学门类。
2.应用语言学狭义的应用语言学指语言教学、文字的创制和改革、正音正字、词典编纂等，广义的应用语言学还包括与计算机有关的及其翻译、情报检索、语音识别、自然语言处理等。
3.小学在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。
小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。
第一章?一、填空题1.从语言的社会功能上看，语言是人类独有的最重要的交际和思维的工具；从语言的内部结构上看，语言是一套音义结合的符号。
2.文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的辅助交际工具，旗语之类是建立在语言和文字基础上的特殊领域的辅助交际工具。
二、判断1.从理论上来说，句子的长度是可以无限的。
（对）2.语言是文字基础上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）3.文字始终是从属于语言的。
（错）4.思维离不开语言，语言也离不开思维。
（对）—5.语言和思维互相依存共同发展。
（对）6.在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（错）7.文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）8.语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。
（对）9.会不会说话是人类和动物的根本区别之一。
（对）10．思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同的。
应用语言学概论课后复习资料
应用语言学概论复习资料第一章绪论一、什么是应用语言学现在学界普遍认为，应用语言学有广义和狭义之分：广义应用语言学：指联系实际问题研究语言和语言学，从为少数民族创立文字到机器翻译都包括在内：或者指应用于各实际领域的语言学，即指语言学知识和研究成果所应用的一切领域和方面。
关心的是如何应用语言学理论、方法和成果来阐释其他应用领域所遇到的跟语言有关的问题。
狭义应用语言学：指研究的是语言教学，特别是第二语言教学。
在我国，一般都取广义含义使用，尤其是汉语学界。
二、为什么要开展语言应用研究1.对语言最初的关注2.语言的神秘力量3.诸多的语言现象需要解释4.语言的交际职能变化三、应用语言学的学科特点1.综合性，多学科、交叉性研究应用语言学不仅需要语言学知识，往往也需要相关学科的一些知识。
因此，应用语言学具有跨学科性质，通常被认为是一门具有多学科交叉特点的综合性学科。
2.实用性/实殴性：为实用目的腰务的1/24实用性是应用语言学存在和发展的基本条件。
应用语言学的目标是着眼于语言学在社会生活中的实际应用，解决各种实际的语言问题，解决语言学在各个应用领域中的实际问题，如指导和帮助语言教学、语言规划、语言信息处理、词典编撰、翻译速记等等。
可以说，应用语言学就是为了直接滴足语言学在社会生活中的各种实际需要而产生的，因此实用性是其当然的特点与特征。
3.实验性：需要实验检验方法调查和实验是应用语言学研究的重要方法，也是基本方法之一。
四、应用语言学的学科地位是一门独立的学科，一是有明确的研究对象，如语言教学、语言规划、社会语言学、心理语言学、语言信息处理等等…二是有独立的学科基础，出版了大量论著、教材，有自己的刊物、学术组织…三是形成了专门的应用语言学专业和对应课程，大学和机构的相关专业与招生…五、课程任务及授课内容应用语言学的范围主要涉及到四大块：语言教学、语言规划、社会语言学(语言与社会生活)、应用语言学其他学科。
第二章应用语言学的发展历程一、应用语言学的缘起与概念提出缘起：语言学在成为独立学科之前，属于哲学的一部分。
应用语言学复习整理
1. Leech’s 7 types of meanings(1). conceptual meaning (logical meaning, cognitive meaning, or denotative meaning, 外延意义)It is denotative in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. Denotative meaning is the objective reflection of world.(2). Connotative meaning（内涵意义）Connotative meaning is what is communicated by virtual of what language refers to. It refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind.The characteristics:A.in cannot stand by itself and is always dependent on denotativemeaningB.connotations may be different according to different person, age,society, country or time.C.In different languages, some words may have the same connotativemeaning.D.Connotation is unstable.(3) social or stylistic meaningSocial meaning is the meaning that a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.(4) affective meaningAffective meaning is connected with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer.(5) reflected meaningWhat is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression is called reflected meaning, like euphemistic expression.(6) collocative meaning（组合意义，like handsome woman:仪态端庄）Collocative meaning is what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(7) thematic meaning (主题意义，强调句子的组织和语序)Thematic meaning is what communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.2. Referential meaningThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.Semantic triangle: word (concept) thing4 ways to explain a word, like deskA. by pointing to a desk and saying this is the deskB. by describing its shape and feature or functionC. paraphraseD. translationSense(涵义)----reference（指称）connotation(内涵)----denotation(外延) （but not every word has a reference, like god, ghost）3. (1)synonymy (strict synonymy and loose synonymy)Strict synonymy refers to the situation in which two synonymous words can be interchangeable in all possible contexts of use.Loose synonymy or near synonymy may be substitutable in particular contexts, but not substitutable across a range of contexts.(2) antonymyG: gradable CV: converse CP: conplementary(3) hyponymy(上下位关系)4. (1) A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.Logic connectives and symbolsOne-place connective: negation～two-place connective: conjunction∧disjunction ∨implication →equivalence ←→argument(主目) and predicate(谓词) in Socrates in a man are Socrates and man.(2) universal quantifiers(全称量词) existential quantifier(存在量词) 5. Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominantgenerative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language. Cognitive linguistics is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world.Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc.Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. (phycologically)Image schema is a recurring , dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. (a center-periphery schema, a containment schema, a cycle schema, a force schema, a link schema, a part-whole schema, a path schema, a scale schema, a verticality schema)Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of the other.Target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor.A source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.Ontological metaphor means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc.Structural metaphor plays the most important role because it allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.Orientational metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation.6. It is self-evident that language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. The input may come in written or spoken form. Ideally, materials at all levels should provede frequent exposure to authentic input which is rich and varied. According to Krashen’s input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them. (i+1 principle)7. The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. Interlanguage is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.8. Based on this distinction, we assume that syllabus design is more of a pedagogical nature, whereas curriculum development is an educational planning issue.