语用学定义和大题目

37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.

39.utterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.

40.sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.

41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;

42. Performative:performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.

43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.

44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.

45. perlocutionary act:A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.

46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is: Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.

49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?

A sentence meaning is of-ten considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.

How are Lawrence horn and Stephen Levinson similar and different in their reformulation of Grice’s Cooperative principle?

Similarity: both of Horn and Levinson base their Q-principle on the first sub maxim of Quantity M axim.

Difference: Horn's R-principle is based on the second sub maxim of Quantity Maxim, relation ma xim and part of Manner Maxim, while Levinson' I-principle is based on the second maxim of Quantity Maxim and his Principle based on Manner Maxim