二语习得的认知途径
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Cognitive Approaches to SLA
Property Theories
UG is a property theory
It serves as a model of linguistic knowledge UG sees grammar as a unique module of the mind IL grammars are autonomous systems, separate and distinct from both the L1 and L2 systems
Information processing and fluency
Like McLaughlin, Towell and Hawkins (1994) believe that automatization of language processes can’t solely account for SLA For them, information processing models can explain acquisition of fluency (rapidity and ease of speech), but not a core grammar
Is UG concerned with competence or performance?
Transition Theories
Studies in UG and Typological Universals are more concerned with what is the state of a learner’s knowledge than the mechanisms that encode knowledge Other theories draw on insights from cognitive psychology to answer like:
They adopt UG as a grammatical module that constrains the learner’s hypothesis space
Towell and Hawkins
Towel and Hawkins
McLaughlin cont’d
Learning involves restructuring representations of knowledge Provides one explanation for U-shaped curve Provides one explanation for fossilization McLaughlin perceives his theory as a “partial account” of SLA--one which needs to be complemented by a linguistic theory which constrains the developing grammatical system
• •
Towell and Hawkins (1994) Pienemann (1998)
B.
Linguistic knowledge is not modular, and merely is a reflex of other highly complex cognitive and associative mechanisms
Often involve new information or tasks Draw substantially on highly limited cognitive resources Constrained by short term (working) memory Requires a great deal of attention on the part of the speaker/learner
Ex: learning to drive a car with a standard transmission
McLaughlin cont’d
The car example provides an example of learning in this information processing model
A.
Language is a modular system, constrained by principles unique to language (i.e., UG), but other more general principles of learning and cognition encode, store, and access that knowledge
How is knowledge acquired? How is it stored? How is linguistic knowledge accessed in real time?
Cognitive theories of language
There are different “camps” within cognitive approaches to language and language acquisition
ACT*
The division between declarative and procedural knowledge captures the generalization that even when we “know” a rule, we can’t always apply it “Declarative” knowledge must undergo controlled processing: highly computationally taxing “Proceduralized” knowledge is akin to McLaughlin’s automatic processing:
• •
Tomasello (2003) MacWhinney (1999)
Information Processing
We will look at two general models of information processing, and then look at how Towell and Hawkins have used these to describe the development of L2 fluency
ACT*
This is another general theory of cognitive learning that has been applied to SLA Also emphasizes the automatization process Conceptualizes three types of memory:
It requires very little overt attention or control and is highly computationally efficient
ACT*
Anderson hypothesizes that the move from declarative to procedural knowledge has three major stages:
How can these three stages be used to explain the Ushaped curve and fossilization phenomena? How does “chunking” minimize strain on working memory?
Repeated activation of a controlled process leads to automatization After a particular procedure is automatized, short term (or working) memory is free to deal with other, presumably more complex, processes
McLaughlin cont’d
Automatic processes
Require far fewer cognitive resources Require virtually no attention on the part of the speaker/learner Uses information stored in long term memory Can work in parallel Once a process is automatized, it is difficult to delete or modify
ACT*
Some criticisms:
Most people agree that not all knowledge must initially be “declarative:” knowledge seems to also be acquired “implicitly” through either languagespecific mechanisms or other general cognitive systems (pattern recognition, etc) How can you tell when a process is automatic?
Pro’s of Info-processing models
They highlight the fact that SLA involves both knowledge representation and knowledge retrieval They help explain U-shaped behaviour and fossilization These models emphasize that learners have limitations on the amount of information that can be processed in short term/working memory
Cognitive Stage: a description of the procedure is learned Associative Stage: a method for performing the skill is worked out Autonomous stage: the skill becomes more and more rapid and automatic
Working memory (I.e., short term, limitied capcity memory) Declarative long-term memory (knowledge that) Procedural long-term memory (knowledge how)
McLaughlin’s information processing model Anderson’s ACT* model
McLaughlin’s approach
SLL is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill that must progress from controlled processing to automatic proces源自文库ing Controlled processes
Property Theories
UG is a property theory
It serves as a model of linguistic knowledge UG sees grammar as a unique module of the mind IL grammars are autonomous systems, separate and distinct from both the L1 and L2 systems
Information processing and fluency
Like McLaughlin, Towell and Hawkins (1994) believe that automatization of language processes can’t solely account for SLA For them, information processing models can explain acquisition of fluency (rapidity and ease of speech), but not a core grammar
Is UG concerned with competence or performance?