(1) Structural syllabus is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of language items and structures.(2) Situaltional syllabus dose not have a strong linguistic basis, yet it can be assumed that the situationalists accept the viem that language is used for communication.(3) Communicative syllabus aims at the learner’s communicative competence.(4) Task-based syllabus are more concerned with the classroom processed which stimulate learning than with the language knowledge or skills that students are supposed to master.Current trends in syllabus design:The co-existence of the old and the new; the emphasis on the learning process; the inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus; the emergence of the multi-syllabus.9. The study of the roles that the native language plays in known as the research of language transfer.Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what dose not need to be learned in a second language learning situation.Gradually CA was replaced by the error analysis movement, a major claim of which is that many errors made by L2 learners were caused by factors other than L1 interference.5 errors (omissions, additions, double markings, misformations, misorderings)10. A corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. Language corpora make it possible for materials developers to select authentic, natural and typical language.(1) general corpora: a general reference corpus is not a collection of material from different specialist areas technical, dialectal, juvenile, etc. it is a collection of material which is broadly homogeneous, but which is gathered from a variety of sources so that the individuality of a source is obscured, unless the researcher isolates a particular text.(2) specialized corpora: this kind of corpus is useful for language for specific purposes.(3) sample corpora: this is a kind of genre-based corpus. It is a collection of a large number of short extracts randomly selected from all kinds of genres.(4) monitor corpora: this kind of corpus in gigantic, ever moving store of text.11. validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended. (content validity refers to the degree to which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out toa measure. Construct validity assumes the existence of certain learning theories or constructs which underlie the acquisition of abilities and skills. Thus it refers to the degree to which the items in a test feflect the essential aspects of the theory on which the test is based.)Reliability means stability or consistency of test scores.Test distinguished by use: (achievement tests or attainment tests, aims to measure how much of a language the learner has learned with reference to a particular couse of study or program of instruction. proficiency tests, aims to measure how much of a language the learner knows with reference to a particular task which he will be required to perform.aptitude tests, is designed to measure the learner’s probable performance in a second language which he has not started to learn. diagnostic tests, is designed to show what skills or knowledge learners do not know, to diagnose their areas of difficulty, and to enable the teacher to identify their specific areas of weaknesses and problems so that he is able to plan the most appropriate remedial program. placement tests, is designed to place learners at an appropriate level in program or course. It aims to sort new students into teaching groups so that they can start a course or a program at approximately the same level.)Tests distinguished by the standard for measuring( criterion-referenced tests, norm-referenced tests)Tests distinguished by linguistic levels and skillsTests distinguished by the system of scoring ( subjective tests and objective tests)Tests distinguished by the nature of the test ( discrete-point tests integrative tests)Standard deviation is the most common measure of the dispersion of a series of scores and the most stable index of variability.Percentile ranks of any given score if a value indicating the percent of cases falling ar or below that score.12. Types of research categorized by the duration of the study (in longitudinal study, an individual or group is studied over a period of time. Cross-sectional study refers to the study of a group of different individuals or subjects at s single point in time, in order to measure or study a particular topic or aspect of language development.)Types of research categorized by the design and methodology (quantitative research is also called positivistic research. Qualitative research is also called naturalistic, ethnographic or postpositivistic research.)。
应用语言学复习重点.
一,填空1. 应用语言学是语言学的组成部分,语言学大体可分为本体语言学,理论语言学和应用语言学2. 新词新语的概念定义:指新近出现的词语3. 60年代末,世界上第一个计算机网络——阿帕网4. 对外汉语教学的测试项目有教学过程测试汉语水平测试, 其中 1989年《汉语水平测试》 (HSK 正式开始。
5. 问卷调查方法:表格调查,问卷调查,访问调查,电话调查,文案调查,实地调查等6. 张颂主编的《中国播音学》的问世,宣告了一个新学科的诞生标志着中国播音学的正式诞生。
7. 《新华字典》是我国现代汉语规范的最重要成果。
8. 语言的人文性是语言在发展变化中所表现的文化特性。
二,简答题一, 问卷调查法的三个基本原则:一个问题在什么程度上会影响回答人尽量表现自己? 一个问题在什么程度上会影响回答人通过预测研究者想听什么, 想发现什么而进行不必要的帮忙?一个问题在什么程度上会问一些回答人自己并不确切知道的信息, 或者是自己不大可能了解的信息?问卷调查的效果取决于上述三种考虑。
二, 语言人文性理论三个基本方面:第一, 语言在文化中的反映, 主要指可以通过文化背景或者文化现象来考察语言的一些特点或者变化规律。
它可以分为两个方面一是作为文化的直接产物, 二是作为文化内部的有机组成部分, 与其他因素一起共同促成历史上的文化分化整合及变化。
第二,文化在语言中的反映,指语言作为文化载体,文化总是不断给语言施加影响并且不时地留下痕迹, 是我们能够通过语言的发展历程看到文化的变化轨迹。
第三,在语言与文化互相作用的关系中反映,及语言的一些文化特性同时也是文化的一些语言特性, 二者在现象或者表现形式上有差异,但实质上反映的是相同或者相近的本质或者规律。
三, 简要说明不同时期对普通话的不同称谓:春秋时候孔夫子时代管共同语叫雅言。
雅言以洛阳雅言为标准。
在汉代,共同语有了进一步的发展,当时管共同语叫做通语。
各地讲不同方言的人可以用通语进行交际。
应用语言学考试整理
一、名词解释1、（中文）自动分词：①自动分词是中文信息处理的基础技术之一，是中文词处理阶段的主要任务之一。
②分词就是将连续的字序列按照一定的规范重新组合成词序列的过程。
④在把汉语输入计算机时，计算机接受和存储的是一个个字串，要让计算机自动分出词，就是要把一个个字串变成一个个词串，具体的做法是在每一个词的前后加上空格。
“从小学电脑……”→→“从小学电脑……”⑤中文自动分词大体分为基于字符串匹配的分词方法，基于理解的分词方法，基于统计的分词方法等。
2、汉语语音识别输入：①汉字语音识别输入就是通过“说”和“听”来和计算机交换信息，即利用声音识别技术，抽取汉字的语音特征，实现对汉语语音的自动识别。
②其目的是让计算机“听懂”用汉语语音所表示的汉字信息，以便通过口授将包含有汉字的程序、数据、命令、文稿等送入计算机。
③语音识别输入的优点主要有输入速度快，工作强度低，使用最方便。
3、语言学习：所谓语言学习（Language Learning）就是在儿童习得母语之后，在正式的场合（如课堂）里进行的获得第二语言或外语的过程，这个过程有成有败，和语言习得不同。
4、语言习得：心理语言学家认为，每个人的母语都是在他1岁半至6岁之间，随着发育成长而在周围环境的作用下自然获得的，这就是语言习得（Language Acquisition）。
5、语言能力：语言能力，即“语言”，指的是在人的大脑中形成的一种能够按照本族语的语言规则把声音和意思联系起来的能力，是一套使用语言的规则。
6、语言文字的地位规划：语言文字的地位规划和本体规划是语言规划的两方面内容。
语言文字的地位规划指的是某一国家或地区中，某种语言或文字与其他的语言或文字在地位上的关系，就是决定某种语言或文字在社会交际中的地位。
这种规划，一般要借助于政治的力量来进行，因此，它相当于语言学家诺依斯图蒲里的“政治法”。
语言文字的地位规划主要包括两方面的内容：1）决定某种语言在社会交际中的地位2）决定某种文字在社会交际中的地位。
应用语言学期末知识点整合
应用语言学知识点整合学习选一期谈话类节目，结合该节目分析回答下面问题1、（1）分析访谈节目中主持人语境构成要素。
（2）说明语境构成要素对节目主持人话题选择的制约和影响。
2、分析节目中嘉宾是否遵守合作原则中的四准则。
3、主持人如何遵守和运用礼貌原则的。
※合作原则：“合作原则”是由美国著名语言哲学家格赖斯于1967年在哈佛大学的演讲中提出的。
格赖斯认为，在人们交际过程中，对话双方似乎在有意无意地遵循着某一原则，以求有效地配合从而完成交际任务。
然而，人们在实际言语交际中，并非总是遵守“合作原则”，出于需要，人们会故意违反合作原则。
格赖斯把这种通过表面上故意违反“合作原则”而产生的言外之意称为“特殊会话含义”。
“特殊会话含义”解释了听话人是如何透过说话人话语的表面含义而理解其言外之意的，由此来表达另外一种意思，幽默也就时常在这时产生。
※合作原则又具体体现为四准则A).数量的准则：不要提供交际以外的额外信息或少提供信息、即提供的信息应不多也不少。
B）质量的准则：不要说自知是虚假的话或者提供虚假信息C) 关系准则：a）说与谈话目的相关联的话b）前后话语要关联D)方式准则：a) 说话要清楚、明了，避免晦涩歧义b) 简炼井井有条※礼貌原则：言语交际应遵守的规范，礼貌准则是得体原则的一个重要准则。
20世纪80年代，语言学家利奇比较详细地论述了礼貌原则。
利奇认为礼貌原则下面包括六条准则：1）策略准则：尽量减少对别人的损失、尽量增加对别人的利益；2）宽宏准则：尽量减少对自己的利益、尽量增加对自己的损失；3）赞扬准则：尽量减少对别人的贬低、尽量增加对别人的赞誉；4）谦虚准则：尽量减少对自己赞誉、尽量增大对自己的贬低；5）赞同准则：尽量减少和别人之间的分歧、尽量增大和别人之间的共同点；6）同情准则：尽量减少对别人的反感、尽量增大对别人的同情。
※主持人合作原则的遵守利用主持人遵守合作原则，有助于其提高说话质量，维护现场谈话参与者之间的协作关系，灵活处理各种突发事件，使谈话按照既定目标发展，获得最佳的传播效果。
应用语言学要点总结
应用语言学要点总结名词解释1.个体语言学：属于本体论语言学，探索语言的结构和发展规律。
如：汉语语言学、英语语言学。
普通语言学：研究人类语言的一般性、普遍性和普遍结构规律的学科。
它也被称为理论语言学，因为它讨论对各种特定语言具有普遍指导意义的理论。
2.共时语言学：又称“描写语言学”，是指选取语言的某一个历史阶段，描写这个阶段的语言的状态。
如：现代汉语、先秦汉语。
历时语言学：又称“历史语言学”，研究语言的发展和变化。
例如：中国历史。
3.自然语言处理：是运用计算机技术来研究、处理自然语言的交叉性学科。
主要目标是让计算机懂得和理解人的自然语言，实现人机对话。
中文信息处理：是自然语言信息处理的低级概念。
它是指通过计算机存储、转换、分析和传输汉语，形成各种信息处理系统的科学。
4.语言能力：传统上指运用语言进行听说读写的能力或指用书面或口语进行交际的能力。
（如：语音能力、词汇能力、语法能力。
）从而规范地、正确地使用语言。
语言交际能力：说话者适应交际主题、主题和语境并进行有效交际的能力。
也就是说，更恰当、更有效地使用语言的能力。
5.对比分析：就是把两种或两种以上的语言或方言进行共时对比，描述他们之间的异同。
目的是由此找出目标语学习者的学习难点，以便于最有效的方法来组织教学。
错误分析：指分析学生在第二语言学习中的错误，进而研究第二语言学习过程。
它不仅是研究学习过程的捷径，也是研究学习过程的第一步。
简短回答问题1.语言学和其他学科的联系导致一系列新兴的交叉学科的建立，主要是有哪些？（1）.社会语言学：用社会学的方法研究社会上的各种语言变异等问题。
（2）.人类语言学：研究语言所反映的民族文化及其演变情况。
（3）.心理语言学：研究语言行为和心理过程之间的关系。
（4）. 数学语言学：运用中国在代数、计算机科学、统计学等领域的概念和方法来研究语言的数学属性。
（5）.实验语言学：用各种实验仪器分析语音，研究语音的识别和合成等问题。