Transition Theories
Studies in UG and Typological Universals are more concerned with what is the state of a learner’s knowledge than the mechanisms that encode knowledge Other theories draw on insights from cognitive psychology to answer like:
They adopt UG as a grammatical module that constrains the learner’s hypothesis space
Towell and Hawkins
Towel and Hawkins
McLaughlin cont’d
Learning involves restructuring representations of knowledge Provides one explanation for U-shaped curve Provides one explanation for fossilization McLaughlin perceives his theory as a “partial account” of SLA--one which needs to be complemented by a linguistic theory which constrains the developing grammatical system
• •
Towell and Hawkins (1994) Pienemann (1998)
B.
Linguistic knowledge is not modular, and merely is a reflex of other highly complex cognitive and associative mechanisms
Often involve new information or tasks Draw substantially on highly limited cognitive resources Constrained by short term (working) memory Requires a great deal of attention on the part of the speaker/learner
Ex: learning to drive a car with a standard transmission
McLaughlin cont’d
The car example provides an example of learning in this information processing model
A.
Language is a modular system, constrained by principles unique to language (i.e., UG), but other more general principles of learning and cognition encode, store, and access that knowledge
How is knowledge acquired? How is it stored? How is linguistic knowledge accessed in real time?
Cognitive theories of language
There are different “camps” within cognitive approaches to language and language acquisition
ACT*
The division between declarative and procedural knowledge captures the generalization that even when we “know” a rule, we can’t always apply it “Declarative” knowledge must undergo controlled processing: highly computationally taxing “Proceduralized” knowledge is akin to McLaughlin’s automatic processing:
• •
Tomasello (2003) MacWhinney (1999)
Information Processing
We will look at two general models of information processing, and then look at how Towell and Hawkins have used these to describe the development of L2 fluency
ACT*
This is another general theory of cognitive learning that has been applied to SLA Also emphasizes the automatization process Conceptualizes three types of memory:
It requires very little overt attention or control and is highly computationally efficient
ACT*
Anderson hypothesizes that the move from declarative to procedural knowledge has three major stages:
How can these three stages be used to explain the Ushaped curve and fossilization phenomena? How does “chunking” minimize strain on working memory?
Repeated activation of a controlled process leads to automatization After a particular procedure is automatized, short term (or working) memory is free to deal with other, presumably more complex, processes
McLaughlin cont’d
Automatic processes
Require far fewer cognitive resources Require virtually no attention on the part of the speaker/learner Uses information stored in long term memory Can work in parallel Once a process is automatized, it is difficult to delete or modify
ACT*
Some criticisms:
Most people agree that not all knowledge must initially be “declarative:” knowledge seems to also be acquired “implicitly” through either languagespecific mechanisms or other general cognitive systems (pattern recognition, etc) How can you tell when a process is automatic?
Pro’s of Info-processing models
They highlight the fact that SLA involves both knowledge representation and knowledge retrieval They help explain U-shaped behaviour and fossilization These models emphasize that learners have limitations on the amount of information that can be processed in short term/working memory
Cognitive Stage: a description of the procedure is learned Associative Stage: a method for performing the skill is worked out Autonomous stage: the skill becomes more and more rapid and automatic
Working memory (I.e., short term, limitied capcity memory) Declarative long-term memory (knowledge that) Procedural long-term memory (knowledge how)
McLaughlin’s information processing model Anderson’s ACT* model
McLaughlin’s approach
SLL is the acquisition of a complex cognitive skill that must progress from controlled processing to automatic proces源自文库ing Controlled processes