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一 MeaningSemantics: the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.7 types of meaning: conceptual: denotive; the central partConnotativeSocialAffectiveReflectedCollocativeThematicConnotation: 内涵意义additional, emotive meaningDenotation : 外表意义 the act of indicating or pointing out by nameReferential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for.缺点：there is sth behind the concrete thing we can see with our eyes; and that abstract thing is called concept.Semantic triangle: the theory which explicitly employs the notion “concept”. It believes that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct; it is mediated by concept.word concept thingLeech’s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and referenceSense: the abstract properties of an entityReference: the concrete entities having these properties(sense is like connotation; reference is like denotation)Sense relations: synonym; antonymy; hyponymyAntonymy: gradable antonymy: differ in terms of degree;good/bad;long/shortComplementary antonymy: two words are absolutely contrary alive/dead;male/femaleConverse antonymy: relational opposites; always two sides; buy/sell; lend/borrow Hyponymy: 下位词hypernym（superordinate）: 上位词eg: flower (上位词)：(下位词) lily； carnation………二 linguistics and foreign language teachinglinguistics and language learning:grammar and language learning:“FOCUS ON FORM” takes a balance between “purely form-based approaches” and “purely meaning-based approaches”; it believes that language learning should be generally meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.缺点：what elements of language are most amenable to focus on form; 两个影响因素：UG & complexity of language structures.input and in language learning:meaning-focus: authentic input; that is the input should vary in style,mode medium, and purpose.Krashen’s input hypothesis:“i+1”principle---input不能过度超出或过度低于人的当前水平optimal input包括: premodified input---the matetial is finely tuned in advance to the learner’s current level; interactively modified input---material is modified whenn the teacher and the speaker interacts(更好一点).interlanguage in language learning:interlanguage---the type of language constructed by seccond or foreign learners who are still in process of learning; it is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.对其研究主要在两方面: 1, investigate the psychological, biological, nerological mechanism involved in the process; 2, investigate the linguistic features of the interlanguage(尚未收到很多人关注)linguistic and language teachingthe discourse-based view of LT:focus ono complete spoken and written texts on the social and culturlal contexts in which such language operates; it aims at developing discourse competence, which is similar to communicative competence.communicative competence:it refers to what a language knows about how a language is used in particular situation for effective and appropriate communication; it includes knowledge of grammar,vocabulary,rules of speaking, how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions.在这种理论下,有两种主要教学方法: communicative language teaching(CLT)---real world tasks; task-based language teaching(TBLT)---pedagogical tasks缺点:overemphasize the role of external factors in the process and ignore the internal learning process(similar to behavioristic view of LA); overstress the role of language of competence and functions and fails to notice the universal principles.the universal grammar of LT:Chomsky’s UG, or TGlanguage learning is not a matter of habit formation but an activity of building and testing hypothesis;input is deficient in two ways: input is claimed to degenerate cze it is damaged by performance features; input is devoid of grammar corrections缺点: 1, acquisition part is second important in UG2, it is only concerned of linguistic grammar and neglects the perpheral grammar 3, it discarded the prmary function of language---communication4, SLA seldom do empirical researchlinguistics and syllabus designsyllabus:a specification of what taked place in the classroom, which usually cotains the aims and contents of teaching in a given course; it is part of curriculum.curriculum: a broad concept; provides general statements of the rationale of language,L-L, L-T; detailed sppecification of aims, objectives and target of L-L; implementation of a program; including the entire insturctional process :materials, equipment, examination and the training of teachers, in short, all pedagogical measures related to schooling or the substance of courses.syllabus design: pedagogical narure; curriculum development:educational issuetheoretical views behind syllabus design分为两个步骤1, selecting teaching materialsstructural view: select the kernel elements of the structural systemfunctional view: select the most frequently occurring functions and notions of language2, grading teaching materialsstaging: the division of the course into time segmentssequencing: deciding the order in which the items shuld be taughttypes of syllabus1, the structural syllabus:grammar-oriented syllabus;discrete-point grammar teaching2, situational syllabus:believes that language is used for communication; adopts aural-oral teaching method; practice under a certain topic and situation (ex.at the air port)3, communicative syllabus: based on a notional-functional syllabus; emphasizes the processof communication4, task-based syllabus:6个制定标准1, have a clear purpose2, have some degree of resemblance to real world events3, involve informations eeking, processing and conveying4, the students in some modes of doing sth5, involve the meaning-focus use of language6, end with a tangible productcurrent trends of syllabus design1, the co-existence of the old and the new(old:gramatical and lexical syllabus; new: thecontent and the task-based syllabus)2, the emphasis on the learning process3, the inclusion of nonlinguistic objectives in syllabus(whole-person development)4, the emergence of multi-syllabusconstrastive analysis and error anaysisCA: compares L1 and L2 in order to determine potential errors for ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what doesn’t need to be learned; the goal is topredict what areas will be easy to learn and what areas are difficult to learn; was early associated with behaviourism and structuralism; gradually replaced by “the study ofcross-linguistic influencdes”.EA: errors made by L2 learners caused by factor other than L1 inteference分为两类1, source of errors:interlingual errors(or transfer errors语际差错): occur when the learner misuses an item cze it shares features with an item in the native languageintralingual errors(developmental errors 又叫语内差错):occur within the target language, such as overgeneralization2, the nature of errors5 types: omissions; additions; double marking; misformation; misdorderingEA过程包括:recognition(identification): before producing a sentence, we ask ourselves wthether it’s gramatically correct; overt or covert errorsdescription: 1,先compare the errors to the correct ones--bilingual comparison2, description:the staged in which errors are made:presystematic/sys/postsysthe general nature of erroe(见上)the levels of language: phonology, lexicon, grammar, and discourseexplanation: why did the learner commit the errors---the sources of the errorsthe interlingual transferthe intralingual transfertransfer of training:cze fixed modes of training; such errors called induced errorscommunication strategies:the conscious employment of a verbal or nonverbal mechanism for communicating an idea when precise linguistic forms are for some reason not readily available to the learn at a point; 4种: avoidance/prefabricated patterns/appeal to authority/language switchcognitive and affective factors: styles of thinking and personality application of error analysis: 4 types1, correction of errors in the classroom(what to correct depends on the following) the gravity of the error in refwerence to the effectiveness of communicationthe degree of linguistic deviancthe objective of a certain lesson2, providing explanation3, curricula and teaching materials4, remedial teaching缺点: 1, it’s inadequate to rely on errors to study how L2 is learned2, lack of precision and specificity in the defeinition of error categories3, over-stress production date and fails to account for error avoidance4, confusion of error description and explanationerror:arise from the learner’s lack of knowledge and competencemistake: occur when the learner fails to perform their competence due to lack of attention or other factorsfossilization: it refers to the relatively permanent incorporation or internalization of incorrect linguisti forms into a person’s second language competence due to some cognitive and affective factorspidginization: it refers to a process by which a pifgin develops; the L2 acquisition is a process of oversoming pidginization and adopting the TL exclusively.corpus linguistics language teachingtypes of corpus: in terms of function, 4 types1, general corpora: a collection of materials broadly homogeneous an dis gathered from a variet of sources2, specialized corpora:3, sample corpora: gene-based ; randomly selected from all kinds of genres4, monitor corpora: ever moving store of textwhat uses can we make of corpora?1, frequency ifo2, context and co-text ifo:(contexts are the situational environment; co-texts are the linguistic environments)3, gramatically ifo4, collocation and phraseology5, pragmatics ifo三 what is applied linguistics?definition and scope:narrow view: it particularly refers to foreign language teachingthe broad view: a combination of linguistics with psychology, pedagogy, mathematics, electronics....; any definable area of human endeavor to which the “investigation of thetheories, methods and empirical findings of linguistics could be applied”the intermediate view: the study of lang teaching and learninglinuistics 到 applied linguistics 到 language teachingtheoretical basesnature of AIwhat is language?1, structuralists(Saussure): interested in the structure of language; the uniqueness ofdifferent language2, sociologists(Halliday): an activity consisitng of listening, speaking, reading andwriting3, behaviourists(Skinner): operant behaviour and equate human beings with pigeons4, transformationalists(Chomsky): an internalized system of rules and equate human beingswith automators; university of language rules四 L1 acquisition涉及的几个问题1, it is concerned with competence or performance?不同派别不同看法2, child acquire L1 by nature or nuture?that is to say : external environmental; language acquisition devece(LAD)?3, how is L1 acquired----imitation and practice:early periodcreative hypothesis-testing: Chomsky supports the univeristy of languagemajor L1 acquisition theories1,behaviouristic theories: follow the empiricist approach; “black box”: what goes intoit is stimulus and what comes out of it is response; the goal of behaviorists is to discoverand creat predictable relationships (associations) between stimulus and response.imitation-reinforcement theoryS-R-R: stumli-response-reinforcement; fails to account for the abstract nature oflanguage, the creativity of language use by the child and the acquisition of the meaning .mediation theories: the goal is to fill the “black box” with postluated internalpsychological stucuturs and process; meanig is an interna replica of an external response/2,cognitive theories:nativist theories(the innateness hypothesis):the child is born with the biological basis for the language acquisition; Chomsky’s UGand calls black box LAD, he reagrds it as “the genetically determined language faculty”“the innate component of human mind that yield particular language through the interaction with presented experience”;they researched the systematic nature of child language acquisition, which they call pivot grammars;缺点:focus on the form of language ; fails to notice the functioncognitive theories:the linguistic development lags behind conceptual development;4 stages of intellectual develpment of chilathe sensory-motor stage(0-2)the preoperational stage(2-7)the concrete operational stage(7-11)the formal operational stage(11-16)五 L2 learningsecond language:is used to refer to a non-native language learned and used within one country and a community where it has official status or a recognized function外国留学生在中国学汉语foreign language: a non-native language learned and used outside the country or community where it has official status中国学生在中国学英语the goal of L2 learning :native-like proficiency: grammatical competence; sociolinguistic com; strategic com; the task of L2 learning:two-fold: competence sideperformance sidedifferences between child and adult L2 learners:the biological explanationthe cognitive explanationthe affective explanation: affect the strength of affective filter(stengthed in puberty) other factors: BICS(basic interpersonal communication skills)CALP(cognitive/academic language proficience)Major L2 learning theories1, the interlanguage theory:the collective name of second language users’ language and calls it transitional competence; reflects the cognitive learning strategy and communicative strategy2, the monitor theorythe acquisition-learning hypothesis: the most fundenmental; acquisition is subconscious and the learni gis consciousthe monitor hypothesis: acquisition initiates our utterance and is responsible for our fluency while learniing only has one function---monitor or editorthe natual order hypothesis:there is a predictable, natural order for the acquisition of grammatical structures in L2; if the goal is language acquisition, grammatical sequencing is not necessary while conscious learning is on the contrary.the input hypothesis: “i+1”the affective filter hypothesis: the affective variables act to impede or facilitate the language acquisition; Krashen beleves that comprehensible input and the strength of the filter are the real causes of L2 acquisition.3, the creative construction model:based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory of “creative aspects of language use”; “creative construction”refers to the process by which learners gradually reconstruct ruels for speeches they hear, guided by innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypothesis about the language systen they acquired, until the mismatch between what they are exposed to and what they produce is resolved.affective filter(情感过滤): it refers to the conscious or unconscious motives and needs of the learner such as motivation, self-confidence and anxiety; it controls the entry of the input.cognitive organizer: the internal processing system that is responsible for the learner’s gradual organization of the new language system.linguistic monitor:self-editing process by which learners are concerned about linguistic form, using conscious rules to produce sentences.六 Language testingwhat is a test?aims: researchprogressguide to teaching and the currriculumrepresenting teminal behaviorRequirements of a good test:1,vadility(效度):the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measureface vadility: the degree to which a test appears to measure the abilities or knowledge it claims to measurecontent validity: the degree to which a test adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out to measureconstruct validity: the degree to which the items in a test reflect the essential aspects of the theory or the construt on which the test is basedempirical validity: comparing the test with other testsconcurrent validity(共时效度)predicitive validity(预测效度)2, reliability: stability or consistency of test scores;5个影响因素: the extent of the sample of materials selected for testingthe administration of the testscoring the testtest instructionspersonal factorsmeasuring in three major ways:test-retest reliabity:re-administer the same test to the same group after several time parallel form reliability: administer parallel forms of the same test to the same group split-half reliability: split the test in halves and find put their correlation 3, discrimination: the degree to which a test can distinguish among better and weaker students4, practicality: the usability of a test, or practical considerationsTypes of language test1, tests distinguished by useachievement tests or attainment tests:考察学过的知识(期末考试)proficiency test考察知识综合运用能力,不局限某一课程;重点是future performance(四六级考试)aptitude test: 考察未学过的知识diagnostic test:考察未掌握的知识点(模拟考)placement test:分班考试2, tests by the standard for measuringcriterion-referenced test(标准参照): according to a particular external criterion which has been agreed upon(到60分及格)norm-referenced test(常模参照): how a performance of a student or a group compares wuth that of other groups whose score are used as a form.(如:年龄组比赛)3, tests by linguistic levels and skillslinguistic levels: phonology/vocabulary/grammarlinguistic skills: listening/reading/speaking/writing4, tests by the system of scoring: subjective or objective scoring5, tests by nature of the test: discrete-point test/integrative testInterpreting test resultsmeasures of central tendencythe median(中数)the arithmetic mean(平均数)the mode(众数)measures of dispersionrange(值域): the difference between the highest and the loweststandard deviation(标准差SD): the most stable “index of variability”variance(方差):SD的平方percentile ranks/scales。